This research was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) grant number RGPIN-2020-06111 and by a generous donation from Brad Lace. We would like to thank Wayne Parrott (University of Georgia) for the K599 Agrobacterium and the preliminary protocol, and the Nakagawa &#38; Hachiya lab (Shimane University) for the pGWB2, pGWB6, and pANDA35HK empty vectors.

NOTE: It is recommended that all of the proceeding steps be conducted under sterile conditions.
1. Soybean seed sterilization
<ol>
	<li>In a biosafety cabinet, place 16-20 round Williams 82 soybean seeds in pristine condition (i.e., no cracks or blemishes) in a 50 mL centrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Add 30 mL of 70% isopropyl alcohol, gently shake for 30 s, and then decant the alcohol.</li>
	<li>Gently shake the seeds with 30 mL of 10% bleach for 10 s and allow the seeds to sit in the solution for 5 min at room temperature (RT, 25 &#176;C). After 5 min, drain the bleach.</li>
	<li>Repeat the shaking three times with 30 mL of sterile ultrapure H2O for 1 min per rinse and discard the H2O between each rinse.</li>
	<li>Place the sterilized seeds on filter paper saturated with 5 mL of germination and co-cultivation (GC) medium (autoclave half-strength liquid Murashige and Skoog [MS] medium with 1% sucrose [pH = 5.8] and then add 2.5 mL/L vitamins) in sterile Petri dishes.</li>
	<li>Place the plates in the dark at RT (25 &#176;C) for 3 days before transferring the plates at 22 &#176;C under 16 h cool-white T5 fluorescent lights (100 &#181;E m-2&#183;s-1) for 4 days to allow the seeds to germinate. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Discard seeds that are wrinkled or cracked. The best seeds are those that are large and uniformly yellow. Sterilize at least double the number of seeds required for the experiment to select seeds of good quality, as some seeds may not be optimal due to damage, diseases, or failure to germinate.</li>
</ol>
2. Infection of cotyledons with K599
NOTE: Use pGWB series vectors, as their dual selection ensures genomic integration of the entire T-DNA cassette. Electroporation was used to transform a binary vector harboring the gene of interest into A. rhizogenes pRi265918.
<ol>
	<li>Based on the sequence of the A. rhizogenes pRi2659 plasmid18, design primers to detect the Ti plasmid gene VirD2 (VirD2 forward: 5&#39;-CCCGATCGAGCTCAAGTTAT-3&#39;; VirD2 reverse: 5&#39;-TCGTCTGGCTGACTTTCGT-3&#39;; expected amplification size: 221 bp). Following transformation, test the Agrobacterium colonies for the retention of VirD2 by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using a PCR Kit (see Table of Materials). PCR cycle: 94 &#176;C for 3 min; 35 cycles (94 &#176;C for 1 min, 58 &#176;C for 30 sec, 72 &#176;C for 1 min); and 72 &#176;C for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Following the selection of the A. rhizogenes colony that contains both VirD2 and the gene of interest (GOI), streak out some&#160;onto Luria-Bertani (LB) medium plates containing the appropriate antibiotics (50 mg/L) for the plasmid of interest and incubate overnight at 30 &#176;C. If using spectinomycin, add a concentration of 100 mg/L.</li>
	<li>Use a P200 pipette tip to scrape off a ~1.5 cm length of the K599 Agrobacterium from the LB plates and resuspend the cells in 1 mL of phosphate buffer (PB; 0.01 M Na2HPO4, 0.15 M NaCl, pH 7.5).</li>
