We thank Genethon&#39;s &#34;Imaging and Cytometry Core Facility&#34;, as well as the histology service, which are supported in part by equipment funds from the Region Ile-de-France, the Conseil General de l&#39;Essonne, the Genopole Recherche of Evry, the University of Evry Val d&#39;Essonne and the INSERM, France. We are also grateful to Dr. Rashmi Kothary for providing the Smn2B/2B mouse line (University of Ottawa, Canada) and Dr. Eric Krejci for the ColQDex2/+ mouse line (unpublished, University of Paris, France). We thank Guillaume Corre for his support in statistical analysis. The 2H3 (developed by Jessel, T.M. and Dodd, J.) and SV2 (developed by Buckley, K.M.) monoclonal antibodies were obtained from the Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank (DSHB), created by the NICHD of the NIH and maintained at The University of Iowa, Department of Biology, Iowa City, IA 52242. This work was supported by the Association Fran&#231;aise contre les Myopathies (AFM-Telethon), the INSERM and the University of Evry Val d&#39;Essonne.

<ol>
	<li>Slater, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Postnatal+maturation+of+nerve-muscle+junctions+in+hindlimb+muscles+of+the+mouse.">Postnatal maturation of nerve-muscle junctions in hindlimb muscles of the mouse.</a> Developmental Biology. 94 (1), 11-22 (1982).</li><li>Jones, R. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NMJ-morph+reveals+principal+components+of+synaptic+morphology+influencing+structure-function+relationships+at+the+neuromuscular+junction.">NMJ-morph reveals principal components of synaptic morphology influencing structure-function relationships at the neuromuscular junction.</a> Open Biology. 6 (12), (2016).</li><li>Willadt, S., Nash, M., Slater, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age-related+changes+in+the+structure+and+function+of+mammalian+neuromuscular+junctions.">Age-related changes in the structure and function of mammalian neuromuscular junctions.</a> Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1412, 41-53 (2018).</li><li>Boehm, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+anatomy+of+the+mammalian+neuromuscular+junction.">Comparative anatomy of the mammalian neuromuscular junction.</a> Journal of Anatomy. 237 (5), 827-836 (2020).</li><li>Nishimune, H., Shigemoto, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Practical+anatomy+of+the+neuromuscular+junction+in+health+and+disease.">Practical anatomy of the neuromuscular junction in health and disease.</a> Neurologic Clinics. 36 (2), 231-240 (2018).</li><li>Moloney, E. B., de Winter, F., Verhaagen, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ALS+as+a+distal+axonopathy:+molecular+mechanisms+affecting+neuromuscular+junction+stability+in+the+presymptomatic+stages+of+the+disease.">ALS as a distal axonopathy: molecular mechanisms affecting neuromuscular junction stability in the presymptomatic stages of the disease.</a> Frontiers in Neuroscience. 8, (2014).</li><li>Lovering, R. M., Iyer, S. R., Edwards, B., Davies, K. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alterations+of+neuromuscular+junctions+in+Duchenne+muscular+dystrophy.">Alterations of neuromuscular junctions in Duchenne muscular dystrophy.</a> Neuroscience Letters. 737, 135304 (2020).</li><li>Koneczny, I., Herbst, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Myasthenia+Gravis:+Pathogenic+effects+of+autoantibodies+on+neuromuscular+architecture.">Myasthenia Gravis: Pathogenic effects of autoantibodies on neuromuscular architecture.</a> Cells. 8 (7), 671 (2019).</li><li>Dowling, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Myotubular+myopathy+and+the+neuromuscular+junction:+a+novel+therapeutic+approach+from+mouse+models.">Myotubular myopathy and the neuromuscular junction: a novel therapeutic approach from mouse models.</a> Disease Models &amp; Mechanisms. 5 (6), 852-859 (2012).</li><li>Gibbs, E. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuromuscular+junction+abnormalities+in+DNM2-related+centronuclear+myopathy.">Neuromuscular junction abnormalities in DNM2-related centronuclear myopathy.</a> Journal of Molecular Medicine. 91 (6), 727-737 (2013).</li><li>Swoboda, K. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Natural+history+of+denervation+in+SMA:+Relation+to+age,+SMN2+copy+number,+and+function.">Natural history of denervation in SMA: Relation to age, SMN2 copy number, and function.</a> Annals of Neurology. 57 (5), 704-712 (2005).</li><li>Rodr&#237;guez Cruz, P. M., Palace, J., Beeson, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+neuromuscular+junction+and+wide+heterogeneity+of+congenital+myasthenic+syndromes.">The neuromuscular junction and wide heterogeneity of congenital myasthenic syndromes.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 19 (6), 1677 (2018).</li><li>Tse, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+neuromuscular+junction:+Measuring+synapse+size,+fragmentation+and+changes+in+synaptic+protein+density+using+confocal+fluorescence+microscopy.">The neuromuscular junction: Measuring synapse size, fragmentation and changes in synaptic protein density using confocal fluorescence microscopy.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. (94), e52220 (2014).</li><li>Mejia Maza, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NMJ-Analyser+identifies+subtle+early+changes+in+mouse+models+of+neuromuscular+disease.">NMJ-Analyser identifies subtle early changes in mouse models of neuromuscular disease.</a> Scientific Reports. 11 (1), 12251 (2021).</li><li>Minty, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=aNMJ-morph:+a+simple+macro+for+rapid+analysis+of+neuromuscular+junction+morphology.">aNMJ-morph: a simple macro for rapid analysis of neuromuscular junction morphology.</a> Royal Society Open Science. 7 (4), 200128 (2020).</li><li>Modla, S., Mendonca, J., Czymmek, K. J., Akins, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+neuromuscular+junctions+by+correlative+confocal+and+transmission+electron+microscopy.">Identification of neuromuscular junctions by correlative confocal and transmission electron microscopy.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 191 (2), 158-165 (2010).</li><li>Kittel, R. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bruchpilot+promotes+active+zone+assembly,+Ca2++channel+clustering,+and+vesicle+release.">Bruchpilot promotes active zone assembly, Ca2+ channel clustering, and vesicle release.</a> Science. 312 (5776), 1051-1054 (2006).</li><li>York, A. L., Zheng, J. Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Super-resolution+microscopy+reveals+a+nanoscale+organization+of+acetylcholine+receptors+for+trans-synaptic+alignment+at+neuromuscular+synapses.">Super-resolution microscopy reveals a nanoscale organization of acetylcholine receptors for trans-synaptic alignment at neuromuscular synapses.</a> eNeuro. 4 (4), (2017).