وأيد هذا العمل من قبل مجلس البحوث الأسترالي تحت ربط مشروع المنحة LP120100264.

<ol>
	<li>Wells, J., Kao, C., Jansen, E. D., Konrad, P., Mahadevan-Jansen, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+infrared+light+for+in+vivo+neural+stimulation.">Application of infrared light for in vivo neural stimulation.</a> Journal of Biomedical Optics. 10, 064003 (2005).</li><li>Richter, C. P., Matic, A. I., Wells, J. D., Jansen, E. D., Walsh, J. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+stimulation+with+optical+radiation.">Neural stimulation with optical radiation.</a> Laser &amp; Photonics Reviews. 5, 68-80 (2011).</li><li>Kramer, R. H., Fortin, D. L., Trauner, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+photochemical+tools+for+controlling+neuronal+activity.">New photochemical tools for controlling neuronal activity.</a> Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 19, 544-552 (2009).</li><li>Boyden, E. S., Zhang, F., Bamberg, E., Nagel, G., Deisseroth, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Millisecond-timescale+genetically+targeted+optical+control+of+neural+activity.">Millisecond-timescale genetically targeted optical control of neural activity.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 8, 1263-1268 (2005).</li><li>Albert, E. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trpv4+channels+mediate+the+infrared+laser-evoked+response+in+sensory+neurons.">Trpv4 channels mediate the infrared laser-evoked response in sensory neurons.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 107, 3227-3234 (2012).</li><li>Wells, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biophysical+mechanisms+of+transient+optical+stimulation+of+peripheral+nerve.">Biophysical mechanisms of transient optical stimulation of peripheral nerve.</a> Biophysical Journal. 93, 2567-2580 (2007).</li><li>Shapiro, M. G., Homma, K., Villarreal, S., Richter, C. -. P., Bezanilla, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infrared+light+excites+cells+by+changing+their+electrical+capacitance.">Infrared light excites cells by changing their electrical capacitance.</a> Nature Communications. 3, 736 (2012).</li><li>Bec, J. -. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characteristics+of+laser+stimulation+by+near+infrared+pulses+of+retinal+and+vestibular+primary+neurons.">Characteristics of laser stimulation by near infrared pulses of retinal and vestibular primary neurons.</a> Lasers in Surgery and Medicine. 44, 736-745 (2012).</li><li>Dittami, G. M., Rajguru, S. M., Lasher, R. A., Hitchcock, R. W., Rabbitt, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracellular+calcium+transients+evoked+by+pulsed+infrared+radiation+in+neonatal+cardiomyocytes.">Intracellular calcium transients evoked by pulsed infrared radiation in neonatal cardiomyocytes.</a> Journal of Physiology (London). 589, 1295-1306 (2011).</li><li>Izzo, A. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laser+stimulation+of+auditory+neurons:+Effect+of+shorter+pulse+duration+and+penetration+depth.">Laser stimulation of auditory neurons: Effect of shorter pulse duration and penetration depth.</a> Biophysical Journal. 94, 3159-3166 (2008).</li><li>Wells, J., Konrad, P., Kao, C., Jansen, E. D., Mahadevan-Jansen, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pulsed+laser+versus+electrical+energy+for+peripheral+nerve+stimulation.">Pulsed laser versus electrical energy for peripheral nerve stimulation.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 163, 326-337 (2007).</li><li>Teudt, I. U., Nevel, A. E., Izzo, A. D., Walsh, J. T., Richter, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+stimulation+of+the+facial+nerve:+A+new+monitoring+technique.">Optical stimulation of the facial nerve: A new monitoring technique.</a> Laryngoscope. 117, 1641-1647 (2007).</li><li>Jenkins, M. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+pacing+of+the+embryonic+heart.">Optical pacing of the embryonic heart.</a> Nature Photonics. 4, 623-626 (2010).</li><li>Izzo, A. D., Richter, C. P., Jansen, E. D., Walsh, J. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laser+stimulation+of+the+auditory+nerve.">Laser stimulation of the auditory nerve.</a> Lasers in Surgery and Medicine. 38, 745-753 (2006).</li><li>Izzo, A. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selectivity+of+neural+stimulation+in+the+auditory+system:+A+comparison+of+optic+and+electric+stimuli.">Selectivity of neural stimulation in the auditory system: A comparison of optic and electric stimuli.</a> J. Biomed. Opt. 12, 021008 (2007).</li><li>Richter, C. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+stimulation+of+auditory+neurons:+Effects+of+acute+and+chronic+deafening.">Optical stimulation of auditory neurons: Effects of acute and chronic deafening.</a> Hearing Research. 242, 42-51 (2008).</li><li>Littlefield, P. D., Vujanovic, I., Mundi, J., Matic, A. I., Richter, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laser+stimulation+of+single+auditory+nerve+fibers.">Laser stimulation of single auditory nerve fibers.</a> Laryngoscope. 120, 2071-2082 (2010).</li><li>Izzo, A. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+parameter+variability+in+laser+nerve+stimulation:+A+study+of+pulse+duration,+repetition+rate,+and+wavelength.">Optical parameter variability in laser nerve stimulation: A study of pulse duration, repetition rate, and wavelength.</a> IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 54, 1108-1114 (2007).</li><li>Sakmann, B., Neher, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patch+clamp+techniques+for+studying+ionic+channels+in+excitable-membranes.">Patch clamp techniques for studying ionic channels in excitable-membranes.</a> Annual Review of Physiology. 46, 455-472 (1984).</li><li>Needham, K., Nayagam, B. A., Minter, R. L., O'Leary, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Combined+application+of+brain-derived+neurotrophic+factor+and+neurotrophin-3+and+its+impact+on+spiral+ganglion+neuron+firing+properties+and+hyperpolarization-activated+currents.">Combined application of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3 and its impact on spiral ganglion neuron firing properties and hyperpolarization-activated currents.</a> Hearing Research. 291, 1-14 (2012).</li><li>Coleman, B., Fallon, J. B., Pettingill, L. N., de Silva, M. G., Shepherd, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auditory+hair+cell+explant+co-cultures+promote+the+differentiation+of+stem+cells+into+bipolar+neurons.">Auditory hair cell explant co-cultures promote the differentiation of stem cells into bipolar neurons.</a> Experimental Cell Research. 313, 232-243 (2007).</li><li>Whitlon, D. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survival+and+morphology+of+auditory+neurons+in+dissociated+cultures+of+newborn+mouse+spiral+ganglion.">Survival and morphology of auditory neurons in dissociated cultures of newborn mouse spiral ganglion.</a> Neuroscience. 138, 653-662 (1016).</li><li>Vieira, M., Christensen, B. L., Wheeler, B. C., Feng, A. S., Kollmar, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Survival+and+stimulation+of+neurite+outgrowth+in+a+serum-free+culture+of+spiral+ganglion+neurons+from+adult+mice.">Survival and stimulation of neurite outgrowth in a serum-free culture of spiral ganglion neurons from adult mice.</a> Hearing Research. 230, 17-23 (2007).</li><li>Parker, M., Brugeaud, A., Edge, A. S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Primary+culture+and+plasmid+electroporation+of+the+murine+organ+of+corti.">Primary culture and plasmid electroporation of the murine organ of corti.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (36), e1685 (2010).</li><li>Thompson, A. C., Wade, S. A., Brown, W. G. A., Stoddart, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+of+light+absorption+in+tissue+during+infrared+neural+stimulation.">Modeling of light absorption in tissue during infrared neural stimulation.</a> Journal of Biomedical Optics. 17, 075002 (2012).</li><li>Snyder, A. W., Love, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Optical Waveguide Theory. , (1983).</li><li>Thompson, A. C., Wade, S. A., Cadusch, P. J., Brown, W. G. A., Stoddart, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modelling+of+the+temporal+effects+of+heating+during+infrared+neural+stimulation.">Modelling of the temporal effects of heating during infrared neural stimulation.</a> J. Biomed. Opt. 18, 035004-0310 (2013).</li><li>Yao, J., Liu, B. Y., Qin, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+temperature+jump+by+infrared+diode+laser+irradiation+for+patch-clamp+studies.">Rapid temperature jump by infrared diode laser irradiation for patch-clamp studies.</a> Biophysical Journal. 96, 3611-3619 (2009).</li></ol>