	<li>Dilute the Agrobacterium in sterilized, ultrapure H2O (v/v = 1:1) and acetosyringone (AS; 100 mM stock in dimethyl sulfoxide [DMSO], v/v = 1:1000). Measure the absorbance using a cuvette tube at an optical density of 600 nm (OD600). The expected optimal range is between 0.5 and 0.8.</li>
	<li>In a biosafety cabinet, dip a sterilized scalpel in the K599 Agrobacterium solution and make several 1 mm deep cuts along the inner surface (adaxial, flat side) of the cotyledon. During the inoculation, use sterilized forceps to stabilize the cotyledon.</li>
	<li>Place about 6-8 cotyledons cut side-down on a Petri dish containing filter paper saturated with GC medium with AS. 
	NOTE: To prepare 6 plates, 50 mL of GC medium and 50 &#181;L of 100 mM AS to achieve a final concentration of 100 &#181;M is sufficient.</li>
	<li>Incubate the plates at RT (25 &#176;C) for 3 days under a 16 h photoperiod (~65 &#181;E).</li>
	<li>Transfer the infected cotyledons to hairy root growth (HRG) plates (autoclave half-strength MS with 3% sucrose [pH = 5.8] and 2.6 g/L Gelzan, then add 2.5 mL/L vitamins mixture and 500 mg/L timentin). 
	NOTE: There were some issues with timentin from some alternative vendors, of which the K599 was not eliminated. It is recommended to use taller Petri dish plates (100 mm x 25 mm) for HRG medium.</li>
	<li>Incubate the HRG plates at 22 &#176;C in a growth chamber with the parameters set to 100 &#181;E light on a 16 h photoperiod until primary roots with secondary roots 2-3 cm in length are observed (~3-4 weeks).</li>
</ol>
3. Selection and harvesting of HRs
<ol>
	<li>Harvest primary roots (5-7 cm in length) that grow from the callus and contain secondary roots (2-3 cm in length) using a sterile scalpel and forceps. Transfer to selection HRG plates containing the appropriate antibiotics. Let the HRs grow for 5 more days on the selection HRG plates. 
	NOTE: Kanamycin (50 mg/L), hygromycin (50 mg/L), or phosphinothricin (10 mg/L) are typically used for selection. For expression vectors, pGWB2 is used for overexpression, pANDA35HK is used for RNAi silencing, pGWB6 is used for subcellular localization, and pMDC7 is used for inducible expression.</li>
	<li>On day 5, harvest transgenic HRs with secondary roots 3-6 cm in length. If observing fluorescent proteins, the secondary roots have little autofluorescence. If performing elicitor or chemical treatments, cut the secondary roots into 1 cm pieces and place ~100 mg on HRG agar in a pile. Then, saturate the piles with 80 &#181;L of the appropriate treatment and allow the plates to incubate at RT (25 &#176;C).</li>
	<li>After the desired treatment time, proceed with RNA or metabolite extractions.</li>
	<li>For RNA, rapidly dab the roots dry on a sterilized paper towel and harvest them directly into a 2 mL microcentrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Immediately seal the top of the tube using parafilm, make two small holes using pointed forceps, and submerge the tubes in liquid nitrogen. Lyophilize for 3 days, then store the samples at -80 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: It is essential to select HRs that are white. After 5 days of growth on the selective plate, transgenic HRs will remain white, but non-transgenic roots will turn brown.</li>
</ol>

