This work was supported by an NIH MIRA grant (R35GM124678 to J. S.).

<ol>
	<li>Corsi, A. K., Wightman, B., Chalfie, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Transparent+window+into+biology:+A+on+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">A Transparent window into biology: A on Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Genetics. 200 (2), 387-407 (2015).</li><li>Blackwell, T. K., Walker, A. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcription+mechanisms.">Transcription mechanisms.</a> WormBook: The Online Review of C. elegans Biology. , 1-16 (2006).</li><li>Page, A. P., Johnstone, I. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cuticle.">The cuticle.</a> WormBook: The Online Review of C. elegans Biology. , 1-15 (2007).</li><li>Lichtsteiner, S., Tjian, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cloning+and+properties+of+the+Caenorhabditis+elegans+TATA-box-binding+protein.">Cloning and properties of the Caenorhabditis elegans TATA-box-binding protein.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (20), 9673-9677 (1993).</li><li>Lichtsteiner, S., Tjian, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synergistic+activation+of+transcription+by+UNC-86+and+MEC-3+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans+embryo+extracts.">Synergistic activation of transcription by UNC-86 and MEC-3 in Caenorhabditis elegans embryo extracts.</a> EMBO Journal. 14 (16), 3937-3945 (1995).</li><li>Shan, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isotope-labeled+immunoassays+without+radiation+waste.">Isotope-labeled immunoassays without radiation waste.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 97 (6), 2445-2449 (2000).</li><li>Voss, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel,+non-radioactive+eukaryotic+in+vitro+transcription+assay+for+sensitive+quantification+of+RNA+polymerase+II+activity.">A novel, non-radioactive eukaryotic in vitro transcription assay for sensitive quantification of RNA polymerase II activity.</a> BMC Molecular Biology. 15, 7 (2014).</li><li>Wibisono, P., Liu, Y., Sun, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+in+vitro+Caenorhabditis+elegans+transcription+system.">A novel in vitro Caenorhabditis elegans transcription system.</a> BMC Molecular and Cell Biology. 21 (1), 87 (2020).</li><li>Stiernagle, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintenance+of+C.+elegans.">Maintenance of C. elegans.</a> WormBook: The Online Review of C. elegans Biology. , 1-11 (2006).</li><li>Zbacnik, T. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+buffers+in+protein+formulations.">Role of buffers in protein formulations.</a> Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 106 (3), 713-733 (2017).</li></ol>

The authors have no competing interests to disclose.

C. elegans is an appealing model organism to study the eukaryotic transcription system because of its low-cost maintenance and the ease of genetic manipulation. Here a protocol for consistent isolation of functionally active nuclear extract from L4 C. elegans is described. Although this protocol focused on visualizing transcription activity, the cDNA produced post-transcriptionally can be quantified using RT-qPCR to obtain a more precise measurement of the transcription activity8...