</li><li>Bowerman, M., Murray, L. M., Beauvais, A., Pinheiro, B., Kothary, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+critical+smn+threshold+in+mice+dictates+onset+of+an+intermediate+spinal+muscular+atrophy+phenotype+associated+with+a+distinct+neuromuscular+junction+pathology.">A critical smn threshold in mice dictates onset of an intermediate spinal muscular atrophy phenotype associated with a distinct neuromuscular junction pathology.</a> Neuromuscular Disorders. 22 (3), 263-276 (2012).</li><li>Feng, G., Krejci, E., Molgo, J., Cunningham, J. M., Massouli&#233;, J., Sanes, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+analysis+of+collagen+Q:+Roles+in+acetylcholinesterase+and+butyrylcholinesterase+assembly+and+in+synaptic+structure+and+function.">Genetic analysis of collagen Q: Roles in acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase assembly and in synaptic structure and function.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 144 (6), 1349-1360 (1999).</li><li>Sigoillot, S. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuromuscular+junction+immaturity+and+muscle+atrophy+are+hallmarks+of+the+ColQ-deficient+mouse,+a+model+of+congenital+myasthenic+syndrome+with+acetylcholinesterase+deficiency.">Neuromuscular junction immaturity and muscle atrophy are hallmarks of the ColQ-deficient mouse, a model of congenital myasthenic syndrome with acetylcholinesterase deficiency.</a> The FASEB Journal. 30 (6), 2382-2399 (2016).</li><li>Vanhaesebrouck, A. E., Beeson, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+congenital+myasthenic+syndromes:+expanding+genetic+and+phenotypic+spectrums+and+refining+treatment+strategies.">The congenital myasthenic syndromes: expanding genetic and phenotypic spectrums and refining treatment strategies.</a> Current Opinion in Neurology. 32 (5), 696-703 (2019).</li><li>Schneider, C. A., Rasband, W. S., Eliceiri, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NIH+image+to+ImageJ:+25+years+of+image+analysis.">NIH image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis.</a> Nature Methods. 9 (7), 671-675 (2012).</li><li>Linkert, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metadata+matters:+access+to+image+data+in+the+real+world.">Metadata matters: access to image data in the real world.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 189 (5), 777-782 (2010).</li><li>Legland, D., Beaugrand, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+clustering+of+lignocellulosic+fibres+based+on+morphometric+features+and+using+clustering+of+variables.">Automated clustering of lignocellulosic fibres based on morphometric features and using clustering of variables.</a> Industrial Crops and Products. 45, 253-261 (2013).</li><li>. GitHUb Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://github.com/Genethon/ImCy">https://github.com/Genethon/ImCy</a> (2021)</li><li>Otsu, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Threshold+selection+method+from+gray-level+histograms.">A Threshold selection method from gray-level histograms.</a> IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. 9 (1), 62-66 (1979).</li><li>Sanes, J. R., Lichtman, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction,+assembly,+maturation+and+maintenance+of+a+postsynaptic+apparatus.">Induction, assembly, maturation and maintenance of a postsynaptic apparatus.</a> Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2 (11), 791-805 (2001).</li><li>Kong, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impaired+synaptic+vesicle+release+and+immaturity+of+neuromuscular+junctions+in+spinal+muscular+atrophy+mice.">Impaired synaptic vesicle release and immaturity of neuromuscular junctions in spinal muscular atrophy mice.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (3), 842-851 (2009).</li><li>Cifuentes-Diaz, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurofilament+accumulation+at+the+motor+endplate+and+lack+of+axonal+sprouting+in+a+spinal+muscular+atrophy+mouse+model.">Neurofilament accumulation at the motor endplate and lack of axonal sprouting in a spinal muscular atrophy mouse model.</a> Human Molecular Genetics. 11 (12), 1439-1447 (2002).</li><li>Murray, L. M., Comley, L. H., Thomson, D., Parkinson, N., Talbot, K., Gillingwater, T. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selective+vulnerability+of+motor+neurons+and+dissociation+of+pre-+and+post-synaptic+pathology+at+the+neuromuscular+junction+in+mouse+models+of+spinal+muscular+atrophy.">Selective vulnerability of motor neurons and dissociation of pre- and post-synaptic pathology at the neuromuscular junction in mouse models of spinal muscular atrophy.</a> Human Molecular Genetics. 17 (7), 949-962 (2008).</li><li>Boyer, J. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Myogenic+program+dysregulation+is+contributory+to+disease+pathogenesis+in+spinal+muscular+atrophy.">Myogenic program dysregulation is contributory to disease pathogenesis in spinal muscular atrophy.</a> Human Molecular Genetics. 23 (16), 4249-4259 (2014).</li><li>Ling, K. K. Y., Gibbs, R. M., Feng, Z., Ko, C. -. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Severe+neuromuscular+denervation+of+clinically+relevant+muscles+in+a+mouse+model+of+spinal+muscular+atrophy.">Severe neuromuscular denervation of clinically relevant muscles in a mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy.</a> Human Molecular Genetics. 21 (1), 185-195 (2012).</li><li>Murray, L., Gillingwater, T. H., Kothary, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dissection+of+the+transversus+abdominis+muscle+for+whole-mount+neuromuscular+junction+analysis.">Dissection of the transversus abdominis muscle for whole-mount neuromuscular junction analysis.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. (83), e51162 (2014).</li><li>Baker, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Principles of biological microtechnique; a study of fixation and dyeing. , (1958).</li><li>Vicidomini, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=STED+Nanoscopy+with+time-gated+detection:+Theoretical+and+experimental+aspects.">STED Nanoscopy with time-gated detection: Theoretical and experimental aspects.</a> PLoS ONE. 8 (1), 054421 (2013).</li><li>Badawi, Y., Nishimune, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Super-resolution+microscopy+for+analyzing+neuromuscular+junctions+and+synapses.">Super-resolution microscopy for analyzing neuromuscular junctions and synapses.</a> Neuroscience Letters. 715, 134644 (2020).</li><li>Thomson, S. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Morphological+characteristics+of+motor+neurons+do+not+determine+their+relative+susceptibility+to+degeneration+in+a+mouse+model+of+severe+spinal+muscular+atrophy.">Morphological characteristics of motor neurons do not determine their relative susceptibility to degeneration in a mouse model of severe spinal muscular atrophy.</a> PLoS ONE. 7 (12), 052605 (2012).</li><li>McMacken, G. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salbutamol+modifies+the+neuromuscular+junction+in+a+mouse+model+of+ColQ+myasthenic+syndrome.">Salbutamol modifies the neuromuscular junction in a mouse model of ColQ myasthenic syndrome.</a> Human Molecular Genetics. 28 (14), 2339-2351 (2019).</li></ol>

The authors declare no conflicts of interest related to this work.

