Name: measurement of the compressibility of cell and nucleus based on acoustofluidic microdevice
Uploaded: 2022-07-14T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measurement of the Compressibility of Cell and Nucleus Based on Acoustofluidic Microdevice at JoVE.com

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant numbers 12075330 and U1932165) and the Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province, China (Grant number 2020A1515010270).

1. Fabricating and assembly of the acoustofluidic microdevice
<ol>
	<li>Fabrication of the microfluidic chip.
	<ol>
		<li>Design a single-channel chip with only one inlet and outlet as shown in Figure 1. For measuring cells, keep the rectangular cross-section of the microchannel at 740 &#181;m wide and 100 &#181;m deep. For measuring cell nucleus, change the width and depth of the microchannel to 250 &#181;m and 100 &#181;m, respectively.</li>
		<li>Prepare the microchanne...

<ol>
	<li>Wirtz, D., Konstantopoulos, K., Searson, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+physics+of+cancer:+the+role+of+physical+interactions+and+mechanical+forces+in+metastasis.">The physics of cancer: the role of physical interactions and mechanical forces in metastasis.</a> Nature Reviews. Cancer. 11 (7), 512-522 (2011).</li><li>Frame, F. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HDAC+inhibitor+confers+radiosensitivity+to+prostate+stem-like+cells.">HDAC inhibitor confers radiosensitivity to prostate stem-like cells.</a> British Journal of Cancer. 109 (12), 3023-3033 (2013).</li><li>Tseng, Y., Kole, T. P., Wirtz, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Micromechanical+mapping+of+live+cells+by+multiple-particle-tracking+microrheology.">Micromechanical mapping of live cells by multiple-particle-tracking microrheology.</a> Biophysical Journal. 83 (6), 3162-3176 (2002).</li><li>M&#246;ller, W., Brown, D. M., Kreyling, W. G., Stone, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrafine+particles+cause+cytoskeletal+dysfunctions+in+macrophages:+role+of+intracellular+calcium.">Ultrafine particles cause cytoskeletal dysfunctions in macrophages: role of intracellular calcium.</a> Particle and Fibre Toxicology. 2, 7 (2005).</li><li>Wang, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+three-dimensional+magnetic+tweezer+system+for+intraembryonic+navigation+and+measurement.">A three-dimensional magnetic tweezer system for intraembryonic navigation and measurement.</a> IEEE Transactions on Robotics. 34 (1), 240-247 (2018).</li><li>Machida, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+manipulation+of+intracellular+stress+fibres+using+a+hook-shaped+AFM+probe.">Direct manipulation of intracellular stress fibres using a hook-shaped AFM probe.</a> Nanotechnology. 21 (38), 385102 (2010).</li><li>Bufi, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+primary+immune+cells+exhibit+distinct+mechanical+properties+that+are+modified+by+inflammation.">Human primary immune cells exhibit distinct mechanical properties that are modified by inflammation.</a> Biophysical Journal. 108 (9), 2181-2190 (2015).</li><li>Hogan, B., Babataheri, A., Hwang, Y., Barakat, A. I., Husson, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterizing+cell+adhesion+by+using+micropipette+aspiration.">Characterizing cell adhesion by using micropipette aspiration.</a> Biophysical Journal. 109 (2), 209-219 (2015).</li><li>Jung, J. -. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ionising+radiation+induces+changes+associated+with+epithelial-mesenchymal+transdifferentiation+and+increased+cell+motility+of+A549+lung+epithelial+cells.">Ionising radiation induces changes associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation and increased cell motility of A549 lung epithelial cells.</a> European Journal of Cancer. 43 (7), 1214-1224 (2007).</li><li>Hartono, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On-chip+measurements+of+cell+compressibility+via+acoustic+radiation.">On-chip measurements of cell compressibility via acoustic radiation.</a> Lab-on-a-Chip. 11 (23), 4072-4080 (2011).</li><li>Sitters, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acoustic+force+spectroscopy.">Acoustic force spectroscopy.</a> Nature Methods. 12 (1), 47-50 (2015).</li><li>Augustsson, P., Karlsen, J. T., Su, H. -. W., Bruus, H., Voldman, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Iso-acoustic+focusing+of+cells+for+size-insensitive+acousto-mechanical+phenotyping.">Iso-acoustic focusing of cells for size-insensitive acousto-mechanical phenotyping.</a> Nature Communications. 7 (1), 11556 (2016).</li><li>Cushing, K. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+characterization+of+microbead+and+cell+suspensions+by+speed+of+sound+measurements+of+neutrally+buoyant+samples.">Ultrasound characterization of microbead and cell suspensions by speed of sound measurements of neutrally buoyant samples.