فإن الكتاب أود أن أنوه مركز جامعة كاليفورنيا في ريفرسايد لالدبقية العصبية التفاعلات لمناقشة قيمة من بروتوكولات القياس والبيانات. فإن الكتاب أود أيضا لإعطاء شكر خالص لك Abcam لرعاية نشر عملهم.

<ol>
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يرغب الكتاب في الكشف عن أن سم الأسماك الرباعية الأسنان المستخدمة في هذه الدراسات تم شراؤها من Abcam. كان Abcam أي تورط في الفرضيات، وتصميم، أو مجموعة من البيانات. وقعت كل الاتصالات بشأن رعاية العمل Abcam بعد أن كان عملية استعراض الأقران كاملة.

الخلايا النجمية الرد في غضون ثوان لتحفيز الخلايا العصبية أو المحاور العصبية مع زيادات في هيولي كا 2 + الناتجة على وجه الحصر تقريبا من تفعيل GPCRs جي كيو نجمي. على سبيل المثال، مستقبلات أستيل المسكارينية 1، 2 مستقبلات القنب، α 1A مستقبلات الأدرينالية 3، 4، والمجموعة الأولى mGluRs (انظر أدناه) كلها فرعية جي كيو النوع من الاختزال نجمي التي تستجيب تماما لنشاط الخلايا العصبية. وقد تجلى تفعيل مجموعة نجمي أنا mGluRs الأكثر على نطاق واسع، في أعقاب التحفيز من afferents الجلوتاميرجي العصبية في الموقع (مثل شرائح الحصين الحادة) 5-7، وكذلك في القشرة الماوس الكبار في الجسم الحي التالية الحواس 8. وكانت نتائج تفعيل نجمي جي كيو النوع من الاختزال مما يشير على علم الأحياء وعلم وظائف الأعضاء من الخلايا النجمية، الخلايا العصبية، أو تفاعلات نجمية الخلايا العصبية موضوع نقاش 9-12. سيكون من قلى بعد وقت قبل وظيفة الخلايا العصبية، إلى نجمية مستقبلات الإشارات هو محل تقدير بالكامل. في حين أنه من الواضح أن الخلايا العصبية يمكن تنشيط مستقبلات نجمي باستخدام البروتوكولات التجريبية، هناك جوانب من مستقبلات الخلايا العصبية التواصل إلى نجمية التي لا تزال غير مفهومة تماما. الأول، المبلغ الفعلي للنشاط الخلايا العصبية المطلوبة لتفعيل نجمي جي كيو GPCRs لم يتم تعريف بشكل جيد، والثاني، تلقت قدرة المستقبلات نجمي لعرض تعتمد على استخدام اللدونة القليل من الاهتمام. للبدء في معالجة هذه المسائل، ونحن وضعت مؤخرا بروتوكولا للحث على التحجيم ثنائية الاتجاه من مجموعة نجمي أنا mGluRs في شرائح الحصين الأحداث الحادة في استجابة للتغيرات طويلة الأجل في إمكانات العمل العصبية (ا ف ب) التي تعتمد على النشاط متشابك. على غرار ما تم اكتشافه لاللدونة استتبابي ثنائية الاتجاه من الخلايا العصبية مستقبلات الغلوتامات ionotropic 13، 14، مجموعة نجمي أنا mGluRs زيادة FOالحصار النماذج التالية من إمكانات العمل وتقليص الخلايا العصبية عند عمل الخلايا العصبية تردد المحتملة يتم زيادة 15. هذه التغيرات التعويضية في مستقبلات نجمي يمكن قياسها من خلال تسجيل عفوية وأثار نجمية كا 2 + العابرين وبمقارنة خصائص هذه الأحداث لتلك الخلايا النجمية في ظروف من السيطرة. في هذا المخطوط، وصفنا منهجية كاملة لاستخدام هذا البروتوكول، بما في ذلك إعداد شرائح قرن آمون، وظروف الحضانة الحادة للحث نجمية مستقبلات التحجيم، نجمية كا 2 + المؤشر صبغ التحميل، كا 2 + تقنيات التصوير باستخدام متحد البؤر المجهري، والآثار المتوقعة على نجمية النشاط جي كيو النوع من الاختزال. الآثار المتوقعة على نجمية كا 2 + خصائص إشارة - التي تتطابق مع تلك المسجلة سابقا في الخلايا المستزرعة transfected مع مستويات مختلفة من التعبير GPCRs جي كيو - تقديم &quot;خارطة الطريق&quot; التي يمكن استخدامها في الدراسات المستقبلية لفحص التغيرات في النحوtrocytic التعبير النوع من الاختزال. سوف تداعيات والتطبيقات المحتملة لاستخدام هذه التقنية تسهم في فهمنا للتفاعلات نجمية الخلايا العصبية في المخ السليمة والمريضة.