الكتاب ليس لديهم ما يكشف.

باستخدام البروتوكولات المذكورة في هذه الورقة أنه من الممكن استخراج والثقافة دوامة الخلايا العصبية العقدية والتحقيق الليزر أثار النشاط الكهربائي قبل تنفيذ كامل الخلية التصحيح التجارب المشبك. عندما تستخدم في المختبر، ويوفر تقنية المشبك التصحيح مستوى من السيطر...

مجالات الفسيولوجيا العصبية والطبية البيولوجية الالكترونية تعتمد بشكل كبير على التقنيات التي تسمح التحفيز يمكن السيطرة عليها من الاستجابات الكهربائية في الأنسجة العصبية. بينما التحفيز الكهربائي لا يزال المعيار الذهبي في الإثارة العصبية، أنها تعاني من عدد من السلبيات مثل وجود القطع الأثرية التحفيز عند تسجيل الاستجابات العصبية، وعدم وجود خصوصية التحفيز نظرا لانتشار الحالية إلى الأنسجة المحيطة 1. شهدت خلال العقدين الماضيين تطوير بصريا تقنيات التحفيز بوساطة 2. العديد من هذه التقنيات تتطلب التعديل من الأنسجة المستهدفة، إما عن طريق إضافة جزيء معين (على سبيل المثال الجزيئات في قفص) 3 أو شكلا من أشكال التلاعب الجيني (على سبيل المثال optogenetics) 4، لا من التي من السهل أن يطبق خارج إعداد البحوث. ذات أهمية خاصة لذلك هو التحفيز العصبي الأشعة تحت الحمراء (INS)، wherebهو متحمس Y الأنسجة العصبية بواسطة نابض ضوء الليزر تحت الحمراء. INS لديه القدرة على التغلب على كثير من أوجه القصور في التحفيز الكهربائي من خلال تمكين محددة للغاية، والتحفيز وعدم الاتصال من الأنسجة العصبية 2. ومع ذلك، فإنه بينما ثبت INS بنجاح في مجموعة متنوعة من إعدادات في الجسم الحي، وآلية دقيقة من الإثارة لا يزال غير مؤكد. وقد أظهرت بعض المنشورات الحديثة التقدم نحو كشف آلية وراء INS 5-7. التسخين السريع بسبب امتصاص ضوء الليزر من قبل الماء ويبدو أن تلعب دورا رئيسيا. ومع ذلك، وراء هذا الإجماع لم يتحقق بعد. شابيرو وآخرون. 7 اقتراح آلية عامة للغاية حيث يسبب التسخين السريع اضطراب في توزيع الجسيمات المشحونة المتاخمة لغشاء الخلية، مما يؤدي إلى تغيير في السعة من غشاء الخلية والاستقطاب اللاحقة. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، ألبرت وآخرون. 5 يؤكدون أن عالج بالليزرR الناجم عن التدفئة ينشط فئة معينة من درجة الحرارة القنوات الأيونية الحساسة (مستقبلات عابر قنوات الأنانداميد المحتملة)، والسماح لتمرير الأيونات عبر غشاء الخلية. في هذه المرحلة ليس واضحا كيف الجمع بين هذه الآليات، أو في الواقع ما إذا كانت هناك عدة عوامل أخرى لا يزال يتعين تحديدها. على الرغم من أن عدد قليل من المطبوعات (المراجع 5،7-9) حققت INS في المختبر، وقد تم تنفيذ الغالبية العظمى من الأعمال المنشورة في هذا المجال في الجسم الحي (مثل المراجع 1،6،10-18). وقد تم تحفيز الأشعة تحت الحمراء من الخلايا العصبية السمعية وهي منطقة ذات أهمية خاصة، نظرا لالتطبيقات المحتملة في زراعة قوقعة 10،14-18. بينما في التجارب المجراة مهمة للتحقق من فعالية هذه التقنية في مختلف البيئات، وزيادة مستوى الرقابة التي يوفرها في الدراسات المختبرية ومن المتوقع أن يؤدي إلى فهم أكثر تفصيلا للالميكانيكيةanism المسؤولة عن INS. يصف هذا التقرير إعداد الخلايا العصبية مثقف العقدة الحلزونية للتحقيقات المشبك التصحيح، وهذه يمكن استخدامها لدراسة آليات الأساسية في سياق ربط أيضا إلى مجموعة كبيرة من البيانات الموجودة في الجهاز السمعي. تقنية المشبك التصحيح هو أداة ممتازة لتحقيقات من الظواهر الكهربية، وتوفير وسيلة لتسجيل النشاط الكهربائي في الخلايا واحد ودراسة مساهمة التيارات الكامنة الفردية 19. عندما يتم تطبيق هذه التقنية لمستقر في إعداد المختبر من الخلايا العصبية الأولية، مثل الخلايا العصبية مثقف العقدة الحلزونية، فإنه يوفر الفرصة للدراسة في عمق الآليات التي يتم التحكم النشاط العصبي والتلاعب بها. البروتوكولات المحددة في هذا العمل أساليب مخطط للتحقيق في تأثير التحفيز الليزر على الخصائص الكهربائية للخلايا العصبية العقدة الحلزونية من خلال التصحيح المشبكالتسجيلات. ويستند هذا النهج على الليزر الألياف الديناميكي بدلا من الليزر في الفضاء الحر، مما يسمح بتشغيل أكثر أمنا وكذلك أسهل وأكثر تكرار المواءمة دون الحاجة إلى تعديل تكوين المجهر القياسية. على أساس من هذه البروتوكولات، وينبغي أن يكون من الممكن إجراء مجموعة واسعة من التجارب من أجل تحديد أكثر وضوحا الآلية أو الآليات وراء INS.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalog Number</td>
 <td>Comments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Cell culture materials and equipment </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Glass coverslips</td>
 <td>Lomb Scientific</td>
 <td>CSC 10 1 GP</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>4-ring cell culture dish </td>
 <td>VWR International</td>
 <td>82050-542</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Poly-L-ornithine solution</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>P4957</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Laminin</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>23017-015</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Curved forceps</td>
 <td>WPI</td>
 <td>14101</td>
 <td>Dumont #5 tweezers (45&deg; angle tip)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CO2 Incubator</td>
 <td>ThermoScientific</td>
 <td>Heracell 150i</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Table 1. Cell culture materials and equipment.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Neurobasal media</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Neurobasal A</td>
 <td>Gibco</td>
 <td>10888-022</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>N-2 supplement</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>17502-048</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>B27 serum-free supplement</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>17504-044</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>15140-148</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>L-Glutamine</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>25030-149</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Intracellular solution</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Potassium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>P4504</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>HEPES</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>H4034</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Potassium D-gluconate</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>G4500</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>EGTA</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>E3889</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Na2ATP</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>A2383</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>MgATP</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>A9187</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>NaGTP</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>G8877</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Potassium hydroxide</td>