The described video protocol provides a detailed method to quantify the 3D structure of neuromuscular junctions by combining confocal and STED microscopy that can be used to characterize pathological changes at the pre- and postsynaptic levels. The high resolution of STED microscopy allows visualization and morphometric analysis of nanostructures that are not identifiable by conventional confocal imaging. This procedure enabled us to measure structural alterations of NMJs in two appendicular muscles, tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius, of SMA and ColQ-related CMS mice.
To obtain reliable results with this technique, it is critical to dissect and tease muscles properly, paying particular attention to the fascia surrounding the muscle and the applied strength to separate muscle bundles; otherwise, the innervation pattern could be disrupted impeding proper presynaptic NMJ assessment. Although detailed information is provided to analyze NMJs from TA and GA, in principle, this protocol could be adapted to other muscles, including flat muscles, such as the diaphragm or transverse abdominis37, which do not require the teasing step. Tissue fixation is also crucial to ensure good quality staining; therefore, it is recommended to use high-quality PFA at an appropriate volume (15-20 times that of the muscle). In addition, the exposure time to the fixative is an important step because artifacts, such as shrinkage and clumping, may appear due to over-fixation and influence NMJ features. Given the size of the samples and the penetration rate of the paraformaldehyde solution in tissues38, a fixation time of 18-24 h is recommended for this type of muscle. In case the staining step is planned more than a week after tissue harvesting, it is suggested to keep PFA-fixed muscles in PBS supplemented with sodium azide at 4 &#176;C to prevent bacterial proliferation.
This protocol presents an approach using &#945;-BTX-F488 for confocal and &#945;-BTX-F633 for STED imaging. These fluorophores were chosen to fit with the described experimental design but can be modified according to the available equipment and materials. For instance, &#945;-BTX F488 labeling can be selected when using a STED CW 592 nm laser for image acquisitions and quantification. However, it appears that the configuration that was applied in the present study (pulsed excitation gated STED, 775 nm depletion) exhibits higher performance and better resolution than other approaches, such as continuous wave STED39, making it more suitable for the current application. It is also important to select carefully the laser power settings, especially for STED (both excitation and depletion), since the characteristics of an intensity profile cannot be measured in case of saturation, and therefore any saturated signal in a NMJ image could jeopardize the whole analysis.
This detailed workflow, including image acquisitions and analysis using microscope software and ImageJ macros, was developed to facilitate autonomous NMJ morphometric analysis by confocal and STED microscopy from a single muscle. Previously described workflows for NMJ confocal analysis, such as NMJ-morph2 or NMJ-Analyser14, paved the way for the design of semi-automatic methods that facilitate morphological analysis of NMJs and comparative studies. NMJ-morph (and its updated version aNMJ-morph15) is a free ImageJ-based platform that uses the maximal intensity projection to measure 21 morphological features, and NMJ-Analyser uses a script developed in Python that generates 29 relevant parameters from the entire 3D NMJ structure. Manual thresholding is the only step during image processing in these two methods that require user analysis. This integrated protocol details steps for tissue preparation, 3D confocal image acquisitions, and ImageJ-based processing of NMJs from entire skeletal muscles and provides a simplified overview of five important parameters of the postsynaptic (volume, maximal projection area, and tortuosity) and presynaptic (axon terminal occupancy and neurofilament accumulation) endplates. An additional parameter of biological relevance, the AChR organization pattern of the postsynaptic junctional folds, was incorporated for morphometric analysis at the nanoscale level by super-resolution STED microscopy (resolution 20-30 nm)40. Interestingly, tissue preparation for STED imaging is simpler than other methods used for NMJ ultrastructural studies, such as conventional transmission electron microscopy (TEM)9, which is a rather complex and time-consuming procedure that requires a skilled manipulator in order to obtain ultrathin sections of the appropriate muscle region. In addition, quantitative data from multiple junctional folds can be obtained automatically by using the STED-associated software.
This protocol was applied to illustrate previously known NMJs defects in SMN and ColQ deficient muscles20,36,41,42. Common changes were found in the two mouse models by confocal microscopy, such as decreased postsynaptic endplate volume, MIP area, and relative tortuosity, and increased neurofilament accumulation, whereas some more specific findings (decreased NMJ occupancy), were observed only in SMA mice, as an indicator of impaired vesicles trafficking36. Finally, an increase in AChR stripe distance and width were detected in ColQ-KO by STED analysis, which are signs of ultrastructural defects in the postsynaptic junctional folds, as previously observed by TEM20. Importantly, this protocol may help in a more in-depth morphological characterization of neuromuscular junctions during development, maintenance, and under various pathological conditions.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a complex structure composed of a motor axon terminal, a perisynaptic Schwann cell, and a skeletal myofiber portion involved in the transmission of chemical information and coupling of lower motor neuron activity to muscle contraction. In mammals, the morphology of the neuromuscular junction changes during development, adopting a typical pretzel-like shape after maturation, with differences in shape and complexity between species, and shows some degree of plasticity in response to physiological processes such as exercise or aging1,2,3,4. The postsynaptic motor endplate forms membrane invaginations named junctional folds, where the upper part containing acetylcholine receptors (AChR) is in close contact with the presynaptic terminal axon branch5.
Morphological and functional changes in neuromuscular junctions contribute to the pathophysiology of several neurodegenerative disorders such as spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), myopathies like Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS), myasthenia gravis (MG) and centronuclear myopathies (CNM), and aging-associated sarcopenia3,6,7,8,9,10,11,12. In these diseases, NMJ structural alterations such as endplate fragmentation, reduced postsynaptic junctional fold size and/or denervation are observed. The pathology of NMJs can be a primary or early event during disease progression or appear more lately as a secondary event contributing to the clinical manifestations. In any case, monitoring the morphology of NMJs in animal models of these diseases represents a valuable parameter to study pathological changes and assess the efficacy of potential treatments.
The morphology of neuromuscular junctions is usually analyzed by techniques using confocal microscopy2,13,14,15 or electron microscopy5,16, with their inherent limitations such as resolution or technical difficulties, respectively. More recently, super-resolution microscopy was also used to visualize particular regions of the NMJ, such as presynaptic active zones or AChR distribution on the postsynaptic membrane16,17,18, as an alternative or complementary approach to ultrastructural analysis by electron microscopy.
This protocol aims to provide a detailed and reproducible method to assess NMJ morphological parameters by combining fluorescence confocal and stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy. Important features of the presynaptic and postsynaptic endplates, such as volume, area, relative tortuosity, AChR stripe width, and axon terminal distribution in innervated teased muscle fibers of mouse&#160;gastrocnemius and tibialis anterior were quantified in the context of normal and diseased conditions. In particular, NMJ defects were exemplified in the Smn2B/- mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy, a neuromuscular disease with motor neuron degeneration caused by mutations in the SMN1 gene11,19, and in a collagen-like tail subunit of asymmetric acetylcholinesterase knockout (ColQDex2/Dex2 or ColQ-KO) mice, as a model of the congenital myasthenic syndrome20,21,22.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr >
			<td >Buffers and Reagents</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td ></td>
			<td ></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Alexa Fluor 488 goat anti-mouse IgG (F488)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies, Thermofisher</td>
			<td>A-11001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Alexa Fluor 488 &#945;-bungarotoxin (F488-a-BTX)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies, Thermofisher</td>
			<td>B13422</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Alexa Fluor 594 goat anti-mouse IgG (F594)</td>
			<td>Life Technologies, Thermofisher</td>
			<td>A-11032</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >ATTO-633 &#945;-bungarotoxin (F633-a-BTX)</td>
			<td>Alomone Labs</td>
			<td>B-100-FR</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Bovine serum albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A2153</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >DAPI Fluoromount-G</td>
			<td>Southern Biotech</td>
			<td>00-4959-52</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >DPBS</td>
			<td>Gibco, Invitrogen</td>
			<td>14190-169</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Ethanol Absolute</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>20821.296</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Immersion Oil, n = 1.518</td>
			<td>THORLABS</td>
			<td>MOIL-10LF&#160;</td>
			<td>Low autofluorescence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Neurofilament (NF-M) antibody&#160;</td>
			<td>DSHB</td>
			<td>AB_531793</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Paraformaldehyde (PFA)</td>
			<td>MERCK</td>
			<td>1.04005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2 (SV2) antibody</td>
			<td>DSHB</td>
			<td>AB_2315387</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T8787</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Materials</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Alnico Button cylindrical magnets</td>
			<td>Farnell France</td>
			<td>E822</td>
			<td>diameter of 19.1 mm with maximal pull of 1.9 Kg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >63x 1.4 NA magnitude oil immersion&#160; HCX Plan Apo CS objective</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >100x 1.4 NA HC PL APPO CS2 Objective</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Curved thin forceps-Moria iris forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11370-31</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Extra thin scissors - Vannas-T&#252;bingen Spring Scissors</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>15-003-08</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Fine serrated forceps</td>
			<td>Euronexia</td>
			<td>P-95-AA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Gel loading tip round 1-200 &#181;L</td>
			<td>COSTAR</td>
			<td>4853</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Leica laser-scanning confocal microscope TCS SP8</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Leica Laser-scanning confocal microscope TCS SP8 Gated STED 775 nm</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Lens Cleaning Tissue&#160;</td>
			<td>Whatman (GE Healthcare)</td>
			<td>2105-841</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Medium serrated forceps</td>
			<td>Euronexia</td>
			<td>P-95-AB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Microscope cover glasses 24x50 nm No 1.5H 170&#177;5 &#181;m</td>
			<td>Marienfield</td>
			<td>107222</td>
			<td>High precision</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Nunclon delta surface (12-well plates)</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>150628</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Nunclon delta surface (24-well plates)</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>142475</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Safeshield scalpel</td>
			<td>Feather</td>
			<td>02.001.40.023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Sharp-blunt scissors - fine Scissors - Martensitic Stainless Steel</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>14094-11</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Superfrost plus slides</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>J1800AMNZ</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >GraphPad&#160;</td>
			<td>Prism, San Diego (US)</td>
			<td>Release N&#176;6.07</td>
			<td>Statistical software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >ImageJ software</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td>Release N&#176; 1.53f</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Leica Application Suite X software</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td>Release N&#176;3.7.2.2283</td>
			<td >Free microscope software available at https://www.leica-microsystems.com/products/microscope-software/p/leica-las-x-ls/downloads/&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