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			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:163px;">Chamber Supplies</td>
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			<td height="66" style="height:66px;width:163px;">Brinkmann pipette storage container</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">03-491</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Use the drawer portion as the incubation chamber</td>
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			<td height="28" style="height:28px;width:163px;">Electrical drill</td>
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			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:163px;">Flexible tubing</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Tygon</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">R-3603</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="45">
			<td height="45" style="height:45px;width:163px;">Silicone seam sealant&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Also called aquarium seam sealer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="45">
			<td height="45" style="height:45px;width:163px;">Gas tank</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;">95% oxygen, 5% carbon dioxide</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="46">
			<td height="46" style="height:46px;width:163px;">Natural beveled pipette tip</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">USA Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">1111-1000</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Cut-to-fit to connect oxygenate lines</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="46">
			<td height="46" style="height:46px;width:163px;">One-to-six lines manifold</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">64-0210 &#160;(MP-6)</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For the microloader-manifold apparatus</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="59">
			<td height="65" rowspan="2" style="height:65px;width:163px;">Eppendorf microloader</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:135px;">Eppendorf</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:131px;">5242 956.003</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:159px;">For the microloader-manifold apparatus, cut-to-fit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="6">
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:163px;">Floating Bubble Rack</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Bel Art Scienceware</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">F18875-0400</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For slice holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:163px;">600 micron Sefar Nitex nylon mesh</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">ELKO filtering Co.</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">&#160;06-600/51</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For slice holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:163px;">Krazy Glue</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For slice holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:163px;">Reagent</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:163px;">Isoflurane</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Baxter</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">1001936060</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:163px;">NaCl</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">S271-3</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:163px;">KCl</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">P333-500</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:163px;">CaCl2</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">C79-500</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:163px;">MgCl2</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">M33-500</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:163px;">NaH2PO4</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">S369-500</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:163px;">NaHCO3</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">S233-500</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:163px;">Glucose</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:163px;">(&#177;)-6-Hydroxy-2,5,7,8- tetramethylchromane-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox)</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Acros Organics</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">53188-07-1</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:163px;">Ascorbic acid</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Acros Organics</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">401471000</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;width:163px;">Tetrodotoxin citrate (TTX)</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Ascent Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Asc-055</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;width:163px;">Sulforhodamine 101 (SR-101)</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">284912</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;width:163px;">Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">D128-500</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;width:163px;">Pluronic Acid F-127</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Invitrogen, Molecular Probes</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">P6867</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:163px;">Oregon Green 488 BAPTA-1 AM *cell permeant (special packaging)</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Invitrogen, Molecular Probes</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">O6807</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:163px;">(RS)-3,5-DHPG</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Ascent</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Asc-020</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:163px;">Histamine</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">H7125</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="46">
			<td height="46" style="height:46px;width:163px;">Carbamoylcholine chloride (Carbachol)</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">C4382</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="44">
			<td height="44" style="height:44px;width:163px;">Adenosine 5&#8217;-ATP disodium (Na-ATP)</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">A7699</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:163px;">Dissection Tools</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:163px;">Single-edge razor blade&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">GEM</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">62-0161</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For bisection&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;width:163px;">Double edge razor blade</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">TED PELLA, INC.</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">121-6</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For cutting slices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;width:163px;">Mayo Scissors, supercut</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">WPI</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">14010-15</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For decapitation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:163px;">Fine iris scissors, straight</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">14094-11</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For cutting the skull</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:163px;">Iris forceps, curved</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">WPI</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">15915</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">To remove the skin and skull</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="44">
			<td height="44" style="height:44px;width:163px;">Small spatula</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;">To remove/transfer the brain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="45">
			<td height="45" style="height:45px;width:163px;">Dumostar Dumont #5 Biologie Tip forceps</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">11295-10</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For hippocampus dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;width:163px;">Glass Pasteur pipette</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">13-678-20B</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For transferring brain slices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;width:163px;">Pasteur pipette rubber bulb</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">03-448-22</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For transferring brain slices</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;width:163px;">Polystyrene 100-mm tissue culture dishes</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">25020</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:163px;">Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td style="width:131px;"></td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:163px;">Vibratome</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">VT 1200S</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="23" rowspan="2" style="height:23px;width:163px;">Water bath</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:135px;">Fisher</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:131px;">ISOTEMP 210</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:159px;">For warm incubation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="3">
		</tr>
		<tr height="43">
			<td height="43" style="height:43px;width:163px;">Micropipette puller</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Narishige</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">PC-10</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For bolus-loading pipette</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:163px;">Confocal microscope</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Olympus Fluoview 1000</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="85">
			<td height="85" style="height:85px;width:163px;">Low Profile Open Diamond Bath Imaging Chamber with PM-1 platform</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Warner Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">RC-26GLP</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">diamond bath with low profile</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="45">
			<td height="45" style="height:45px;width:163px;">Borosilicate glass pipette</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">TW150F-4</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">For bolus-loading pipette</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="25" rowspan="2" style="height:25px;width:163px;">Micromanipulator&#160;</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:135px;">Sutter instrument</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:131px;">ROE-200</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:159px;">For bolus-loading pipette</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="3">
		</tr>
		<tr height="64">
			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:163px;">Spin-X centrifuge tube filter with 0.22 &#181;m cellulose acetate&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">Costar</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">8161</td>
			<td style="width:159px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