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 89 (17), 8917-8923 (2017).</li><li>Riaud, A., Wang, W., Thai, A. L. P., Taly, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+characterization+of+cells+and+microspheres+sorted+by+acoustophoresis+with+in-line+resistive+pulse+sensing.">Mechanical characterization of cells and microspheres sorted by acoustophoresis with in-line resistive pulse sensing.</a> Physical Review Applied. 13 (3), 034058 (2020).</li><li>Petersson, F., Aberg, L., Sw&#228;rd-Nilsson, A. -. M., Free Laurell, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=flow+acoustophoresis:+microfluidic-based+mode+of+particle+and+cell+separation.">flow acoustophoresis: microfluidic-based mode of particle and cell separation.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 79 (14), 5117-5123 (2007).</li><li>Griwatz, C., Brandt, B., Assmann, G., Z&#228;nker, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+immunological+enrichment+method+for+epithelial+cells+from+peripheral+blood.">An immunological enrichment method for epithelial cells from peripheral blood.</a> Journal of Immunological Methods. 183 (2), 251-265 (1995).</li><li>Katholnig, K., Poglitsch, M., Hengstschl&#228;ger, M., Weichhart, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lysis+gradient+centrifugation:+a+flexible+method+for+the+isolation+of+nuclei+from+primary+cells.">Lysis gradient centrifugation: a flexible method for the isolation of nuclei from primary cells.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1228, 15-23 (2015).</li><li>Fu, Q., Zhang, Y., Huang, T., Liang, Y., Liu, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+cell+compressibility+changes+during+epithelial-mesenchymal+transition+based+on+acoustofluidic+microdevice.">Measurement of cell compressibility changes during epithelial-mesenchymal transition based on acoustofluidic microdevice.</a> Biomicrofluidics. 15 (6), 064101 (2021).</li><li>Zhang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ionizing+radiation-induced+DNA+damage+responses+affect+cell+compressibility.">Ionizing radiation-induced DNA damage responses affect cell compressibility.</a> Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 603, 116-122 (2022).</li><li>Hao, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+properties+of+single+cells:+Measurement+methods+and+applications.">Mechanical properties of single cells: Measurement methods and applications.</a> Biotechnology Advances. 45, 107648 (2020).</li><li>Yousafzai, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+neighboring+cells+on+cell+stiffness+measured+by+optical+tweezers+indentation.">Effect of neighboring cells on cell stiffness measured by optical tweezers indentation.</a> Journal of Biomedical Optics. 21 (5), 057004 (2016).</li><li>Wei, M. -. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparative+study+of+living+cell+micromechanical+properties+by+oscillatory+optical+tweezers.">A comparative study of living cell micromechanical properties by oscillatory optical tweezers.</a> Optics Express. 16 (12), 8594-8603 (2008).</li><li>Khan, Z. S., Vanapalli, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+the+mechanical+properties+of+brain+cancer+cells+using+a+microfluidic+cell+squeezer+device.">Probing the mechanical properties of brain cancer cells using a microfluidic cell squeezer device.</a> Biomicrofluidics. 7 (1), 011806 (2013).</li><li>Hirawa, S., Masudo, T., Okada, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acoustic+recognition+of+counterions+in+ion-exchange+resins.">Acoustic recognition of counterions in ion-exchange resins.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 79 (7), 3003-3007 (2007).</li><li>Joosse, S. A., Gorges, T. M., Biology Pantel, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=detection,+and+clinical+implications+of+circulating+tumor+cells.">detection, and clinical implications of circulating tumor cells.</a> EMBO Molecular Medicine. 7 (1), 1-11 (2015).</li><li>Martin, O. A., Anderson, R. L., Narayan, K., MacManus, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Does+the+mobilization+of+circulating+tumour+cells+during+cancer+therapy+cause+metastasis.">Does the mobilization of circulating tumour cells during cancer therapy cause metastasis.</a> Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology. 14 (1), 32-44 (2017).</li></ol>

Commonly used cell mechanics measurement methods are AFM, micropipette aspiration, microfluidics methods, parallel-plate technique, optical tweezers, optical stretcher, and acoustic methods20. Microfluidics methods can work with three approaches: micro-constriction, extensional flow, and shear flow. Among them, optical stretcher, optical tweezers, acoustic methods, extensional flow, and shear flow approaches are non-contact measurements. In contrast to contact measurements, non-contact measurement...