characterization of neuromuscular junctions in mice by combined confocal and super-resolution microscopy

Neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) are highly specialized synapses between lower motor neurons and skeletal muscle fibers that play an essential role in the transmission of molecules from the nervous system to voluntary muscles, leading to contraction. They are affected in many human diseases, including inherited neuromuscular disorders such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS), spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Therefore, monitoring the morphology of neuromuscular junctions and their alterations in disease mouse models represents a valuable tool for pathological studies and preclinical assessment of therapeutic approaches. Here, methods for labeling and analyzing the three-dimensional (3D) morphology of the pre- and postsynaptic parts of motor endplates from murine teased muscle fibers are described. The procedures to prepare samples and measure NMJ volume, area, tortuosity and axon terminal morphology/occupancy by confocal imaging, and the distance between postsynaptic junctional folds and acetylcholine receptor (AChR) stripe width by super-resolution stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy are detailed. Alterations in these NMJ parameters are illustrated in mutant mice affected by SMA and CMS.

In order to facilitate the morphological analysis of neuromuscular junctions at the pre- and postsynaptic level in a reproducible manner, a workflow was developed from muscle harvesting to imaging and quantification using the microscope software and ImageJ custom macros (Figure 1). To exemplify the utility of this protocol, the morphology of NMJs in two mouse models of genetic disorders, Smn2B/- and ColQDex2/Dex2 mice affected by spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) and a congenital myasthenic syndrome (CMS) form, respectively, were evaluated and data were compared to age-matched control littermates.
The NMJ structure was assessed from tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius muscles of 3- and 6-week-old Smn2B/- (C57Bl/6 background) and ColQDex2/Dex2 (B6D2F1/J background) mice, respectively, when signs of the disease are already present in these animals. At 3 weeks of age, Smn2B/- mice show signs of delayed skeletal muscle development and denervation, such as NMJ atrophy and loss35,36. CMS mice have a primary pathology in NMJs and manifest a reduction in body weight from the first week of life and marked muscle weakness20 (data not shown). As shown in Figure 2A, the postsynaptic motor endplate labeled with fluorescent &#945;-bungarotoxin appeared smaller and/or fragmented in mutants of the two mouse lines by confocal microscopy. Quantification of NMJ Z-stacks using this customized ImageJ macros revealed marked decreases in endplate volume, maximum intensity projection (MIP), and relative tortuosity in both SMA and CMS mice compared to controls, as signs of NMJ maturation defects32 (Figure 2B-D). Postsynaptic endplate volume and MIP were decreased in diseased animals (fold-change of 2.7 and 2.0 for volume, and 2.5 and 2.0 for MIP, in Smn2B/- and ColQDex2/Dex2 mice, respectively). The relative tortuosity was also smaller in SMN and ColQ deficient muscles&#160;than WT (16.97% &#177; 1.33% in SMA&#160;versus 48.84% &#177; 5.90% WT mice, and 13.29% &#177; 2.79% in CMS versus 30.20% &#177; 4.44% control mice). In addition, the quantification of the distribution of presynaptic axon terminal branches using the ImageJ custom macro revealed an altered pattern in neurofilament M distribution in the two animal models, with increased immunolabelling (84.65% &#177; 0.32% versus 16.57% &#177; 2.03% and 23.64% &#177; 2.78% versus 18.77% &#177; 1.73% in Smn2B/- and ColQDex2/Dex2 mice compared to controls, respectively) (Figure 3A-D). By SV2 staining, a 43% reduction in the occupancy ratio, i.e., percent of AChR-containing regions with adjacent nerve terminal active zones, was also observed in Smn2B/- mice (49.36% &#177; 3.76% in SMA versus 85.69% &#177; 2.34% WT mice) (Figure 3E,F). This NMJ parameter was also calculated in GA of ColQDex2/Dex2 mutants, but no statistically significant difference was found compared to control littermates (data not shown).
We further analyzed postsynaptic membrane characteristics by quantifying the distance between junctional folds and the width of AChR stripes, which are located at the crest of these folds, in ColQ-deficient muscle using super-resolution stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy. As shown in Figure 4, the aspect of these structures can be clearly visualized by fluorescent &#945;-bungarotoxin labeling and intensity profile analysis. We&#160;evaluated these NMJ parameters and found an increase in the junctional fold distance (d) and width (w) of AChR stripes in the gastrocnemius muscle of mutants (358.3 nm &#177; 11.97 nm and 320.8 nm &#177; 10.90 nm for the distance, and 216.9 nm &#177; 10.51 nm and 186.3 nm &#177; 7.015 nm for the width, in ColQDex2/Dex2 as compared to wild-type mice, respectively, p &#60; 0.05) (Figure 4C,D).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63032/63032fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Flowchart of the video protocol for 3D multiscale NMJ characterization by confocal and STED microscopy. Tibialis anterior (TA) and gastrocnemius (GA) muscles were collected from mice, and muscle fibers were teased before labeling with &#945;-bungarotoxin-F488 or &#945;-bungarotoxin-F633, DAPI, primary antibodies directed against neurofilament M (NF-M) and synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2 (SV2), and fluorophore (F488 or F594)-conjugated secondary antibodies. Image stacks were acquired by confocal microscopy and processed to measure postsynaptic NMJ volume, presynaptic NF-M accumulation, NMJ axon terminal occupancy, postsynaptic maximum intensity projection (MIP) endplate area, and tortuosity (dObj(AB) is the distance between A and B along the perimeter of the object (red line), whereas dEuc(AB) is the Euclidian distance between A and B (green line)). For STED microscopy analysis, the width of acetylcholine receptor (AChR) stripes and the distance between junctional folds were quantified from intensity profiles of &#945;-BTX-F633 staining. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/63032fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63032/63032fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Multi-parameter postsynaptic NMJ characterization in mouse models of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) and ColQ-related congenital myasthenic syndrome (CMS). (A) Representative images of postsynaptic motor endplates from TA and GA muscles labeled with &#945;-bungarotoxin-F488 (&#945;-BTX). (B) Quantification of NMJ postsynaptic endplate volume, (C) maximal intensity projection (MIP) area and (D) relative tortuosity in TA of 3 week-old wild-type (WT) and Smn2B/- mice (left graphs, N = 3 animals per genotype, n = 37 and n = 56 NMJs, respectively) and 6 week-old WT and ColQDex2/Dex2 mice (right graphs, N = 5 mice per genotype, n = 89 and n = 97 NMJs, respectively). Data are expressed as the mean per mouse (dot) &#177; SEM. Differences between groups were analyzed by Mann-Whitney test (* p &#60; 0.05). Scale bar is 10 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/63032fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63032/63032fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Morphometric analysis of presynaptic axon terminal distribution in muscles of WT and mutant mice. NMJ innervation pattern in tibialis anterior (TA) and gastrocnemius (GA) muscles of wild-type, SMA and ColQ-related CMS mice. (A, B) Representative neuromuscular junctions from TA of WT and Smn2B/- mice at 21 days of age labeled with antibodies against neurofilament M (NF-M, red) and &#945;-bungarotoxin-F488 (&#945;-BTX, green) (A), and results from quantitative analysis of neurofilament accumulation (B); (C, D) Representative neuromuscular junctions from GA of 6 week-old WT and ColQDex2/Dex2 mice labeled with antibodies against neurofilament M (NF-M, red) and &#945;-bungarotoxin-F488 (&#945;-BTX, green), showing fragmented and immature postsynaptic endplates (C), and results of neurofilament accumulation in the two groups of animals (D). N= 4 (n = 34 NMJs) (B) and N = 3 (n = 54 NMJs) (D) WT animals, and N=3 (n = 36 NMJs) Smn2B/- and N = 3 (n = 55 NMJs) ColQDex2/Dex2 mice were analyzed in the experiments (B, D). (E, F) Representative images of axon terminal occupancy in NMJs from TA of 3 week-old WT and Smn2B/- mice labeled with antibodies against synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2 (SV2, red) and &#945;-bungarotoxin-F488 (&#945;-BTX, green) (E), and results of NMJ occupancy (SV2/AChR volume ratio) (F). Muscles from N = 3 (n = 50 NMJs) wild-type and N = 4 (n = 62 NMJs) Smn2B/- mice were analyzed. Data are expressed as the mean value per mouse (dot) &#177; SEM. Differences between groups were analyzed by Mann-Whitney test (* p &#60; 0.05). Scale bars are 20 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/63032fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63032/63032fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: STED imaging of NMJ postsynaptic endplates. (A) Representative STED image of a NMJ labeled with &#945;-bungarotoxin-F633 (&#945;-BTX) from gastrocnemius of a 6 week-old wild-type mouse showing postjunctional AChR stripes (scale bar is 5 &#181;m). (B) Higher magnification of a region with AChR stripes (bottom panel) that was used to generate the intensity profile. The width (w) of AChR stripes and the distance between two adjacent stripes (d) of this region were quantified and presented in the bar graph. Schematic representation of the postsynaptic endplate to illustrate AChR stripe width (w) and distance (d). These parameters, (C) AChR stripe distance and (D) width, were measured in ColQDex2/Dex2 mice and control littermates at 6 weeks of age. NMJs from 5 WT (total n = 29 NMJs) and 6 ColQDex2/Dex2 (total n = 43 NMJs) animals were analyzed blindly. Data are expressed as the mean per mouse (dot) &#177; SEM. Statistical differences between groups were analyzed by using the Mann-Whitney test (* p &#60; 0.05). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/63032fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Supplemental Figure 1: Launch of LAS X software and parameters for confocal acquisitions. The various steps to acquire confocal images are described in sections 3.1.2 to 3.1.7 of the protocol. For each NMJ stack acquisition, a project is opened (step 3.1.4) and the parameters of image size, acquisition speed, X, Y and Z axes are selected (step 3.1.7), with each sequential scan indicated (Seq.1, laser 405 for DAPI; Seq.2, laser 488 for &#945;-BTX-F488; and Seq.3, laser 552 for F594 conjugated secondary antibodies). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/Supplemental Figure 1.pdf" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplemental Figure 2: Launch of LAS X software and parameters for STED acquisitions. The steps to acquire STED images are described in sections 3.2.2 to 3.2.8 of the protocol. The microscope is launched in configuration mode STED ON (step 3.2.2), and a project is opened (step 3.2.3). The parameters for image acquisition (step 3.2.7) (image size, acquisition speed, Zoom factor, X axis), with each sequential scan are indicated (Seq.1 for &#945;-BTX-F633; Seq.2 for F488 conjugated secondary antibodies). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/Supplemental Figure 2.pdf" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplemental Figure 3: Images of &#945;-BTX-stained junctional folds obtained by STED microscopy. Image examples of a postsynaptic endplate labeled with&#160;&#945;-BTX-F633 from a 6 week-old wild-type mouse that were acquired with either a correct (left) or incorrect focus (right). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/Supplemental Figure 3.pdf" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplemental Figure 4: Windows pop-ups to describe the input and output data obtained by the custom ImageJ macros. Input data examples (.tif and .lif files) of NMJ images are shown on the left column. The output data from the macros (right column) are saved in folders (Save_Volume, Save_Accu) that contain images of the junction (.tif) and datasheets containing the results (.csv files). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/Supplemental Figure 4.pdf" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplemental Figure 5: AChR stripe distance and width analysis from a STED acquisition using the LAS X software. The steps to analyze NMJ STED images are described in section 5 of the protocol. A) Image of a labeled postsynaptic endplate region containing AChR stripes. The region of interest for stripe analysis is selected by drawing a perpendicular line (green line, for stripe distance), or a perpendicular rectangle (purple rectangle, for stripe width). (B, C) Intensity profiles of the selected regions and measurements to calculate the distance between AChR stripes (B) and the AChR stripe width (C) are shown. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/Supplemental Figure 5.pdf" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplementary Coding File 1: Macro_NMJ_VOL_Marinelloetal. ImageJ custom macro to extract NMJ parameter measurements (NMJ volume, MIP endplate area, and NMJ tortuosity). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/Macro_NMJ_VOL_Marinelloetal_63032.ijm" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplementary Coding File 2: Macro_NMJ_ACCU_Marinelloetal. ImageJ custom macro to extract NF-M accumulation and SV2 staining. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63032/Macro_NMJ_ACCU_Marinelloetal_63032.ijm" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterization of Neuromuscular Junctions in Mice by Combined Confocal and Super-Resolution Microscopy at JoVE.com