The small, free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a simple yet powerful model organism for addressing a wide range of biological questions. Since its introduction in 1963, the nematodes have been invaluable to answering questions in neurobiology, metabolism, aging, development, immunity, and genetics1. Some of the animal&#39;s many characteristics that make it an ideal model organism include short generation time, the effectiveness of RNA interference, transparent body, and the completed maps of both its cellular lineage and nervous system.
While the nematode&#39;s contributions to science are vast, they have been under-utilized to elucidate the eukaryotic transcription system, with most of our understanding about these mechanisms coming from studies using nuclear extract from yeast, fruit fly, and mammalian cell culture2. The biggest hurdle that dissuades researchers from extracting functional nuclear extract is the nematode&#39;s tough outer cuticle. This exoskeleton comprises cross-linked collagens, cuticlins, glycoproteins, and lipids, making C. elegans from larval stage to adulthood resistant to protein extraction via chemical or mechanical forces3. An in vitro transcription system using C. elegans nuclear extract was once developed but not widely adopted due to the system&#39;s limited scope, and the use of Dounce homogenizer for preparing the extract could lead to protein instability4,5.
Unlike the previous protocol for nuclear extract isolation which utilized a Dounce homogenizer to break C. elegans, this protocol uses a Balch homogenizer. The Balch homogenizer consists of two main components: a tungsten carbide ball and a stainless-steel block with a channel bored through from one end to another. The Balch homogenizer is loaded with the tungsten carbide ball and capped on either side to seal the grinding chamber. Syringes can be loaded on the two vertical ports leading into the grinding chamber. As the material is passed from one syringe to the other through the grinding chamber, the pressure from the syringes forces the material through a narrow gap between the ball and the wall of the chamber. This slow and constant pressure breaks the material until it reaches a consistent size that is able to pass through the narrow gap easily. Forcing C. elegans through the narrow gap via a constant yet gentle pressure breaks the animals open, releasing their content into the surrounding buffer. Switching ball sizes further tightens the gap, breaking the newly released cells and frees the nuclei into the buffer. Multiple instances of centrifugation separate the nuclei from the rest of the cell debris, allowing for the collection of a clean nuclear extract. The Balch homogenizer is preferred over the Dounce homogenizer for several reasons: the system can handle a large number of animals, making it possible to extract a high amount of active proteins in a single attempt; the precise machining of the balls and the steel block allows for consistent grinding between multiple samples; the heavy steel block act as a heat sink, uniformly drawing heat away from the grinding chamber, preventing denaturing.
After isolation, the nuclear extract transcriptional activity must be verified before being used in any biochemical experiments. Traditionally, transcription activity was measured using radiolabeled nucleotides to track and visualize the newly synthesized RNA. However, radioactive labeling can be burdensome as it requires precaution during use and disposal6. Technological advancements allow researchers today to use much less harmful or troublesome methods to measure even small RNA quantities using techniques such as quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR)7. Here, the protocol describes a method to isolate active nuclear extract from larval stage 4 (L4) C. elegans and visualize transcription activity in an in vitro system.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Consumables and reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.2 mL 8-Strip Tubes &#38; Flat Strip Caps, Clear</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;24-706</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.2 mL Individual PCR tubes</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;24-153G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.7 mL sterile microtubes</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>24-282S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% absolute molecular grade ethanol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;BP2818</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% ethanol, Koptec</td>
			<td>Decon Labs</td>
			<td>&#160;V1001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 mL serological pipet</td>
			<td>VWR international</td>
			<td>&#160;89130-898</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>150 mm petri plates</td>
			<td>Tritech Research</td>
			<td>&#160;T3325</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL conical centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;28-103</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20 mL plastic syringes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14955460</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 mL Norm-Ject syringes</td>
			<td>Henke-Sass Wolf GmbH</td>
			<td>4020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>500 mL vacuum filter cup 0.22 &#181;m PES, Stericup Millipore Express Plus</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>SCGPU10RE</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL conical centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>339652</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL serological pipet</td>
			<td>VWR international</td>
			<td>&#160;89130-902</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 mL serological pipet</td>
			<td>VWR international</td>
			<td>&#160;89130-896</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar, Criterion</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>&#160;C7432</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Denville Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;CA3510-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alcohol proof marker</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>&#160;52877-310</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bacto peptone</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>&#160;90000-264</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Caenorhabditis elegans</td>
			<td>CGC</td>
			<td>N2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium dichloride</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;C4901</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cholesterol</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;C8667</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Control DNA temple cloning primers, Forward 5&#8217;- ctc atg ttt gac agc tta tcg atc cgg gc -3&#8217;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Control DNA temple cloning primers, Forward 5&#8217;- aca gga cgg gtg tgg tcg cca tga t -3&#8217;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dithiothreitol</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>&#160;15508-013</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA gel stain, SYBR safe</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>&#160;S33102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA ladder mix, O&#8217;gene ruler</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;SM1173</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA Loading Dye, 6x TriTrack</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;FERR1161</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNase, Baseline-ZERO</td>
			<td>Lucigen</td>
			<td>&#160;DB0715K</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dry ice</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Escherichia coli OP50 strain</td>
			<td>CGC</td>
			<td>OP50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glacial acetic acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;A38</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;G6279</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HeLa nuclear extract in vitro transcription system, HeLaScribe</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>&#160;E3110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hepes Solution, 1 M Gibco</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>15630080</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid 37%</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;P0662</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hypochlorite bleach</td>
			<td>Clorox</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB Broth</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;L3022</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium dichloride</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;M8266</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Sulfate</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;M7506</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Medium weigh dishes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;02-202-101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microscope slides, Vista vision</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>16004-368</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>molecular grade water, Hypure</td>
			<td>Hyclone Laboratories</td>
			<td>&#160;SH30538</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nystatin</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;N1638</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR system, FailSafe with premix A</td>
			<td>Lucigen</td>
			<td>&#160;FS99100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium chloride</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;P39111</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate dibasic</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;P3786</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;P0662</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease inhibitor, Halt single use cocktail 100x</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>78430</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>protein assay kit, Qubit</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;Q33211</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>reverse transcription kit, Sensiscript</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>205211</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNA extraction kit RNeasy micro kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>74004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNase Inhibitor</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems</td>
			<td>&#160;N8080119</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>&#160;BDH9286-12KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;1-09137</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile syringe filter with 0.2 &#181;m Polyethersulfone membrane</td>
			<td>VWR international</td>
			<td>28145-501</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>&#160;200-334-9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>transcription primers, Forward 5&#8217;- gcc ggg cct ctt gcg gga tat -3&#8217;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>transcription primers, Reverse 5&#8217;- cgg cca aag cgg tcg gac agt-3&#8217;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris-Base</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;BP152</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween20</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>&#160;P2287</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>-20 &#176;C incubator</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20 &#176;C incubator</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>37 &#176;C incubator</td>
			<td>Forma Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4 &#176;C refrigerator</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>-80 &#176;C freezer</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autoclave</td>
			<td>Sanyo</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Balch homogenizer, isobiotec cell homogenizer</td>
			<td>Isobiotec</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benchtop Vortexer</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>2215365</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge, Eppendorf 5418 R</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5401000013</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge, VWR Clinical 50</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>82013-800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissection microscope, Leica M80</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorometer, Qubit 2.0</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>Q32866</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel imaging system, iBright FL1500</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;A44241</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel system</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heat block</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>12621-048</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuges, Eppendorf 5424</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>22620401</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PIPETBOY acu 2</td>
			<td>Integra</td>
			<td>155017</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette L-1000 XLS+, Pipet-Lite LTS</td>
			<td>Rainin</td>
			<td>17014382</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette L-10 XLS+, Pipet-Lite LTS</td>
			<td>Rainin</td>
			<td>17014388</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette L-200 XLS+, Pipet-Lite LTS</td>
			<td>Rainin</td>
			<td>17014391</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette L-20 XLS+, Pipet-Lite LTS</td>
			<td>Rainin</td>
			<td>17014392</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rocking platform</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermocycler, Eppendorf Mastercycler Pro</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>950030010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