inducing plasticity of astrocytic receptors by manipulation of neuronal firing rates

على مقربة من عقدين من البحوث التي أنشأت الخلايا النجمية في الموقع والحية تعبير عن العديد من G مستقبلات البروتين يقترن (GPCRs) التي يمكن يحفزه الارسال صدر neuronally. ومع ذلك، فقد تلقت قدرة المستقبلات نجمي لعرض اللدونة في استجابة للتغيرات في نشاط الخلايا العصبية القليل من الاهتمام. نحن هنا وصف نظام نموذجي التي يمكن استخدامها لتوسيع نطاق عالميا صعودا أو هبوطا مجموعة نجمي أنا metabotropic مستقبلات الغلوتامات (mGluRs) في شرائح الدماغ الحادة. شملت طرق حول كيفية إعداد شرائح الحصين مجاور للسهمي، وبناء غرف مناسبة على المدى الطويل شريحة الحضانة، bidirectionally التلاعب عمل الخلايا العصبية تردد المحتملة، النجمية الحمل وعمليات نجمية مع الفلورسنت كا 2 + المؤشر، وقياس التغيرات في النشاط جي كيو نجمي النوع من الاختزال التي كتبها تسجيل نجمية عفوية وأثار كا 2 + الأحداث باستخدام متحد البؤر المجهري. في جوهرها، &quot;ص الكالسيومoadmap &quot;هو المقدمة لكيفية قياس اللدونة من GPCRs جي كيو نجمي. وتناقش تطبيقات هذه التقنية لدراسة الخلايا النجمية. وجود فهم كيفية تأثر نجمي الإشارات المستقبلة من قبل التغيرات في نشاط الخلايا العصبية آثار هامة على حد سواء وظيفة متشابك العادي فضلا عن عمليات الاضطرابات العصبية الكامنة والأمراض العصبية التنكسية.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Inducing Plasticity of Astrocytic Receptors by Manipulation of Neuronal Firing Rates at JoVE.com

Inducing Plasticity of Astrocytic Receptors by Manipulation of Neuronal Firing Rates

نحن هنا وصف للتكيف من البروتوكولات المستخدمة للحث على اللدونة التماثل الساكن في الخلايا العصبية لدراسة اللدونة من G مستقبلات البروتين يقترن نجمي. استخدمت مؤخرا لدراسة التغيرات في مجموعة نجمي أنا mGluRs في الفئران الأحداث، وطريقة يمكن تطبيقها لقياس التحجيم من مختلف GPCRs نجمي، في الأنسجة من الفئران الكبار في الموقع والحية، واكتساب فهم أفضل لحساسية مستقبلات نجمي للتغيرات في نشاط الخلايا العصبية.