 <td>LabServ</td>
 <td>BSPPL738.500</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sucrose</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>S8501</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Extracellular solution </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sodium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>310166</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Potassium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>P4504</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>HEPES</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>H4034</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Calcium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>383147</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Magnesium chloride</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>M8266</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>D-Glucose</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>G8270</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sodium hydroxide</td>
 <td>LabServ</td>
 <td>BSPSL740.500</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sucrose</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>S8501</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Table 2. Solutions for cell culture and patch clamp. a) Neurobasal media. b) Intracellular solution. c) Extracellular solution.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Upright microscope</td>
 <td>Zeiss </td>
 <td>AxioExaminerD1</td>
 <td>Equipped with Dodt contrast </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Water-immersion objective</td>
 <td>Zeiss</td>
 <td>W Plan-APOCHROMAT 40x/0.75</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Platform and X-Y stage </td>
 <td>ThorLabs</td>
 <td>Burleigh Gibraltar</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Recording chamber</td>
 <td>Warner Instruments</td>
 <td>RC-26G</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Vibration isolation table</td>
 <td>TMC</td>
 <td>Micro-g 63-532</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CCD Camera</td>
 <td>Diagnostic Instruments</td>
 <td>RT1200</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Camera software</td>
 <td>Diagnostic Instruments</td>
 <td>SPOT Basic</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>In-line solution heater</td>
 <td>Warner</td>
 <td>SH-27B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Temperature controller</td>
 <td>Warner</td>
 <td>TC-324B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Patch clamp amplifier</td>
 <td>Molecular Devices</td>
 <td>Multiclamp 700B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Patch clamp data acquisition system</td>
 <td>Molecular Devices</td>
 <td>Digidata 1440A</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Micromanipulator</td>
 <td>Sutter Instruments</td>
 <td>MPC-325</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Micropipette glass</td>
 <td>Sutter Instruments</td>
 <td>GBF100-58-15</td>
 <td>Borosilicate glass with filament</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Micropipette Puller</td>
 <td>Sutter Instruments</td>
 <td>P2000</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Recording Software</td>
 <td>AxoGraph</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Lab pack and electrophysiology tools</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Aspirator bottle</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>CLS12201L</td>
 <td>1 L Pyrex aspirator bottle, with outlet for tubing</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>PE Tubing</td>
 <td>Harvard</td>
 <td>PolyE #340</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Masterflex peristaltic pump</td>
 <td>Cole-Parmer</td>
 <td>HV-07554-85</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Table 3.Patch clamp equipment.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>1,870 nm laser diode</td>
 <td>Optotech</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>200/220 &mu;m diameter multimode optical fiber patch cord (FC/PC)</td>
 <td>AFW Technologies</td>
 <td>MM1-FC2-200/220-5-C-0.22</td>
 <td>Light delivery optical fiber, silica core and cladding, 0.22 NA</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber through connector (FC/PC)</td>
 <td>Thorlabs</td>
 <td>ADAFC2</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber cleaver</td>
 <td>EREM</td>
 <td>FO1 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber stripping tool (0.25 - 0.6 mm) </td>
 <td>Siemens</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>For removing optical fiber jacket</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber stripping tool (0.6 - 1.0 mm)</td>
 <td>Siemens</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>For removing outer coating of patch cord</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Signal generator</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Any signal generator that can output the necessary pulse shapes and is capable of being externally triggered</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber positioner</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Custom made positioner. Could substitute with standard micropositioner used for patch clamp experiments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Optical fiber chuck</td>
 <td>Newport</td>
 <td>FPH-DJ</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Laser power meter and detector head</td>
 <td>Coherent</td>
 <td>FieldMate (power meter) with LM-3 (detector head)</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Table 4. Laser equipment.</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