High-Efficiency Production of Transgenic Soybean Hairy Roots

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

During the past decade, the soybean HR method has been developed as a powerful tool to study genes involved in nitrogen fixation22,23, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance24,25, and metabolite biosynthetic pathways26,27. The knowledge of how plants produce metabolites has a plethora of benefits for agricultural production and the pharmaceutical ind...

Soybean (Glycine max) is among the most valuable crops in agriculture. It has thousands of commercial and industrial uses, such as food, animal feed, oil, and as a source of raw materials for manufacturing1. Its ability to form a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing soil microorganisms, namely rhizobia, further elevates the importance of studying soybean genetics2. For instance, fine-tuning nitrogen fixation properties in soybean roots can lead to the reduction of carbon emissions and greatly reduce requirements for nitrogen fertilizer3. Thus, understanding the genetics that controls aspects of soybean root biology, in particular, has wide applications in agriculture and industry. Considering these benefits, it is important to have a reliable protocol to analyze the function of soybean genes.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens is perhaps the most commonly used tool for plant genetic transformation as it has the capability of integrating transfer DNA (T-DNA) into the nuclear genome of many plant species. When Agrobacterium infects a plant, it transfers the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid into the host chromosome, leading to the formation of a tumor at the infection site. The Agrobacterium-mediated transformation has been widely used for decades for gene functional analysis and in order to modify crop traits4. Although any gene of interest can be readily transferred into host plant cells through A. tumefaciens-mediated transformation, this method has several drawbacks; it is time-consuming, expensive, and requires extensive expertise for many plant species, such as soybean. Although a few varieties of soybean can be transformed by the cotyledonary node approach using A. tumefaciens, the inefficiency of this approach necessitates the need for an alternative genetic transformation technology that is rapid and highly efficient4,5. Even a non-expert can use this Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated hairy root (HR) transformation method to overcome these disadvantages.
HR transformation is a relatively fast tool, not only for analyzing gene function, but also for biotechnological applications, such as the production of specialized metabolites and fine chemicals, and complex bioactive glycoproteins6. The production of soybean HRs does not require extensive expertise, as they can be generated by wounding the surfaces of cotyledons, followed by inoculation with Agrobacterium rhizogenes7. A. rhizogenes expresses virulence (Vir) genes encoded by its Ti plasmid that transfer, carry, and integrate its T-DNA segment into the genome of plant cells while simultaneously stimulating ectopic root growth8.
Compared to other soybean gene&#160;expression systems, such as biolistics or A. tumefaciens-based transformation of tissue, cell, and organ culture, the HR expression system exhibits several advantages. Firstly, HRs are genetically stable and produced quickly on hormone-free media1,9,10. Additionally, HRs can produce specialized metabolites in amounts equivalent to or greater than native roots11,12. These advantages make HRs a desirable biotechnological tool for plant species that are incompatible with A. tumefaciens or that require special tissue culture conditions to form compatible tissues. The HR method is an efficient approach for analyzing protein-protein interactions, protein subcellular localization, recombinant protein production, phytoremediation, mutagenesis, and genome wide effects using RNA sequencing13,14,15. It can also be used to study the production of specialized metabolites that have value in the industry, including glyceollins, which medicate soybean&#39;s defense against the important microbial pathogen Phytophthora sojae and have impressive anticancer and neuroprotective activities in humans16,17.
This report demonstrates an easy, efficient protocol to produce soybean HRs. Compared to previous HR transformation methods, this protocol provides a significant (33%-50%) improvement in the rate of HR formation by prescreening A. rhizogenes transformants for the presence of the Ti plasmid prior to inoculating soybean cotyledons. We demonstrate the applicability of this protocol by transforming several binary vectors that overexpress or silence soybean transcription factor genes.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetosyringone</td>
			<td>Cayman</td>
			<td>23224</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bleach</td>
			<td>lavo</td>
			<td>21124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>Fisher bioreagents</td>
			<td>195679</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gelzan</td>
			<td>Phytotech</td>
			<td>HYY3251089A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hygromycin</td>
			<td>Phytotech</td>
			<td>HHA0397050B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl alcohol</td>
			<td>Fisher chemical</td>
			<td>206462</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin</td>
			<td>Phytotech</td>
			<td>SQS0378007G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB powder</td>
			<td>Fisher bioreagents</td>
			<td>200318</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MS powder</td>
			<td>Caisson labs</td>
			<td>2210001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2HPO4</td>
			<td>Fisher bioreagents</td>
			<td>194171</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Fisher chemical</td>
			<td>192946</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>08-757-11</td>
			<td>100 mm x 25 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphinothricin</td>
			<td>Cedarlane</td>
			<td>P034-250MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>REDExtract-N-Amp PCR Kit</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>R4775</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Bioshop</td>
			<td>2D76475</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Timentin</td>
			<td>Caisson labs</td>
			<td>12222002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vitamins</td>
			<td>Caisson labs</td>
			<td>2211010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

soybean hairy root transformation for the analysis of gene function

Soybean (Glycine max) is a valuable crop in agriculture that has thousands of industrial uses. Soybean roots are the primary site of interaction with soil-borne microbes that form symbiosis to fix nitrogen and pathogens, which makes research involving soybean root genetics of prime importance to improve its agricultural production. The genetic transformation of soybean hairy roots (HRs) is mediated by the Agrobacterium rhizogenes strain NCPPB2659 (K599) and is an efficient tool for studying gene function in soybean roots, taking only 2 months from start to finish. Here, we provide a detailed protocol that outlines the method for overexpressing and silencing a gene of interest in soybean HRs. This methodology includes soybean seed sterilization, infection of cotyledons with K599, and the selection and harvesting of genetically transformed HRs for RNA isolation and, if warranted, metabolite analyses. The throughput of the approach is sufficient to simultaneously study several genes or networks and could determine the optimal engineering strategies prior to committing to long-term stable transformation approaches.