isolation of active caenorhabditis elegans nuclear extract and reconstitution for in vitro transcription

Caenorhabditis elegans has been an important model system for biological research since it was introduced in 1963. However, C. elegans has not been fully utilized in the biochemical study of biological reactions using its nuclear extracts such as in vitro transcription and DNA replication. A significant hurdle for using C. elegans in biochemical studies is disrupting the nematode&#39;s thick outer cuticle without sacrificing the activity of the nuclear extract. While several methods are used to break the cuticle, such as Dounce homogenization or sonication, they often lead to protein instability. There are no established protocols for isolating active nuclear proteins from larva or adult C. elegans for in vitro reactions. Here, the protocol describes in detail the homogenization of larval stage 4 C. elegans using a Balch homogenizer. The Balch homogenizer uses pressure to slowly force the animals through a narrow gap breaking the cuticle in the process. The uniform design and precise machining of the Balch homogenizer allow for consistent grinding of animals between experiments. Fractionating the homogenate obtained from the Balch homogenizer yields functionally active nuclear extract that can be used in an in vitro method for assaying transcription activity of C. elegans.

Following the outlined steps should yield functional nuclear extract (Figure 1), deviation in the grinding or wash steps can lead to poor activity or low yields. If functional C. elegans nuclear extract is obtained, it will transcribe the region downstream of the CMV promoter on the DNA template when added to the previously described in vitro assay. The resulting RNA transcript can be purified from the nuclear proteins and DNA template usin...