whole cell patch clamp for investigating the mechanisms of infrared neural stimulation

وقد ثبت في السنوات الأخيرة أن نابض، ضوء ليزر الأشعة تحت الحمراء يمكن استخدامها لانتزاع استجابات الكهربائية في الأنسجة العصبية، مستقلة عن أي تعديل آخر على النسيج المستهدف. تم الإبلاغ عن التحفيز العصبي الأشعة تحت الحمراء في مجموعة متنوعة من الأنسجة العصبية الطرفية الحسية في الجسم الحي و، باهتمام خاص هو مبين في تحفيز الخلايا العصبية في العصب السمعي. ومع ذلك، في حين لم تظهر INS للعمل في هذه الأماكن، الآلية (أو الآليات) التي ضوء الأشعة تحت الحمراء يسبب الإثارة العصبية حاليا ليست مفهومة جيدا. بروتوكول المعروضة هنا يصف التصحيح خلية كاملة طريقة المشبك مصممة لتسهيل التحقيق في التحفيز العصبي الأشعة تحت الحمراء في مثقف الخلايا العصبية السمعية الأولية. بواسطة تميز بدقة استجابة هذه الخلايا إلى إضاءة ليزر الأشعة تحت الحمراء في المختبر تحت ظروف خاضعة للرقابة، قد يكون من الممكن للحصول على فهم أفضل للفيزيكا الأساسيةL والعمليات الكيميائية الحيوية التي تقوم عليها التحفيز العصبي الأشعة تحت الحمراء.

الخلايا العصبية العقدة الحلزونية الرد على الليزر الإضاءة مع تكرار الطول الموجي في كلا الجهد المشبك وتكوينات تسجيل الجاري المشبك. يبين الشكل 3A تغييرات نموذجية في تدفق التيار عبر غشاء الخلية استجابة ل2.5 ميللي ثانية، 0.8 ميغا جول ليزر النبض (متوسط ​​استجابة من...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Whole Cell Patch Clamp for Investigating the Mechanisms of Infrared Neural Stimulation at JoVE.com

Whole Cell Patch Clamp for Investigating the Mechanisms of Infrared Neural Stimulation

وقد اقترح تحفيز العصب تحت الحمراء كبديل للالتحفيز الكهربائي في مجموعة من أنواع العصبية، بما في ذلك تلك المرتبطة بالنظام السمعي. يصف هذا البروتوكول طريقة المشبك التصحيح لدراسة آلية تحفيز العصب الأشعة تحت الحمراء في ثقافة من الخلايا العصبية السمعية الأولية.

كله المشبك التصحيح الخلايا لدراسة آليات التحفيز العصبية الأشعة تحت الحمراء

It has been  demonstrated in recent years that pulsed, infrared laser light can be used to  elicit electrical responses in neural tissue, independent of ...

whole-cell-patch-clamp-for-investigating-mechanisms-infrared-neural

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

20.8K Views.  Swinburne University of Technology. وقد اقترح تحفيز العصب تحت الحمراء كبديل للالتحفيز الكهربائي في مجموعة من أنواع العصبية، بما في ذلك تلك المرتبطة بالنظام السمعي. يصف هذا البروتوكول طريقة المشبك التصحيح لدراسة آلية تحفيز العصب الأشعة تحت الحمراء في ثقافة من الخلايا العصبية السمعية الأولية.

Video: Whole Cell Patch Clamp for Investigating the Mechanisms of Infrared Neural Stimulation

Investigating the Neural Mechanisms of Aware and Unaware Fear Memory with fMRI

Pavlovian fear conditioning is often used in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in humans to investigate the neural substrates of associative learning 1-5. In these studies, it is important to provide behavioral evidence of conditioning to verify that differences in brain activity are learning-related and correlated with human behavior. 
Fear conditioning studies often monitor autonomic responses (e.g. skin conductance response; SCR) as an index of learning and memory 6-8. In addition, other behavioral measures can provide valuable information about the learning process and/or other cognitive functions that influence conditioning. For example, the impact unconditioned stimulus (UCS) expectancies have on the expression of the conditioned response (CR) and unconditioned response (UCR) has been a topic of interest in several recent studies 9-14. SCR and UCS expectancy measures have recently been used in conjunction with fMRI to investigate the neural substrates of aware and unaware fear learning and memory processes 15. Although these cognitive processes can be evaluated to some degree following the conditioning session, post-conditioning assessments cannot measure expectations on a trial-to-trial basis and are susceptible to interference and forgetting, as well as other factors that may distort results 16,17 .
Monitoring autonomic and behavioral responses simultaneously with fMRI provides a mechanism by which the neural substrates that mediate complex relationships between cognitive processes and behavioral/autonomic responses can be assessed. However, monitoring autonomic and behavioral responses in the MRI environment poses a number of practical problems. Specifically, 1) standard behavioral and physiological monitoring equipment is constructed of ferrous material that cannot be safely used near the MRI scanner, 2) when this equipment is placed outside of the MRI scanning chamber, the cables projecting to the subject can carry RF noise that produces artifacts in brain images, 3) artifacts can be produced within the skin conductance signal by switching gradients during scanning, 4) the fMRI signal produced by the motor demands of behavioral responses may need to be distinguished from activity related to the cognitive processes of interest. Each of these issues can be resolved with modifications to the setup of physiological monitoring equipment and additional data analysis procedures. Here we present a methodology to simultaneously monitor autonomic and behavioral responses during fMRI, and demonstrate the use of these methods to investigate aware and unaware memory processes during fear conditioning.