The representative results are from the published data19,20. The colony PCR (cPCR) results of the transformed K599 Agrobacterium are shown in Figure 1. As indicated by the positive colonies in Figure 1, the gene of interest was detected by cPCR (Figure 1A). However, one-third to one-half of the colonies were negative for the VirD2 gene screening (<strong cl...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Soybean Hairy Root Transformation for the Analysis of Gene Function at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Soybean Hairy Root Transformation for the Analysis of Gene Function  

Here, we present a protocol for the high-efficiency production of transgenic soybean hairy roots.

Soybean Hairy Root Transformation for the Analysis of Gene Function

Soybean (Glycine max) is a valuable crop in agriculture that has thousands of industrial uses. Soybean roots are the primary site of interaction with ...

soybean-hairy-root-transformation-for-the-analysis-of-gene-function

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

3.3K Views.  York University. Here, we present a protocol for the high-efficiency production of transgenic soybean hairy roots.

Video: Author Spotlight: Soybean Hairy Root Transformation for the Analysis of Gene Function  

Demonstrating the Uses of the Novel Gravitational Force Spectrometer to Stretch and Measure Fibrous Proteins

The study of macromolecular structure has become critical to the elucidation of molecular mechanisms and function. There are several limited, but important bioinstruments capable of testing the force dependence of structural features in proteins. Scale has been a limiting parameter on how accurately researchers can peer into the nanomechanical world of molecules, such as nucleic acids, enzymes, and motor proteins that perform life-sustaining work. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is well tuned to determine native structures of fibrous proteins with a distance resolution on par with electron microscopy. However, in AFM force studies, the forces are typically much higher than a single molecule might experience 1, 2. Optical traps (OT) are very good at determining the relative distance between the trapped beads and they can impart very small forces 3. However, they do not yield accurate absolute lengths of the molecules under study. Molecular simulations provide supportive information to such experiments, but are limited in the ability to handle the same large molecular sizes, long time frames, and convince some researchers in the absence of other supporting evidence2, 4.
The gravitational force spectrometer (GFS) fills a critical niche in the arsenal of an investigator by providing a unique combination of abilities. This instrument is capable of generating forces typically with 98% or better accuracy from the femtonewton range to the nanonewton range. The distance measurements currently are capable of resolving the absolute molecular length down to five nanometers, and relative bead pair separation distances with a precision similar to an optical trap. Also, the GFS can determine stretching or uncoiling where the force is near equilibrium, or provide a graded force to juxtapose against any measured structural changes. It is even possible to determine how many amino acid residues are involved in uncoiling events under physiological force loads 2. Unlike in other methods where there is extensive force calibration that must precede any assay, the GFS requires no such force calibration 5. By complementing the strengths of other methods, the GFS will bridge gaps in understanding the nanomechanics of vital proteins and other macromolecules.

This is a step-by step guide showing the purpose, operation, and representative results from the novel gravitational force spectrometer.

The study of macromolecular structure has become critical to the elucidation of molecular mechanisms and function. There are several limited, but ...

Time-lapse Fluorescence Imaging of Arabidopsis Root Growth with Rapid Manipulation of The Root Environment Using The RootChip