Characterization of Neuromuscular Junctions in Mice by Combined Confocal and Super-Resolution Microscopy

This protocol describes a method for morphometric analysis of neuromuscular junctions by combined confocal and STED microscopy that is used to quantify pathological changes in mouse models of SMA and ColQ-related CMS.

Neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) are highly specialized synapses between lower motor neurons and skeletal muscle fibers that play an essential role in the ...

characterization-neuromuscular-junctions-mice-combined-confocal-super

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

3.4K Views.  Genethon, 91000, Evry, France. This protocol describes a method for morphometric analysis of neuromuscular junctions by combined confocal and STED microscopy that is used to quantify pathological changes in mouse models of SMA and ColQ-related CMS. 

Video: Characterization of Neuromuscular Junctions in Mice by Combined Confocal and Super-Resolution Microscopy

Super-resolution Imaging of Neuronal Dense-core Vesicles

Detection of fluorescence provides the foundation for many widely utilized and rapidly advancing microscopy techniques employed in modern biological and medical applications. Strengths of fluorescence include its sensitivity, specificity, and compatibility with live imaging. Unfortunately, conventional forms of fluorescence microscopy suffer from one major weakness, diffraction-limited resolution in the imaging plane, which hampers studies of structures with dimensions smaller than ~250 nm. Recently, this limitation has been overcome with the introduction of super-resolution fluorescence microscopy techniques, such as photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM). Unlike its conventional counterparts, PALM can produce images with a lateral resolution of tens of nanometers. It is thus now possible to use fluorescence, with its myriad strengths, to elucidate a spectrum of previously inaccessible attributes of cellular structure and organization.
Unfortunately, PALM is not trivial to implement, and successful strategies often must be tailored to the type of system under study. In this article, we show how to implement single-color PALM studies of vesicular structures in fixed, cultured neurons. PALM is ideally suited to the study of vesicles, which have dimensions that typically range from ~50-250 nm. Key steps in our approach include labeling neurons with photoconvertible (green to red) chimeras of vesicle cargo, collecting sparsely sampled raw images with a super-resolution microscopy system, and processing the raw images to produce a high-resolution PALM image. We also demonstrate the efficacy of our approach by presenting exceptionally well-resolved images of dense-core vesicles (DCVs) in cultured hippocampal neurons, which refute the hypothesis that extrasynaptic trafficking of DCVs is mediated largely by DCV clusters.

We describe how to implement photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM)-based studies of vesicles in fixed, cultured neurons. Key components of our protocol include labeling vesicles with photoconvertible chimeras, collecting sparsely sampled raw images with a super-resolution microscopy system, and processing the raw images to produce a super-resolution image.

Detection of fluorescence provides the foundation for many widely utilized and rapidly advancing microscopy techniques employed in modern biological and ...