A methodology to investigate the neural mechanisms that support aware and unaware memory processes during fear conditioning is described. This method monitors blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging, skin conductance response, and unconditioned stimulus expectancy during Pavlovian fear conditioning to assess the neural correlates of distinct memory processes.

التحقيق في الآليات العصبية للذاكرة الخوف وغير مدركين إدراكا مع الرنين المغناطيسي الوظيفي

Pavlovian fear conditioning is often used in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in humans to investigate the neural substrates ...

A Computer-assisted Multi-electrode Patch-clamp System

The patch-clamp technique is today the most well-established method for recording electrical activity from individual neurons or their subcellular compartments. Nevertheless, achieving stable recordings, even from individual cells, remains a time-consuming procedure of considerable complexity. Automation of many steps in conjunction with efficient information display can greatly assist experimentalists in performing a larger number of recordings with greater reliability and in less time. In order to achieve large-scale recordings we concluded the most efficient approach is not to fully automatize the process but to simplify the experimental steps and reduce the chances of human error while efficiently incorporating the experimenter's experience and visual feedback. With these goals in mind we developed a computer-assisted system which centralizes all the controls necessary for a multi-electrode patch-clamp experiment in a single interface, a commercially available wireless gamepad, while displaying experiment related information and guidance cues on the computer screen. Here we describe the different components of the system which allowed us to reduce the time required for achieving the recording configuration and substantially increase the chances of successfully recording large numbers of neurons simultaneously.

Multi-electrode patch-clamp recordings constitute a complex task. Here we show how, by automating of many of the experimental steps, it is possible to accelerate the process leading to qualitative improvement in performance and number of recordings.

A-متعدد القطب نظام التصحيح، المشبك بمساعدة الحاسوب

The patch-clamp technique is today the most  well-established method for recording electrical activity from individual  neurons or their subcellular ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings from Morphologically- and Neurochemically-identified Hippocampal Interneurons

GABAergic inhibitory interneurons play a central role within neuronal circuits of the brain. Interneurons comprise a small subset of the neuronal population (10-20%), but show a high level of physiological, morphological, and neurochemical heterogeneity, reflecting their diverse functions. Therefore, investigation of interneurons provides important insights into the organization principles and function of neuronal circuits. This, however, requires an integrated physiological and neuroanatomical approach for the selection and identification of individual interneuron types. Whole-cell patch-clamp recording from acute brain slices of transgenic animals, expressing fluorescent proteins under the promoters of interneuron-specific markers, provides an efficient method to target and electrophysiologically characterize intrinsic and synaptic properties of specific interneuron types. Combined with intracellular dye labeling, this approach can be extended with post-hoc morphological and immunocytochemical analysis, enabling systematic identification of recorded neurons. These methods can be tailored to suit a broad range of scientific questions regarding functional properties of diverse types of cortical neurons.

Cortical networks are controlled by a small, but diverse set of inhibitory interneurons. Functional investigation of interneurons therefore requires targeted recording and rigorous identification. Described here is a combined approach involving whole-cell recordings from single or synaptically-coupled pairs of neurons with intracellular labeling, post-hoc morphological and immunocytochemical analysis.

خلية كاملة تسجيلات التصحيح، المشبك من Morphologically- وحددت Neurochemically-الحصين Interneurons

GABAergic inhibitory interneurons play a central role within neuronal circuits of the brain. Interneurons comprise a small subset of the neuronal ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings in Brain Slices

Whole-cell patch-clamp recording is an electrophysiological technique that allows the study of the&#160;electrical properties of a substantial part of the neuron. In this configuration, the micropipette is in tight contact with the cell membrane, which prevents current leakage and thereby provides more accurate ionic current measurements than the previously used intracellular sharp electrode recording method. Classically, whole-cell recording can be performed on neurons in various types of preparations, including cell culture models, dissociated neurons, neurons in brain slices, and in intact anesthetized or awake animals. In summary, this technique has immensely contributed to the understanding of passive and active biophysical properties of excitable cells. A major advantage of this technique is that it provides information on how specific manipulations (e.g., pharmacological, experimenter-induced plasticity) may alter specific neuronal functions or channels in real-time. Additionally, significant opening of the plasma membrane allows the internal pipette solution to freely diffuse into the cytoplasm, providing means for introducing drugs, e.g., agonists or antagonists of specific intracellular proteins, and manipulating these targets without altering their functions in neighboring cells. This article will focus on whole-cell recording performed on neurons in brain slices,&#160;a preparation that has the advantage of recording neurons in relatively well preserved brain circuits, i.e., in a physiologically relevant context. In particular,&#160;when combined with appropriate pharmacology, this technique is a powerful tool allowing identification of specific neuroadaptations that occurred following any type of experiences, such as learning, exposure to drugs of abuse, and stress. In summary, whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in brain slices provide means to measure in ex vivo preparation long-lasting changes in neuronal functions that have developed in intact awake animals.