The root functions as the physical anchor of the plant and is the organ responsible for uptake of water and mineral nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfate and trace elements that plants acquire from the soil. If we want to develop sustainable approaches to producing high crop yield, we need to better understand how the root develops, takes up a wide spectrum of nutrients, and interacts with symbiotic and pathogenic organisms. To accomplish these goals, we need to be able to explore roots in microscopic detail over time periods ranging from minutes to days.
We developed the RootChip, a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)- based microfluidic device, which allows us to grow and image roots from Arabidopsis seedlings while avoiding any physical stress to roots during preparation for imaging1 (Figure 1). The device contains a bifurcated channel structure featuring micromechanical valves to guide the fluid flow from solution inlets to each of the eight observation chambers2. This perfusion system allows the root microenvironment to be controlled and modified with precision and speed. The volume of the chambers is approximately 400 nl, thus requiring only minimal amounts of test solution.
Here we provide a detailed protocol for studying root biology on the RootChip using imaging-based approaches with real time resolution. Roots can be analyzed over several days using time lapse microscopy. Roots can be perfused with nutrient solutions or inhibitors, and up to eight seedlings can be analyzed in parallel. This system has the potential for a wide range of applications, including analysis of root growth in the presence or absence of chemicals, fluorescence-based analysis of gene expression, and the analysis of biosensors, e.g. FRET nanosensors3.

This article provides a protocol for cultivation of Arabidopsis seedlings in the RootChip, a microfluidic imaging platform that combines automated control of growth conditions with microscopic root monitoring and FRET-based measurement of intracellular metabolite levels.

The root functions as the physical anchor of the plant and is the organ responsible for uptake of water and mineral nutrients such as nitrogen, ...

Evaluation of Polymeric Gene Delivery Nanoparticles by Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis and High-throughput Flow Cytometry

Non-viral gene delivery using polymeric nanoparticles has emerged as an attractive approach for gene therapy to treat genetic diseases1 and as a technology for regenerative medicine2. Unlike viruses, which have significant safety issues, polymeric nanoparticles can be designed to be non-toxic, non-immunogenic, non-mutagenic, easier to synthesize, chemically versatile, capable of carrying larger nucleic acid cargo and biodegradable and/or environmentally responsive. Cationic polymers self-assemble with negatively charged DNA via electrostatic interaction to form complexes on the order of 100 nm that are commonly termed polymeric nanoparticles. Examples of biomaterials used to form nanoscale polycationic gene delivery nanoparticles include polylysine, polyphosphoesters, poly(amidoamines)s and polyethylenimine (PEI), which is a non-degradable off-the-shelf cationic polymer commonly used for nucleic acid delivery1,3 . Poly(beta-amino ester)s (PBAEs) are a newer class of cationic polymers4 that are hydrolytically degradable5,6 and have been shown to be effective at gene delivery to hard-to-transfect cell types such as human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs)7, mouse mammary epithelial cells8, human brain cancer cells9 and macrovascular (human umbilical vein, HUVECs) endothelial cells10.
A new protocol to characterize polymeric nanoparticles utilizing nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) is described. In this approach, both the particle size distribution and the distribution of the number of plasmids per particle are obtained11. In addition, a high-throughput 96-well plate transfection assay for rapid screening of the transfection efficacy of polymeric nanoparticles is presented. In this protocol, poly(beta-amino ester)s (PBAEs) are used as model polymers and human retinal endothelial cells (HRECs) are used as model human cells. This protocol can be easily adapted to evaluate any polymeric nanoparticle and any cell type of interest in a multi-well plate format.

A protocol for nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and high-throughput flow cytometry to evaluate polymeric gene delivery nanoparticles is described. NTA is utilized to characterize the nanoparticle particle size distribution and the plasmid per particle distribution. High-throughput flow cytometry enables quantitative transfection efficacy evaluation for a library of gene delivery biomaterials.

Non-viral gene delivery using polymeric nanoparticles has emerged as an attractive approach for gene therapy to treat genetic diseases1 and as a ...

Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing for the Quantification of Endothelial Proliferation, Barrier Function, and Motility

Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) is an in vitro impedance measuring system to quantify the behavior of cells within adherent cell layers. To this end, cells are grown in special culture chambers on top of opposing, circular gold electrodes. A constant small alternating current is applied between the electrodes and the potential across is measured. The insulating properties of the cell membrane create a resistance towards the electrical current flow resulting in an increased electrical potential between the electrodes. Measuring cellular impedance in this manner allows the automated study of cell attachment, growth, morphology, function, and motility. Although the ECIS measurement itself is straightforward and easy to learn, the underlying theory is complex and selection of the right settings and correct analysis and interpretation of the data is not self-evident. Yet, a clear protocol describing the individual steps from the experimental design to preparation, realization, and analysis of the experiment is not available. In this article the basic measurement principle as well as possible applications, experimental considerations, advantages and limitations of the ECIS system are discussed. A guide is provided for the study of cell attachment, spreading and proliferation; quantification of cell behavior in a confluent layer, with regard to barrier function, cell motility, quality of cell-cell and cell-substrate adhesions; and quantification of wound healing and cellular responses to vasoactive stimuli. Representative results are discussed based on human microvascular (MVEC) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), but are applicable to all adherent growing cells.

This protocol reviews Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing, a method to record and analyze the impedance spectrum of adherent cells for the quantification of cell attachment, proliferation, motility, and cellular responses to pharmacological and toxic stimuli. Detection of endothelial permeability and assessment of cell-cell and cell-substrate contacts are emphasized.

Electric Cell-substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) is an in vitro impedance measuring system to quantify the behavior of cells within adherent cell layers. ...

Lignin Down-regulation of Zea mays via dsRNAi and Klason Lignin Analysis

To facilitate the use of lignocellulosic biomass as an alternative bioenergy resource, during biological conversion processes, a pretreatment step is needed to open up the structure of the plant cell wall, increasing the accessibility of the cell wall carbohydrates. Lignin, a polyphenolic material present in many cell wall types, is known to be a significant hindrance to enzyme access. Reduction in lignin content to a level that does not interfere with the structural integrity and defense system of the plant might be a valuable step to reduce the costs of bioethanol production. In this study, we have genetically down-regulated one of the lignin biosynthesis-related genes, cinnamoyl-CoA reductase (ZmCCR1) via a double stranded RNA interference technique. The ZmCCR1_RNAi construct was integrated into the maize genome using the particle bombardment method. Transgenic maize plants grew normally as compared to the wild-type control plants without interfering with biomass growth or defense mechanisms, with the exception of displaying of brown-coloration in transgenic plants leaf mid-ribs, husks, and stems. The microscopic analyses, in conjunction with the histological assay, revealed that the leaf sclerenchyma fibers were thinned but the structure and size of other major vascular system components was not altered. The lignin content in the transgenic maize was reduced by 7-8.7%, the crystalline cellulose content was increased in response to lignin reduction, and hemicelluloses remained unchanged. The analyses may indicate that carbon flow might have been shifted from lignin biosynthesis to cellulose biosynthesis. This article delineates the procedures used to down-regulate the lignin content in maize via RNAi technology, and the cell wall compositional analyses used to verify the effect of the modifications on the cell wall structure.

Lignin Down-regulation of Zea mays via dsRNAi and Klason Lignin Analysis

A double stranded RNA interference (dsRNAi) technique is employed to down-regulate the maize cinnamoyl coenzyme A reductase (ZmCCR1) gene to lower plant lignin content. Lignin down-regulation from the cell wall is visualized by microscopic analyses and quantified by the Klason method. Compositional changes in hemicellulose and crystalline cellulose are analyzed.

To facilitate the use of lignocellulosic biomass as an alternative bioenergy resource, during biological conversion processes, a pretreatment step is ...

Quantification of Global Diastolic Function by Kinematic Modeling-based Analysis of Transmitral Flow via the Parametrized Diastolic Filling Formalism