The Neuromuscular Junction: Measuring Synapse Size, Fragmentation and Changes in Synaptic Protein Density Using Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the large, cholinergic relay synapse through which mammalian motor neurons control voluntary muscle contraction. Structural changes at the NMJ can result in neurotransmission failure, resulting in weakness, atrophy and even death of the muscle fiber. Many studies have investigated how genetic modifications or disease can alter the structure of the mouse NMJ. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to directly compare findings from these studies because they often employed different parameters and analytical methods. Three protocols are described here. The first uses maximum intensity projection confocal images to measure the area of acetylcholine receptor (AChR)-rich postsynaptic membrane domains at the endplate and the area of synaptic vesicle staining in the overlying presynaptic nerve terminal. The second protocol compares the relative intensities of immunostaining for synaptic proteins in the postsynaptic membrane. The third protocol uses Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) to detect changes in the packing of postsynaptic AChRs at the endplate. The protocols have been developed and refined over a series of studies. Factors that influence the quality and consistency of results are discussed and normative data are provided for NMJs in healthy young adult mice.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is altered in a variety of conditions that can sometimes culminate in synaptic failure. This report describes fluorescence microscope-based methods to quantify such structural changes.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the large, cholinergic relay synapse through which mammalian motor neurons control voluntary muscle contraction. ...

Protocol for Three-dimensional Confocal Morphometric Analysis of Astrocytes

As glial cells in the brain, astrocytes have diverse functional roles in the central nervous system. In the presence of harmful stimuli, astrocytes modify their functional and structural properties, a condition called reactive astrogliosis. Here, a protocol for assessment of the morphological properties of astrocytes is presented. This protocol includes quantification of 12 different parameters i.e. the surface area and volume of the tissue covered by an astrocyte (astrocyte territory), the entire astrocyte including branches, cell body, and nucleus, as well as total length and number of branches, the intensity of fluorescence immunoreactivity of antibodies used for astrocyte detection, and astrocyte density (number/1,000 &#181;m2). For this purpose three-dimensional (3D) confocal microscopic images were created, and 3D image analysis software such as Volocity 6.3 was used for measurements. Rat brain tissue exposed to amyloid beta1-40 (A&#946;1-40) with or without a therapeutic&#160;intervention was used to present the method. This protocol can also be used for 3D morphometric analysis of other cells from either in vivo or in vitro conditions.

Astrocytes in the CNS change their functional and structural properties in response to harmful stimuli. This report presents a protocol for assessment of three-dimensional astrocyte morphology in diseased conditions or after therapeutic interventions.

As glial cells in the brain, astrocytes have diverse functional roles in the central nervous system. In the presence of harmful stimuli, astrocytes modify ...

Why Quantification Matters: Characterization of Phenotypes at the Drosophila Larval Neuromuscular Junction

Most studies on morphogenesis rely on qualitative descriptions of how anatomical traits are affected by the disruption of specific genes and genetic pathways. Quantitative descriptions are rarely performed, although genetic manipulations produce a range of phenotypic effects and variations are observed even among individuals within control groups.&#160;Emerging evidence shows that morphology, size and location of organelles play a previously underappreciated, yet fundamental role in cell function and survival. Here we provide step-by-step instructions for performing quantitative analyses of phenotypes at the Drosophila larval neuromuscular junction (NMJ). We use several reliable immuno-histochemical markers combined with bio-imaging techniques and morphometric analyses to examine the effects of genetic mutations on specific cellular processes. In particular, we focus on the quantitative analysis of phenotypes affecting morphology, size and position of nuclei within the striated muscles of Drosophila larvae. The Drosophila larval NMJ is a valuable experimental model to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the structure and the function of the neuromuscular system, both in health and disease. However, the methodologies we describe here can be extended to other systems as well.

Why Quantification Matters: Characterization of Phenotypes at the Drosophila Larval Neuromuscular Junction

Morphology, size and location of intracellular organelles are evolutionarily conserved and appear to directly affect their function. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying these processes has become an important goal of modern biology. Here we show how these studies can be facilitated by the application of quantitative techniques.

Most studies on morphogenesis rely on qualitative descriptions of how anatomical traits are affected by the disruption of specific genes and genetic ...

Extracellular Recording of Neuronal Activity Combined with Microiontophoretic Application of Neuroactive Substances in Awake Mice

Differences in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, and consequently different neural responses, can be found between anesthetized and awake animals. Therefore, methods allowing the manipulation of synaptic systems in awake animals are required in order to determine the contribution of synaptic inputs to neuronal processing unaffected by anesthetics. Here, we present methodology for the construction of electrodes to simultaneously record extracellular neural activity and release multiple neuroactive substances at the vicinity of the recording sites in awake mice. By combining these procedures, we performed microiontophoretic injections of gabazine to selectively block GABAA receptors in neurons of the inferior colliculus of head-restrained mice. Gabazine successfully modified neural response properties such as the frequency response area and stimulus-specific adaptation. Thus, we demonstrate that our methods are suitable for recording single-unit activity and for dissecting the role of specific neurotransmitter receptors in auditory processing.
The main limitation of the described procedure is the relatively short recording time (~3 hr), which is determined by the level of habituation of the animal to the recording sessions. On the other hand, multiple recording sessions can be performed in the same animal. The advantage of this technique over other experimental procedures used to manipulate the level of neurotransmission or neuromodulation (such as systemic injections or the use of optogenetic models), is that the drug effect is confined to the local synaptic inputs to the target neuron. In addition, the custom-manufacture of electrodes allows adjustment of specific parameters according to the neural structure and type of neuron of interest (such as the tip resistance for improving the signal-to-noise ratio of the recordings).

We present methods for the construction of electrodes to simultaneously record extracellular neural activity and release multiple neuroactive substances at the vicinity of the recording sites in awake mice. This technique allows the detailed analysis of putative local synaptic inputs to the neuron of interest.

Differences in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, and consequently different neural responses, can be found between anesthetized and ...

The Fibular Nerve Injury Method: A Reliable Assay to Identify and Test Factors That Repair Neuromuscular Junctions

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) undergoes deleterious structural and functional changes as a result of aging, injury and disease. Thus, it is imperative to understand the cellular and molecular changes involved in maintaining and repairing NMJs. For this purpose, we have developed a method to reliably and consistently examine regenerating NMJs in mice. This nerve injury method involves crushing the common fibular nerve as it passes over the lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle tendon near the knee. Using 70 day old female mice, we demonstrate that motor axons begin to reinnervate previous postsynaptic targets within 7 days post-crush. They completely reoccupy their previous synaptic areas by 12 days. To determine the reliability of this injury method, we compared reinnervation rates between individual 70 day old female mice. We found that the number of reinnervated postsynaptic sites was similar between mice at 7, 9, and 12 days post-crush. To determine if this injury assay can also be used to compare molecular changes in muscles, we examined levels of the gamma-subunit of the muscle nicotinic receptor (gamma-AChR) and the muscle-specific kinase (MuSK). The gamma-AChR subunit and MuSK to are highly upregulated following denervation and return to normal levels following reinnervation of NMJs. We found a close relationship between transcript levels for these genes and innervation status of muscles. We believe that this method will accelerate our understanding of the cellular and molecular changes involved in repairing the NMJ and other synapses.