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Isolation of Active Caenorhabditis elegans Nuclear Extract and Reconstitution for In Vitro Transcription

Here, we describe a detailed protocol for isolating active nuclear extract from larval stage 4 C. elegans and visualizing transcription activity in an in vitro system.

Isolation of Active Caenorhabditis elegans Nuclear Extract and Reconstitution for In Vitro Transcription

Caenorhabditis elegans has been an important model system for biological research since it was introduced in 1963. However, C. elegans has not been fully ...

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Biochemistry

2.4K Views.  Washington State University. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for isolating active nuclear extract from larval stage 4 C. elegans and visualizing transcription activity in an in vitro system.

Video: Isolation of Active Caenorhabditis elegans Nuclear Extract and Reconstitution for In Vitro Transcription

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the oxidation of reduced compounds such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2). The complete annotation of the Arabidopsis thaliana genome has established it as the most widely used plant model system, and thus the need to purify mitochondria from a variety of organs (leaf, root, or flower) is necessary to fully utilize the tools that are now available for Arabidopsis to study mitochondrial biology. Mitochondria are isolated by homogenization of the tissue using a variety of approaches, followed by a series of differential centrifugation steps producing a crude mitochondrial pellet that is further purified using continuous colloidal density gradient centrifugation. The colloidal density material is subsequently removed by multiple centrifugation steps. Starting from 100 g of fresh leaf tissue, 2 - 3 mg of mitochondria can be routinely obtained. Respiratory experiments on these mitochondria display typical rates of 100 - 250 nmol O2 min-1 mg total mitochondrial protein-1 (NADH-dependent rate) with the ability to use various substrates and inhibitors to determine which substrates are being oxidized and the capacity of the alternative and cytochrome terminal oxidases. This protocol describes an isolation method of mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana leaves using continuous colloidal density gradients and an efficient respiratory measurements of purified plant mitochondria.

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

As mitochondria are only a small percentage of the plant cell, they need to be purified for a range of studies. Mitochondria can be isolated from a variety of plant organs by homogenization, followed by differential and density gradient centrifugation to obtain a highly purified mitochondrial fraction.

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from ...

A Simple Method for High Throughput Chemical Screening in Caenorhabditis Elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a useful organism for testing chemical effects on physiology. Whole organism small molecule screens offer significant advantages for identifying biologically active chemical structures that can modify complex phenotypes such as lifespan. Described here is a simple protocol for producing hundreds of 96-well culture plates with fairly consistent numbers of C. elegans in each well. Next, we specified how to use these cultures to screen thousands of chemicals for effects on the lifespan of the nematode C. elegans. This protocol makes use of temperature sensitive sterile strains, agar plate conditions, and simple animal handling to facilitate the rapid and high throughput production of synchronized animal cultures for screening.

A Simple Method for High Throughput Chemical Screening in Caenorhabditis Elegans

Here we describe a simple protocol for rapidly producing hundreds of nematode growth media agar, 96-well culture plates with consistent numbers of Caenorhhabditis elegans per well. These cultures are useful for the phenotypic screening of whole organisms. We focus here on using these cultures to screen chemicals for pro-longevity effects.

Caenorhabditis elegans is a useful organism for testing chemical effects on physiology. Whole organism small molecule screens offer significant advantages ...

Purification and Reconstitution of TRPV1 for Spectroscopic Analysis

Polymodal ion channels transduce multiple stimuli of different natures into allosteric changes; these dynamic conformations are challenging to determine and remain largely unknown. With recent advances in single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) shedding light on the structural features of agonist binding sites and the activation mechanism of several ion channels, the stage is set for an in-depth dynamic analysis of their gating mechanisms using spectroscopic approaches. Spectroscopic techniques such as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and double electron-electron resonance (DEER) have been mainly restricted to the study of prokaryotic ion channels that can be purified in large quantities. The requirement for large amounts of functional and stable membrane proteins has hampered the study of mammalian ion channels using these approaches. EPR and DEER offer many advantages, including determination of the structure and dynamic changes of mobile protein regions, albeit at low resolution, that might be difficult to obtain by X-ray crystallography or cryo-EM, and monitoring reversible gating transition (i.e., closed, open, sensitized, and desensitized). Here, we provide protocols for obtaining milligrams of functional detergent-solubilized transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) that can be labeled for EPR and DEER spectroscopy.