Quantitative cardiac function assessment remains a challenge for physiologists and clinicians.&#160;Although historically invasive methods have comprised the only means available, the development of noninvasive imaging modalities (echocardiography, MRI, CT) having high temporal and spatial resolution provide a new window for quantitative diastolic function assessment. Echocardiography is the agreed upon standard for diastolic function assessment, but indexes in current clinical use merely utilize selected features of chamber dimension (M-mode) or blood/tissue motion (Doppler) waveforms without incorporating the physiologic causal determinants of the motion itself.&#160;The recognition that all left ventricles (LV) initiate filling by serving as mechanical suction pumps allows global diastolic function to be assessed based on laws of motion that apply to all chambers. What differentiates one heart from another are the parameters of the equation of motion that governs filling. Accordingly, development of the Parametrized Diastolic Filling (PDF) formalism&#160;has shown that the entire range of clinically observed early transmitral flow (Doppler E-wave) patterns are extremely well fit by the laws of damped oscillatory motion.&#160;This permits analysis of individual E-waves in accordance with a causal mechanism (recoil-initiated suction) that yields three (numerically) unique lumped parameters whose physiologic analogues are chamber stiffness (k), viscoelasticity/relaxation (c), and load (xo).&#160;The recording of transmitral flow (Doppler E-waves) is standard practice in clinical cardiology and, therefore, the echocardiographic recording method is only briefly reviewed. Our focus is on determination of the PDF parameters from routinely recorded E-wave data.&#160;As the highlighted results indicate, once the PDF parameters have been obtained from a suitable number of load varying E-waves, the investigator is free to use the parameters or construct indexes from the parameters (such as stored energy 1/2kxo2, maximum A-V pressure gradient kxo, load independent index of diastolic function, etc.) and select the aspect of physiology or pathophysiology to be quantified.

Accurate, causality-based quantification of global diastolic function has been achieved by kinematic modeling-based analysis of transmitral flow via the Parametrized Diastolic Filling (PDF) formalism. PDF generates unique stiffness, relaxation,&#160;and load parameters and elucidates &#39;new&#39; physiology while providing sensitive and specific indexes of dysfunction.

Quantitative cardiac function assessment remains a challenge for physiologists and clinicians.&#160;Although historically invasive methods have comprised ...

Gene Transfection toward Spheroid Cells on Micropatterned Culture Plates for Genetically-modified Cell Transplantation

To improve the therapeutic effectiveness of cell transplantation, a transplantation system of genetically modified, injectable spheroids was developed. The cell spheroids are prepared in a culture system on micropatterned plates coated with a thermosensitive polymer. A number of spheroids are formed on the plates, corresponding to the cell adhesion areas of 100 &#181;m diameter that are regularly arrayed in a two-dimensional manner, surrounded by non-adhesive areas that are coated by a polyethylene glycol (PEG) matrix. The spheroids can be easily recovered as a liquid suspension by lowering the temperature of the plates, and their structure is well maintained by passing them through injection needles with a sufficiently large caliber (over 27 G). Genetic modification is achieved by gene transfection using the original non-viral gene carrier, polyplex nanomicelle, which is capable of introducing genes into cells without disrupting the spheroid structure. For primary hepatocyte spheroids transfected with a luciferase-expressing gene, the luciferase is sustainably obtained in transplanted animals, along with preserved hepatocyte function, as indicated by albumin expression. This system can be applied to a variety of cell types including mesenchymal stem cells.

This protocol describes a cell transplantation system using genetically modified, injectable spheroids. Cell spheroids are cultured on micropatterned culture plates and recovered after gene introduction using polyplex nanomicelles. This system facilitates prolonged transgene expression from the transplanted cells in host animals while maintaining the innate function of the cells.

To improve the therapeutic effectiveness of cell transplantation, a transplantation system of genetically modified, injectable spheroids was developed. ...

Imaging the Root Hair Morphology of Arabidopsis Seedlings in a Two-layer Microfluidic Platform

Root hairs increase root surface area for better water uptake and nutrient absorption by the plant. Because they are small in size and often obscured by their natural environment, root hair morphology and function are difficult to study and often excluded from plant research. In recent years, microfluidic platforms have offered a way to visualize root systems at high resolution without disturbing the roots during transfer to an imaging system. The microfluidic platform presented here builds on previous plant-on-a-chip research by incorporating a two-layer device to confine the Arabidopsis thaliana main root to the same optical plane as the root hairs. This design enables the quantification of root hairs on a cellular and organelle level and also prevents z-axis drifting during the addition of experimental treatments. We describe how to store the devices in a contained and hydrated environment, without the need for fluidic pumps, while maintaining a gnotobiotic environment for the seedling. After the optical imaging experiment, the device may be disassembled and used as a substrate for atomic force or scanning electron microscopy while keeping fine root structures intact.