This protocol describes basic procedural steps for performing whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. This technique allows the study of&#160;the electrical behavior of neurons, and when performed in brain slices, allows the assessment of various neuronal functions from neurons that are still integrated in relatively well preserved brain circuits.

تسجيلات خلية كاملة التصحيح، المشبك في الدماغ شرائح

Whole-cell patch-clamp recording is an electrophysiological technique that allows the study of the&#160;electrical properties of a substantial part of the ...

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins

Over the past decade, channelrhodopsins became indispensable in neuroscientific research where they are used as tools to non-invasively manipulate electrical processes in target cells. In this context, ion selectivity of a channelrhodopsin is of particular importance. This article describes the investigation of chloride selectivity for a recently identified anion-conducting channelrhodopsin of Proteomonas sulcata via electrophysiological patch-clamp recordings on HEK293 cells. The experimental procedure for measuring light-gated photocurrents demands a fast switchable &#8211; ideally monochromatic &#8211; light source coupled into the microscope of an otherwise conventional patch-clamp setup. Preparative procedures prior to the experiment are outlined involving preparation of buffered solutions, considerations on liquid junction potentials, seeding and transfection of cells, and pulling of patch pipettes. The actual recording of current-voltage relations to determine the reversal potentials for different chloride concentrations takes place 24 h to 48 h after transfection. Finally, electrophysiological data are analyzed with respect to theoretical considerations of chloride conduction.

This article describes how the ion selectivity of channelrhodopsin is determined with electrophysiological whole-cell patch-clamp recordings using HEK293 cells. Here, the experimental procedure for investigating chloride selectivity of an anion-selective channelrhodopsin is demonstrated. However, the procedure is transferable to other channelrhodopsins of distinct selectivity.

كامل خلية التصحيح المشبك تسجيلات لتحديد الكهربية من أيون الانتقائية في تشانلرودوبسينز

Over the past decade, channelrhodopsins became indispensable in neuroscientific research where they are used as tools to non-invasively manipulate ...

Time-dependent Increase in the Network Response to the Stimulation of Neuronal Cell Cultures on Micro-electrode Arrays

Micro-electrode arrays (MEAs) can be used to investigate drug toxicity, design paradigms for next-generation personalized medicine, and study network dynamics in neuronal cultures. In contrast with more traditional methods, such as patch-clamping, which can only record activity from a single cell, MEAs can record simultaneously from multiple sites in a network, without requiring the arduous task of placing each electrode individually. Moreover, numerous control and stimulation configurations can be easily applied within the same experimental setup, allowing for a broad range of dynamics to be explored. One of the key dynamics of interest in these in vitro studies has been the extent to which cultured networks display properties indicative of learning. Mouse neuronal cells cultured on MEAs display an increase in response following training induced by electrical stimulation. This protocol demonstrates how to culture neuronal cells on MEAs; successfully record from over 95% of the plated dishes; establish a protocol to train the networks to respond to patterns of stimulation; and sort, plot, and interpret the results from such experiments. The use of a proprietary system for stimulating and recording neuronal cultures is demonstrated. Software packages are also used to sort neuronal units. A custom-designed graphical user interface is used to visualize post-stimulus time histograms, inter-burst intervals, and burst duration, as well as to compare the cellular response to stimulation before and after a training protocol. Finally, representative results and future directions of this research effort are discussed.

Mouse neuronal cells cultured on multi-electrode arrays display an increase in response following electrical stimulation. This protocol demonstrates how to culture neurons, how to record activity, and how to establish a protocol to train the networks to respond to patterns of stimulation.

زيادة تعتمد على الوقت في استجابة الشبكة لتحفيز الثقافات خلية الخلايا العصبية على صفائف الدقيقة الكهربائي

Micro-electrode arrays (MEAs) can be used to investigate drug toxicity, design paradigms for next-generation personalized medicine, and study network ...

Auditory Brainstem Response and Outer Hair Cell Whole-cell Patch Clamp Recording in Postnatal Rats

The outer hair cell is one of the two types of sensory hair cells in the mammalian cochlea. They alter their cell length with the receptor potential to amplify the weak vibration of low-level sound signal. The morphology and electrophysiological property of outer hair cells (OHCs) develop in early postnatal ages. The maturation of outer hair cell may contribute to the development of the auditory system. However, the process of OHCs development is not well studied. This is partly because of the difficulty to measure their function by an electrophysiological approach. With the purpose of developing a simple method to address the above issue, here we describe a step-by-step protocol to study the function of OHCs in acutely dissociated cochlea from postnatal rats. With this method, we can evaluate the cochlear response to pure tone stimuli and examine the expression level and function of the motor protein prestin in OHCs. This method can also be used to investigate the inner hair cells (IHCs).