This article describes specific methods to obtain biochemical quantities of detergent-solubilized TRPV1 for spectroscopic analysis. The combined protocols provide biochemical and biophysical tools that can be adapted to facilitate structural and functional studies for mammalian ion channels in a membrane-controlled environment.

Polymodal ion channels transduce multiple stimuli of different natures into allosteric changes; these dynamic conformations are challenging to determine ...

Small-Scale Colorimetric Assays of Intracellular Lactate and Pyruvate in the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

Lactate and pyruvate are key intermediates of intracellular energy metabolic pathways. Monitoring the lactate/pyruvate ratio in cells helps to determine whether there is an imbalance in age-related energy metabolism between mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and aerobic glycolysis. Here, we show the utilization of commercial colorimetric assay kits for lactate and pyruvate in the model organism C. elegans. Recently, the sensitivity and accuracy of the colorimetric/fluorimetric assay kits have been improved greatly by the research and development conducted by reagent manufacturers. The improved reagents have enabled the use of small-scale assays with a 96-well plate in C. elegans. In general, a fluorimetric assay is superior in sensitivity to a colorimetric assay; however, the colorimetric approach is more suitable for the use in common laboratories. Another important issue in these assays for quantitative determination is protein precipitation of homogenized C. elegans samples. In our protein precipitation method, common precipitants (e.g., trichloroacetic acid, perchloric acid and metaphosphoric acid) are used for sample preparation. A protein-free assay sample is prepared by directly adding cold precipitant (final concentration of 5%) during homogenization.

Small-Scale Colorimetric Assays of Intracellular Lactate and Pyruvate in the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

We describe a modified small-scale extraction and colorimetric assays of lactate and pyruvate in the nematode C. elegans. When utilizing commercial assay kits, the technical development of their sensitivity and accuracy is important. Protein precipitation in extraction is the most critical step for the quantitative determination of intracellular metabolites.

Lactate and pyruvate are key intermediates of intracellular energy metabolic pathways. Monitoring the lactate/pyruvate ratio in cells helps to determine ...

Plate-based Large-scale Cultivation of Caenorhabditis elegans: Sample Preparation for the Study of Metabolic Alterations in Diabetes

Culturing Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) in a large-scale manner on agar plates can be time-consuming and difficult. This protocol describes a simple and inexpensive method to obtain a large number of animals for the isolation of proteins to proceed with a western blot, mass spectrometry, or further proteomics analyses. Furthermore, an increase of nematode numbers for immunostainings and the integration of multiple analyses under the same culturing conditions can easily be achieved. Additionally, a transfer between plates with different experimental conditions is facilitated. Common techniques in plate culture involve the transfer of a single C. elegans using a platinum wire and the transfer of populated agar chunks using a scalpel. However, with increasing nematode numbers, these techniques become overly time-consuming. This protocol describes the large-scale culture of C. elegans including numerous steps to minimize the impact of the sample preparation on the physiology of the worm. Fluid and shear stress can alter the lifespan of and metabolic processes in C. elegans, thus requiring a detailed description of the critical steps in order to retrieve reliable and reproducible results. C. elegans is a model organism, consisting of neuronal cells for up to one-third, but lacking blood vessels, thus providing the possibility to investigate solely neuronal alterations independent of vascular control. Recently, early neurodegeneration in diabetic retinopathy was found prior to vascular alterations. Thus, C. elegans is of special interest for studying general mechanisms of diabetic complications. For example, an increased formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) is observed, which are reproducibly found in C. elegans. Protocols to handle samples of adequate size for a broader spectrum of investigations are presented here, exemplified by the study of diabetes-induced biochemical alterations. In general, this protocol can be useful for studies requiring large C. elegans numbers and in which liquid culture is not suitable.