Imaging the Root Hair Morphology of Arabidopsis Seedlings in a Two-layer Microfluidic Platform

This article demonstrates how to culture Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings in a two-layer microfluidic platform that confines the main root and root hairs to a single optical plane. This platform can be used for real-time optical imaging of fine root morphology as well as for high-resolution imaging by other means.

Root hairs increase root surface area for better water uptake and nutrient absorption by the plant. Because they are small in size and often obscured by ...

Gene Expression Analysis of Endothelial Cells Exposed to Shear Stress Using Multiple Parallel-plate Flow Chambers

We describe a workflow for the analysis of gene expression from endothelial cells subject to a steady laminar flow using multiple monitored parallel-plate flow chambers. Endothelial cells form the inner cellular lining of blood vessels and are chronically exposed to the frictional force of blood flow called shear stress. Under physiological conditions, endothelial cells function in the presence of various shear stress conditions. Thus, the application of shear stress conditions in in vitro models can provide greater insight into endothelial responses in vivo. The parallel-plate flow chamber previously published by Lane et al.9 is adapted to study endothelial gene regulation in the presence and absence of steady (non-pulsatile) laminar flow. Key adaptations in the set-up for laminar flow as presented here include a large, dedicated environment to house concurrent flow circuits, the monitoring of flow rates in real-time, and the inclusion of an exogenous reference RNA for the normalization of quantitative real-time PCR data. To assess multiple treatments/conditions with the application of shear stress, multiple flow circuits and pumps are used simultaneously within the same heated and humidified incubator. The flow rate of each flow circuit is measured continuously in real-time to standardize shear stress conditions throughout the experiments. Because these experiments have multiple conditions, we also use an exogenous reference RNA that is spiked-in at the time of RNA extraction for the normalization of RNA extraction and first-strand cDNA synthesis efficiencies. These steps minimize the variability between samples. This strategy is employed in our pipeline for the gene expression analysis with shear stress experiments using the parallel-plate flow chamber, but parts of this strategy, such as the exogenous reference RNA spike-in, can easily and cost-effectively be used for other applications.

Here, a workflow for the culture and gene expression analysis of endothelial cells under fluid shear stress is presented. Included is a physical arrangement for simultaneously housing and monitoring multiple flow chambers in a controlled environment and the use of an exogenous reference RNA for quantitative PCR.

We describe a workflow for the analysis of gene expression from endothelial cells subject to a steady laminar flow using multiple monitored parallel-plate ...

A Multilayer Microfluidic Platform for the Conduction of Prolonged Cell-Free Gene Expression

The limitations of cell-based synthetic biology are becoming increasingly apparent as researchers aim to develop larger and more complex synthetic genetic regulatory circuits. The analysis of synthetic genetic regulatory networks in vivo is time consuming and suffers from a lack of environmental control, with exogenous synthetic components interacting with host processes resulting in undesired behavior. To overcome these issues, cell-free characterization of novel circuitry is becoming more prevalent. In vitro transcription and translation (IVTT) mixtures allow the regulation of the experimental environment and can be optimized for each unique system. The protocols presented here detail the fabrication of a multilayer microfluidic device that can be utilized to sustain IVTT reactions for prolonged durations. In contrast to batch reactions, where resources are depleted over time and (by-) products accumulate, the use of microfluidic devices allows the replenishment of resources as well as the removal of reaction products. In this manner, the cellular environment is emulated by maintaining an out-of-equilibrium environment in which the dynamic behavior of gene circuits can be investigated over extended periods of time. To fully exploit the multilayer microfluidic device, hardware and software have been integrated to automate the IVTT reactions. By combining IVTT reactions with the microfluidic platform presented here, it becomes possible to comprehensively analyze complex network behaviors, furthering our understanding of the mechanisms that regulate cellular processes.

The fabrication process of a PDMS-based, multilayer, microfluidic device that allows in vitro transcription and translation (IVTT) reactions to be performed over prolonged periods is described. Furthermore, a comprehensive overview of the hardware and software required to automate and maintain these reactions for prolonged durations is provided.

The limitations of cell-based synthetic biology are becoming increasingly apparent as researchers aim to develop larger and more complex synthetic genetic ...