This protocol describes methods to record the auditory brainstem response from postnatal rat pups. To examine the functional development of outer hair cells, the experimental procedure of whole-cell patch clamp recording in isolated outer hair cells is described step-by-step.

استجابة جذع الدماغ السمعية والخارجي الشعر خلية تسجيل المشبك تصحيح كامل الخلية في الفئران بعد الولادة

The outer hair cell is one of the two types of sensory hair cells in the mammalian cochlea. They alter their cell length with the receptor potential to ...

Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons

The Xenopus tadpole retinotectal circuit, comprised of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in the eye which form synapses directly onto neurons in the optic tectum, is a popular model to study how neural circuits self-assemble. The ability to carry out whole cell patch clamp recordings from tectal neurons and to record RGC-evoked responses, either in vivo or using a whole brain preparation, has generated a large body of high-resolution data about the mechanisms underlying normal, and abnormal, circuit formation and function. Here we describe how to perform the in vivo preparation, the original whole brain preparation, and a more recently developed horizontal brain slice preparation for obtaining whole cell patch clamp recordings from tectal neurons. Each preparation has unique experimental advantages. The in vivo preparation enables the recording of the direct response of tectal neurons to visual stimuli projected onto the eye. The whole brain preparation allows for the RGC axons to be activated in a highly controlled manner, and the horizontal brain slice preparation allows recording from across all layers of the tectum.

Preparations and Protocols for Whole Cell Patch Clamp Recording of Xenopus laevis Tectal Neurons

In this paper, we discuss three brain preparations used for whole cell patch clamp recording to study the retinotectal circuit of Xenopus laevis tadpoles. Each preparation, with its own specific advantages, contributes to the experimental tractability of the Xenopus tadpole as a model to study neural circuit function.

الأعمال التحضيرية وبروتوكولات "كل خلية التصحيح المشبك تسجيل" ليفيس النمو تيكتال الخلايا العصبية

The Xenopus tadpole retinotectal circuit, comprised of the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in the eye which form synapses directly onto neurons in the optic ...

Preparation of Acute Spinal Cord Slices for Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recording in Substantia Gelatinosa Neurons

Recent whole-cell patch-clamp studies from substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons have provided a large body of information about the spinal mechanisms underlying sensory transmission, nociceptive regulation, and chronic pain or itch development. Implementations of electrophysiological recordings together with morphological studies based on the utility of acute spinal cord slices have further improved our understanding of neuronal properties and the composition of local circuitry in SG. Here, we present a detailed and practical guide for the preparation of spinal cord slices and show representative whole-cell recording and morphological results. This protocol permits ideal neuronal preservation and can mimic in vivo conditions to a certain extent. In summary, the ability to obtain an in vitro preparation of spinal cord slices enables stable current- and voltage-clamp recordings and could thus facilitate detailed investigations into the intrinsic membrane properties, local circuitry and neuronal structure using diverse experimental approaches.

Here, we describe the essential steps for whole-cell patch-clamp recordings made from substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons in the in vitro spinal cord slice. This method allows the intrinsic membrane properties, synaptic transmission and morphological characterization of SG neurons to be studied.

إعداد شرائح الحبل الشوكي الحاد لتسجيل كامل الخلية التصحيح-المشبك في الخلايا العصبية جيلاتينوسا الدماغ

Recent whole-cell patch-clamp studies from substantia gelatinosa (SG) neurons have provided a large body of information about the spinal mechanisms ...

Evaluation of Synaptic Multiplicity Using Whole-cell Patch-clamp Electrophysiology

In the central nervous system, a pair of neurons often form&#160;multiple synaptic contacts and/or functional neurotransmitter release sites (synaptic multiplicity). Synaptic multiplicity is plastic and changes throughout development and in different physiological conditions, being an important determinant for the efficacy of synaptic transmission. Here, we outline experiments for estimating the degree of multiplicity of synapses terminating onto a given postsynaptic neuron using whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology in acute brain slices. Specifically, voltage-clamp recording is used to compare the difference between the amplitude of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) and miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs). The theory behind this method is that afferent inputs that exhibit multiplicity will show large, action potential-dependent sEPSCs due to the synchronous release that occurs at each synaptic contact. In contrast, action potential-independent release (which is asynchronous) will generate smaller amplitude mEPSCs. This article outlines a set of experiments and analyses to characterize the existence of synaptic multiplicity and discusses the requirements and limitations of the technique. This technique can be applied to investigate how different behavioral, pharmacological or environmental interventions in vivo affect the organization of synaptic contacts in different brain areas.

Here, we present a protocol for evaluating the functional synaptic multiplicity using whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology in acute brain slices.

تقييم متشابك تعدد استخدام المشبك تصحيح كامل الخلية الكهربية

In the central nervous system, a pair of neurons often form&#160;multiple synaptic contacts and/or functional neurotransmitter release sites (synaptic ...