Plate-based Large-scale Cultivation of Caenorhabditis elegans: Sample Preparation for the Study of Metabolic Alterations in Diabetes

This protocol describes a method for the large-scale cultivation of Caenorhabditis elegans on solid media. As an alternative to liquid culture, this protocol allows obtaining parameters of different scales under plate-based cultivation. This increases the comparability of results by omitting the morphological and metabolic differences between liquid and solid media culture.

Culturing Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) in a large-scale manner on agar plates can be time-consuming and difficult. This protocol describes a simple ...

In Vitro Reconstitution of Self-Organizing Protein Patterns on Supported Lipid Bilayers

Many aspects of the fundamental spatiotemporal organization of cells are governed by reaction-diffusion type systems. In vitro reconstitution of such systems allows for detailed studies of their underlying mechanisms which would not be feasible in vivo. Here, we provide a protocol for the in vitro reconstitution of the MinCDE system of Escherichia coli, which positions the cell division septum in the cell middle. The assay is designed to supply only the components necessary for self-organization, namely a membrane, the two proteins MinD and MinE and energy in the form of ATP. We therefore fabricate an open reaction chamber on a coverslip, on which a supported lipid bilayer is formed. The open design of the chamber allows for optimal preparation of the lipid bilayer and controlled manipulation of the bulk content. The two proteins, MinD and MinE, as well as ATP, are then added into the bulk volume above the membrane. Imaging is possible by many optical microscopies, as the design supports confocal, wide-field and TIRF microscopy alike. In a variation of the protocol, the lipid bilayer is formed on a patterned support, on cell-shaped PDMS microstructures, instead of glass. Lowering the bulk solution to the rim of these compartments encloses the reaction in a smaller compartment and provides boundaries that allow mimicking of in vivo oscillatory behavior. Taken together, we describe protocols to reconstitute the MinCDE system both with and without spatial confinement, allowing researchers to precisely control all aspects influencing pattern formation, such as concentration ranges and addition of other factors or proteins, and to systematically increase system complexity in a relatively simple experimental setup.

In Vitro Reconstitution of Self-Organizing Protein Patterns on Supported Lipid Bilayers

We provide a protocol for in vitro self-organization assays of MinD and MinE on a supported lipid bilayer in an open chamber. Additionally, we describe how to enclose the assay in lipid-clad PDMS microcompartments to mimic in vivo conditions by reaction confinement.

Many aspects of the fundamental spatiotemporal organization of cells are governed by reaction-diffusion type systems. In vitro reconstitution of such ...

Isolation of Physiologically Active Thylakoids and Their Use in Energy-Dependent Protein Transport Assays

Chloroplasts are the organelles in green plants responsible for carrying out numerous essential metabolic pathways, most notably photosynthesis. Within the chloroplasts, the thylakoid membrane system houses all the photosynthetic pigments, reaction center complexes, and most of the electron carriers, and is responsible for light-dependent ATP synthesis. Over 90% of chloroplast proteins are encoded in the nucleus, translated in the cytosol, and subsequently imported into the chloroplast. Further protein transport into or across the thylakoid membrane utilizes one of four translocation pathways. Here, we describe a high-yield method for isolation of transport-competent thylakoids from peas (Pisum sativum), along with transport assays through the three energy-dependent cpTat, cpSec1, and cpSRP-mediated pathways. These methods enable experiments relating to thylakoid protein localization, transport energetics, and the mechanisms of protein translocation across biological membranes.

We present protocols herein for high-yield isolation of physiologically active thylakoids and protein transport assays for the chloroplast twin arginine translocation (cpTat), secretory (cpSec1), and signal recognition particle (cpSRP) pathways.

Chloroplasts are the organelles in green plants responsible for carrying out numerous essential metabolic pathways, most notably photosynthesis. Within ...