حمل اللدونة من نجمي المستقبلات بواسطة التلاعب أسعار اطلاق النار متعلق بالخلايا العصبية

Close to two decades of research has established that astrocytes in situ and in vivo express numerous G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that can be ...

inducing-plasticity-astrocytic-receptors-manipulation-neuronal-firing

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

14.1K Views.  University of California Riverside.  نحن هنا وصف للتكيف من البروتوكولات المستخدمة للحث على اللدونة التماثل الساكن في الخلايا العصبية لدراسة اللدونة من G مستقبلات البروتين يقترن نجمي. استخدمت مؤخرا لدراسة التغيرات في مجموعة نجمي أنا mGluRs في الفئران الأحداث، وطريقة يمكن تطبيقه...

Video: Inducing Plasticity of Astrocytic Receptors by Manipulation of Neuronal Firing Rates

Preparation of Oligomeric &beta;-amyloid1-42 and Induction of Synaptic Plasticity Impairment on Hippocampal Slices

Impairment of synaptic connections is likely to underlie the subtle amnesic changes occurring at the early stages of Alzheimer s Disease (AD). &beta;-amyloid (A&beta;), a peptide produced in high amounts in AD, is known to reduce Long-Term Potentiation (LTP), a cellular correlate of learning and memory. Indeed, LTP impairment caused by A&beta; is a useful experimental paradigm for studying synaptic dysfunctions in AD models and for screening drugs capable of mitigating or reverting such synaptic impairments. Studies have shown that A&beta; produces the LTP disruption preferentially via its oligomeric form. Here we provide a detailed protocol for impairing LTP by perfusion of oligomerized synthetic A&beta;1-42 peptide onto acute hippocampal slices. In this video, we outline a step-by-step procedure for the preparation of oligomeric A&beta;1-42. Then, we follow an individual experiment in which LTP is reduced in hippocampal slices exposed to oligomerized A&beta;1-42 compared to slices in a control experiment where no A&beta;1-42 exposure had occurred.

Preparation of Oligomeric &amp;#946;-amyloid1-42 and Induction of Synaptic Plasticity Impairment on Hippocampal Slices

One feature of Alzheimer's Disease is the elevation of A&beta;1-42 peptide. Here we provide a protocol for preparing synthetic A&beta;1-42 oligomers, which impairs hippocampal Long-Term Potentiation, a cellular correlate of memory. This procedure is useful for investigating mechanisms of A&beta;-induced pathology and drug screening.

إعداد Oligomeric β اميلويد 1-42 والتعريفي للعاهة اللدونة متشابك على شرائح الحصين

Impairment of synaptic connections is likely to underlie the subtle amnesic changes occurring at the early stages of Alzheimer s Disease (AD). ...

Mapping Inhibitory Neuronal Circuits by Laser Scanning Photostimulation

Inhibitory neurons are crucial to cortical function. They comprise about 20% of the entire cortical neuronal population and can be further subdivided into diverse subtypes based on their immunochemical, morphological, and physiological properties1-4. Although previous research has revealed much about intrinsic properties of individual types of inhibitory neurons, knowledge about their local circuit connections is still relatively limited3,5,6. Given that each individual neuron's function is shaped by its excitatory and inhibitory synaptic input within cortical circuits, we have been using laser scanning photostimulation (LSPS) to map local circuit connections to specific inhibitory cell types. Compared to conventional electrical stimulation or glutamate puff stimulation, LSPS has unique advantages allowing for extensive mapping and quantitative analysis of local functional inputs to individually recorded neurons3,7-9. Laser photostimulation via glutamate uncaging selectively activates neurons perisomatically, without activating axons of passage or distal dendrites, which ensures a sub-laminar mapping resolution. The sensitivity and efficiency of LSPS for mapping inputs from many stimulation sites over a large region are well suited for cortical circuit analysis.
Here we introduce the technique of LSPS combined with whole-cell patch clamping for local inhibitory circuit mapping. Targeted recordings of specific inhibitory cell types are facilitated by use of transgenic mice expressing green fluorescent proteins (GFP) in limited inhibitory neuron populations in the cortex3,10, which enables consistent sampling of the targeted cell types and unambiguous identification of the cell types recorded. As for LSPS mapping, we outline the system instrumentation, describe the experimental procedure and data acquisition, and present examples of circuit mapping in mouse primary somatosensory cortex. As illustrated in our experiments, caged glutamate is activated in a spatially restricted region of the brain slice by UV laser photolysis; simultaneous voltage-clamp recordings allow detection of photostimulation-evoked synaptic responses. Maps of either excitatory or inhibitory synaptic input to the targeted neuron are generated by scanning the laser beam to stimulate hundreds of potential presynaptic sites. Thus, LSPS enables the construction of detailed maps of synaptic inputs impinging onto specific types of inhibitory neurons through repeated experiments. Taken together, the photostimulation-based technique offers neuroscientists a powerful tool for determining the functional organization of local cortical circuits.