Cell mechanical properties play an important role in tumor metastasis, malignant transformation of cells, and radiosensitivity1,2. To gain an in-depth understanding of the role of cell mechanical properties in the above process, accurate measurement of cellular mechanics is critical, and the measurement should not cause damage to the cells for subsequent culture and analysis. The measurement process should be as fast as possible, otherwise cell viability may be affected if cells are removed from the cultivation environment for a long time.
Existing cell mechanics measurement methods face some limitations. Some methods, such as magnetic twisting cytometry, magnetic tweezers and particle-tracking microrheology, cause cell damage due to the introduction of particles into cells3,4,5. Methods that measure by contact with cells, such as atomic force microscope (AFM), micropipette aspiration, micro-constriction, and parallel-plate technique, are also prone to cell damage and the throughput is difficult to increase6,7,8. In addition, ionizing radiation will flatten cells and increase their adhesion9; it is therefore necessary to measure whole cell mechanics in suspension.
In response to the above challenges, a cell mechanics measurement system based on acoustofluidic method10,11,12,13,14 has been developed. The channel width is matched to the acoustic half wavelength, thus creating a standing wave node at the midline of the microchannel. Under the action of acoustic radiation force, the cells or standard beads can move to the acoustic pressure node. Since the physical properties of the standard beads (size, density, and compressibility) are known, the acoustic energy density can be determined. Then, the cell compressibility can be obtained by recording the motion trajectories of cells in the acoustic field. Non-destructive high-throughput measurement of cells in suspension state can be achieved. This paper will introduce the design of the microfluidic chip, the establishment of the system and the measurement steps. Measurement of various types of tumor cells has been carried out to verify the accuracy of the method. The application scope of this method had been extended to subcellular structures (such as nucleus) by adjusting the resonance frequency of the piezoelectric ceramic and the width of the microchannel. In addition, the changes in cell compressibility after drug-induced EMT or X-ray irradiation with different doses were investigated. The results demonstrate the broad applicability of this method as a powerful tool for studying the correlation between biochemical changes and cellular mechanical properties.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.25% trypsin(1x)</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>15050-065</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>502 glue</td>
			<td>Evo-bond</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>cyanoacrylate glue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A549</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CCL-185</td>
			<td>lung adenocarcinoma</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytonucleoprotein and cytoplasmic protein extraction kit</td>
			<td>Beyotime</td>
			<td>P0027</td>
			<td>Contains cytoplasmic protein extraction reagents A and B</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#8217;s modified Eagle medium (DMEM)&#160;</td>
			<td>corning</td>
			<td>10-013-CVRC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Srum(FBS)</td>
			<td>AUSGENEX</td>
			<td>FBS500-S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCT116</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CCL247</td>
			<td>colorectal carcinoma</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heat-resistant glass</td>
			<td>Pyrex</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leibovitz&#8217;s L-15 medium&#160;</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>11415-064</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MCF-7</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>HTB-22&#160;</td>
			<td>breast Adenocarcinoma</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MDA-MB-231</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>HTB-26&#160;</td>
			<td>breast Adenocarcinoma</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Minimum Essential Medium (MEM)</td>
			<td>corning</td>
			<td>10-010-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffer</td>
			<td>corning</td>
			<td>21-040-cvc</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PMSF</td>
			<td>Beyotime</td>
			<td>ST506</td>
			<td>100mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polybead Polystyrene Red Dyed Microsphere&#160;</td>
			<td>polysciences</td>
			<td>15714</td>
			<td>The diameter of microshpere is 6.00&#181;m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>propidium iodide(PI)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P4170</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SYLGARD 184Silicone ELASTOMER</td>
			<td>Dow-Corning</td>
			<td>1673921</td>
			<td>Contains prepolymers and curing agents</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypan Blue</td>
			<td>Beyotime</td>
			<td>C0011</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measurement of the compressibility of cell and nucleus based on acoustofluidic microdevice