Application of Biolayer Interferometry (BLI) for Studying Protein-Protein Interactions in Transcription

A transcription factor&#160;(TF) is a protein that regulates gene expression by interacting with the RNA polymerase, another TF, and/or template DNA. GrgA is a novel transcription activator found specifically in the obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen Chlamydia. Protein pulldown assays using affinity beads have revealed that GrgA binds two &#963; factors, namely &#963;66 and &#963;28, which recognize different sets of promoters for genes whose products are differentially required at developmental stages. We have used BLI to confirm and further characterize the interactions. BLI demonstrates several advantages over pulldown: 1) It reveals real-time association and dissociation between binding partners, 2) It generates quantitative kinetic parameters, and 3) It can detect bindings that pulldown assays often fail to detect. These characteristics have enabled us to deduce the physiological roles of GrgA in gene expression regulation in Chlamydia, and possible detailed interaction mechanisms. We envision that this relatively affordable technology can be extremely useful for studying transcription and other biological processes.

Application of Biolayer Interferometry BLI for Studying Protein-Protein Interactions in Transcription

Interactions of transcription factors (TFs) with the RNA polymerase are usually studied using pulldown assays. We apply a Biolayer Interferometry (BLI) technology to characterize the interaction of GrgA with the chlamydial RNA polymerase. Compared to pulldown assays, BLI detects real-time association and dissociation, offers higher sensitivity, and is highly quantitative.

A transcription factor&#160;(TF) is a protein that regulates gene expression by interacting with the RNA polymerase, another TF, and/or template DNA. GrgA ...

Synthesis of a Deuterated Standard for the Quantification of 2-Arachidonoylglycerol in Caenorhabditis elegans

This work presents a method to prepare an analytical standard to analyze 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) qualitatively and quantitatively by liquid chromatography-electrospray Ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). Endocannabinoids are conserved lipid mediators that regulate multiple biological processes in a variety of organisms. In C. elegans, 2-AG has been found to possess different roles, including modulation of dauer formation and cholesterol metabolism. This report describes a method to overcome the difficulties associated with the costs and stability of deuterated standards required for 2-AG quantification. The procedure for the synthesis of the standard is simple and can be performed in any laboratory, without the need for organic synthesis expertise or special equipment. In addition, a modification of Folch&#39;s method to extract the deuterated standard from C. elegans culture is described. Finally, a quantitative and analytic method to detect 2-AG using the stable isotopically labeled analog 1-AG-d5 is described, which provides reliable results in a fast-chromatographic run. The procedure is useful for studying the multiple roles of 2-AG in C. elegans while also being applicable to other studies of metabolites in different organisms.

Synthesis of a Deuterated Standard for the Quantification of 2-Arachidonoylglycerol in Caenorhabditis elegans

This work describes a robust and straightforward method to detect and quantify the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) in C. elegans. An analytical deuterated standard us prepared and used for the quantification of 2-AG by isotopic dilution and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS).

This work presents a method to prepare an analytical standard to analyze 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) qualitatively and quantitatively by liquid ...

In Vivo Hydroxyl Radical Protein Footprinting for the Study of Protein Interactions in Caenorhabditis elegans

Fast oxidation of proteins (FPOP) is a hydroxyl radical protein footprinting (HRPF) method used to study protein structure, protein-ligand interactions, and protein-protein interactions. FPOP utilizes a KrF excimer laser at 248 nm for photolysis of hydrogen peroxide to generate hydroxyl radicals which in turn oxidatively modify solvent-accessible amino acid side chains. Recently, we expanded the use of FPOP of in vivo oxidative labeling in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), entitled IV-FPOP. The transparent nematodes have been used as model systems for many human diseases. Structural studies in C. elegans by IV-FPOP is feasible because of the animal&#8217;s ability to uptake hydrogen peroxide, their transparency to laser irradiation at 248 nm, and the irreversible nature of the modification. The assembly of a microfluidic flow system for IV-FPOP labeling, IV-FPOP parameters, protein extraction, and LC-MS/MS optimized parameters are described herein.

In Vivo Hydroxyl Radical Protein Footprinting for the Study of Protein Interactions in Caenorhabditis elegans

In vivo fast photochemical oxidation of proteins (IV-FPOP) is a hydroxyl radical protein footprinting technique that allows for mapping of protein structure in their native environment. This protocol describes the assembly and set-up of the IV-FPOP microfluidic flow system.

Fast oxidation of proteins (FPOP) is a hydroxyl radical protein footprinting (HRPF) method used to study protein structure, protein-ligand interactions, ...