We have developed a nerve injury method to reliably examine muscle reinnervation, and thus regeneration of neuromuscular junctions in mice. This technique involves injuring the common fibular nerve via a simple and highly reproducible surgery. Muscle reinnervation in then assessed by whole-mounting the extensor digitorum longus muscle.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) undergoes deleterious structural and functional changes as a result of aging, injury and disease. Thus, it is imperative ...

Triggering Cell Stress and Death Using Conventional UV Laser Confocal Microscopy

Using a standard confocal setup, a UV ablation method can be utilized to selectively induce cellular injury and to visualize single-cell responses and cell-cell interactions in the CNS in real-time. Previously, studying these cell-specific responses after injury often required complicated setups or the transfer of cells or animals into different, non-physiological environments, confounding immediate and short-term analysis. For example, drug-mediated ablation approaches often lack the specificity that is required to study single-cell responses and immediate cell-cell interactions. Similarly, while high-power pulsed laser ablation approaches provide very good control and tissue penetration, they require specialized equipment that can complicate real-time visualization of cellular responses. The refined UV laser ablation approach described here allows researchers to stress or kill an individual cell in a dose- and time-dependent manner using a conventional confocal microscope equipped with a 405-nm laser. The method was applied to selectively ablate a single neuron within a dense network of surrounding cells in the zebrafish spinal cord. This approach revealed a dose-dependent response of the ablated neurons, causing the fragmentation of cellular bodies and anterograde degeneration along the axon within minutes to hours. This method allows researchers to study the fate of an individual dying cell and, importantly, the instant response of cells-such as microglia and astrocytes-surrounding the ablation site.

Targeted manipulations to cause directed stress or death in individual cells have been relatively difficult to accomplish. Here, a single-cell-resolution ablation approach to selectively stress and kill individual cells in cell culture and living animals is described based on a standard confocal UV laser.

Using a standard confocal setup, a UV ablation method can be utilized to selectively induce cellular injury and to visualize single-cell responses and ...

Visualization and Live Imaging of Oligodendrocyte Organelles in Organotypic Brain Slices Using Adeno-associated Virus and Confocal Microscopy

Neurons rely on the electric insulation and trophic support of myelinating oligodendrocytes. Despite the importance of oligodendrocytes, the advanced tools currently used to study neurons, have only partly been taken on by oligodendrocyte researchers. Cell type-specific staining by viral transduction is a useful approach to study live organelle dynamics. This paper describes a protocol for visualizing oligodendrocyte mitochondria in organotypic brain slices by transduction with adeno-associated virus (AAV) carrying genes for mitochondrial targeted fluorescent proteins under the transcriptional control of the myelin basic protein promoter. It includes the protocol for making organotypic coronal mouse brain slices. A procedure for time-lapse imaging of mitochondria then follows. These methods can be transferred to other organelles and may be particularly useful for studying organelles in the myelin sheath. Finally, we describe a readily available technique for visualization of unstained myelin in living slices by Confocal Reflectance microscopy (CoRe). CoRe requires no extra equipment and can be useful to identify the myelin sheath during live imaging.

Myelinating oligodendrocytes promote rapid action potential propagation and neuronal survival. Described here is a protocol for oligodendrocyte-specific expression of fluorescent proteins in organotypic brain slices with subsequent time-lapse imaging. Further, a simple procedure for visualizing unstained myelin is presented.

Neurons rely on the electric insulation and trophic support of myelinating oligodendrocytes. Despite the importance of oligodendrocytes, the advanced ...

Super-Resolution Imaging to Study Co-Localization of Proteins and Synaptic Markers in Primary Neurons

Synapses are the functional elements of neurons and their defects or losses are at the basis of several neurodegenerative and neurological disorders. Imaging studies are widely used to investigate their function and plasticity in physiological and pathological conditions. Because of their size and structure, localization studies of proteins require high-resolution imaging techniques. In this protocol, we describe a procedure to study in primary neurons the co-localization of target proteins with synaptic markers at a super-resolution level using structured illumination microscopy (SIM). SIM is a patterned-light illumination technique that doubles the spatial resolution of wide-field microscopy, reaching a detail of around 100 nm. The protocol indicates the required controls and settings for robust co-localization studies and an overview of the statistical methods to analyze the imaging data properly.

This protocol shows how to employ super-resolution microscopy to study protein co-localization in primary neuronal cultures.

Synapses are the functional elements of neurons and their defects or losses are at the basis of several neurodegenerative and neurological disorders. ...

Dissection of Single Skeletal Muscle Fibers for Immunofluorescent and Morphometric Analyses of Whole-Mount Neuromuscular Junctions

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a specialized point of contact between the motor nerve and the skeletal muscle. This peripheral synapse exhibits high morphological and functional plasticity. In numerous nervous system disorders, NMJ is an early pathological target resulting in neurotransmission failure, weakness, atrophy, and even in muscle fiber death. Due to its relevance, the possibility to quantitatively assess certain aspects of the relationship between NMJ components can help to understand the processes associated with its assembly/disassembly. The first obstacle when working with muscles is to gain the technical expertise to quickly identify and dissect without damaging their fibers. The second challenge is to utilize high-quality detection methods to obtain NMJ images that can be used to perform quantitative analysis. This article presents a step-by-step protocol for dissecting extensor digitorum longus and soleus muscles from rats. It also explains the use of immunofluorescence to visualize pre and postsynaptic elements of whole-mount NMJs. Results obtained demonstrate that this technique can be used to establish the microscopic anatomy of the synapsis and identify subtle changes in the status of some of its components under physiological or pathological conditions.

The ability to accurately detect neuromuscular junction components is crucial in evaluating modifications in its architecture because of pathological or developmental processes. Here we present a complete description of a straightforward method to obtain high-quality images of whole-mount neuromuscular junctions that can be used to perform quantitative measurements.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is a specialized point of contact between the motor nerve and the skeletal muscle. This peripheral synapse exhibits high ...