Cell mechanics play an important role in tumor metastasis, malignant transformation of cells, and radiosensitivity. During these processes, studying the mechanical properties of the cells is often challenging. Conventional measurement methods based on contact such as compression or stretching are prone to cause cell damage, affecting measurement accuracy and subsequent cell culture. Measurements in adherent state can also affect accuracy, especially after irradiation since ionizing radiation will flatten cells and enhance adhesion. Here, a cell mechanics measurement system based on acoustofluidic method has been developed. The cell compressibility can be obtained by recording the cell motion trajectory under the action of the acoustic force, which can realize fast and non-destructive measurement in suspended state. This paper reports in detail the protocols for chip design, sample preparation, trajectory recording, parameter extraction and analysis. The compressibility of different types of tumor cells was measured based on this method. Measurement of the compressibility of nucleus was also achieved by adjusting the resonance frequency of the piezoelectric ceramic and the width of the microchannel. Combined with the molecular level verification of immunofluorescence experiments, the cell compressibility before and after drug-induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) were compared. Further, the change of cell compressibility after X-ray irradiation with different doses was revealed. The cell mechanics measurement method proposed in this paper is universal and flexible and has broad application prospects in scientific research and clinical practice.

Here, the work presented a protocol for the construction of a fast and non-destructive cell compressibility measuring system based on acoustofluidic microdevice and demonstrated its advantages for measuring cell and nucleus under different situations. Figure 1 shows the schematic of the microfluidic channel. The components and assembly of the acoustofluidic microdevice are shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the setup of the measureme...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measurement of the Compressibility of Cell and Nucleus Based on Acoustofluidic Microdevice at JoVE.com

Measurement of the Compressibility of Cell and Nucleus Based on Acoustofluidic Microdevice

Here a protocol is presented to build a fast and non-destructive system for measuring cell or nucleus compressibility based on acoustofluidic microdevice. Changes in mechanical properties of tumor cells after epithelial-mesenchymal transition or ionizing radiation were investigated, demonstrating the application prospect of this method in scientific research and clinical practice.

Cell mechanics play an important role in tumor metastasis, malignant transformation of cells, and radiosensitivity. During these processes, studying the ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

The Drosophila Imaginal Disc Tumor Model: Visualization and Quantification of Gene Expression and Tumor Invasiveness Using Genetic Mosaics

The Drosophila Imaginal Disc Tumor Model: Visualization and Quantification of Gene Expression and Tumor Invasiveness Using Genetic Mosaics

Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a powerful experimental system for functional and mechanistic studies of tumor development and progression in the ...

Evaluation of the Cell Invasion and Migration Process: A Comparison of the Video Microscope-based Scratch Wound Assay and the Boyden Chamber Assay

The invasion and migration abilities of tumor cells are main contributors to cancer progression and recurrence. Many studies have explored the migration ...

Therapy Testing in a Spheroid-based 3D Cell Culture Model for Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Current treatment options for advanced and recurrent head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) enclose radiation and chemo-radiation approaches with ...

Dual Effects of Melanoma Cell-derived Factors on Bone Marrow Adipocytes Differentiation

The crosstalk between bone marrow adipocytes and tumor cells may play a critical role in the process of bone metastasis. A variety of methods are ...

Elastic Staining on Paraffin-embedded Slides of pT3N0M0 Gastric Cancer Tissue

The elastic lamina, which is usually located in the sub-mesothelial layer, adjacent to the peritoneum mesothelial cells, is amphiphilic on hematoxylin and ...

Analysis of Cancer Cell Invasion and Anti-metastatic Drug Screening Using Hydrogel Micro-chamber Array (HMCA)-based Plates

Analysis of Cancer Cell Invasion and Anti-metastatic Drug Screening Using Hydrogel Micro-chamber Array HMCA-based Plates

Cancer metastasis is known to cause 90% of cancer lethality. Metastasis is a multistage process which initiates with the penetration/invasion of tumor ...

A Three-dimensional Thymic Culture System to Generate Murine Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-derived Tumor Antigen-specific Thymic Emigrants

The inheritance of pre-rearranged T cell receptors (TCRs) and their epigenetic rejuvenation make induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived T cells a ...

Characterize Disease-related Mutants of RAF Family Kinases by Using a Set of Practical and Feasible Methods

The rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (RAF) family kinases play a central role in cell biology and their dysfunction leads to cancers and developmental ...

Cell Cycle-specific Measurement of &#947;H2AX and Apoptosis After Genotoxic Stress by Flow Cytometry

Cell Cycle-specific Measurement of ÃƒÅ½Ã‚Â³H2AX and Apoptosis After Genotoxic Stress by Flow Cytometry

The presented method or slightly modified versions have been devised to study specific treatment responses and side effects of various anti-cancer ...

Using Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells for the Generation of Tumor Antigen-specific T Cells

The generation and expansion of functional T cells in vitro can lead to a broad range of clinical applications. One such use is for the treatment of ...