This paper introduces an approach of combining laser scanning photostimulation with whole cell recordings in transgenic mice expressing GFP in limited inhibitory neuron populations. The technique allows for extensive mapping and quantitative analysis of local synaptic circuits of specific inhibitory cortical neurons.

رسم الدوائر العصبية المثبطة بواسطة المسح الضوئي ليزر ضوئي

Inhibitory neurons are crucial to cortical function. They comprise about 20% of the entire cortical neuronal population and can be further subdivided into ...

Lateral Diffusion and Exocytosis of Membrane Proteins in Cultured Neurons Assessed using Fluorescence Recovery and Fluorescence-loss Photobleaching

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This directed trafficking is of fundamental importance to deliver, maintain or remove synaptic proteins.
Super-ecliptic pHluorin (SEP) is a pH-sensitive derivative of eGFP that has been extensively used for live cell imaging of plasma membrane proteins1-2. At low pH, protonation of SEP decreases photon absorption and eliminates fluorescence emission. As most intracellular trafficking events occur in compartments with low pH, where SEP fluorescence is eclipsed, the fluorescence signal from SEP-tagged proteins is predominantly from the plasma membrane where the SEP is exposed to a neutral pH extracellular environment. When illuminated at high intensity SEP, like every fluorescent dye, is irreversibly photodamaged (photobleached)3-5. Importantly, because low pH quenches photon absorption, only surface expressed SEP can be photobleached whereas intracellular SEP is unaffected by the high intensity illumination6-10. 
FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) of SEP-tagged proteins is a convenient and powerful technique for assessing protein dynamics at the plasma membrane. When fluorescently tagged proteins are photobleached in a region of interest (ROI) the recovery in fluorescence occurs due to the movement of unbleached SEP-tagged proteins into the bleached region. This can occur via lateral diffusion and/or from exocytosis of non-photobleached receptors supplied either by de novo synthesis or recycling (see Fig. 1). The fraction of immobile and mobile protein can be determined and the mobility and kinetics of the diffusible fraction can be interrogated under basal and stimulated conditions such as agonist application or neuronal activation stimuli such as NMDA or KCl application8,10. 
We describe photobleaching techniques designed to selectively visualize the recovery of fluorescence attributable to exocytosis. Briefly, an ROI is photobleached once as with standard FRAP protocols, followed, after a brief recovery, by repetitive bleaching of the flanking regions. This 'FRAP-FLIP' protocol, developed in our lab, has been used to characterize AMPA receptor trafficking at dendritic spines10, and is applicable to a wide range of trafficking studies to evaluate the intracellular trafficking and exocytosis.

This report describes the use of live cell imaging and photobleach techniques to determine the surface expression, transport pathways and trafficking kinetics of exogenously expressed, pH-sensitive GFP-tagged proteins at the plasma membrane of neurons.

المقررة الإنتشار الأفقي والإيماس من غشاء بروتينات في الخلايا العصبية مثقف باستخدام الاسترداد الإسفار وPhotobleaching الإسفار الخسارة

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This ...

Simultaneous Electroencephalography, Real-time Measurement of Lactate Concentration and Optogenetic Manipulation of Neuronal Activity in the Rodent Cerebral Cortex

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body at rest1. The function of non rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS), the largest portion of sleep by time, is uncertain. However, one salient feature of NREMS is a significant reduction in the rate of cerebral glucose utilization relative to wakefulness2-4. This and other findings have led to the widely held belief that sleep serves a function related to cerebral metabolism. Yet, the mechanisms underlying the reduction in cerebral glucose metabolism during NREMS remain to be elucidated.
	One phenomenon associated with NREMS that might impact cerebral metabolic rate is the occurrence of slow waves, oscillations at frequencies less than 4 Hz, in the electroencephalogram5,6. These slow waves detected at the level of the skull or cerebral cortical surface reflect the oscillations of underlying neurons between a depolarized/up state and a hyperpolarized/down state7. During the down state, cells do not undergo action potentials for intervals of up to several hundred milliseconds. Restoration of ionic concentration gradients subsequent to action potentials represents a significant metabolic load on the cell8; absence of action potentials during down states associated with NREMS may contribute to reduced metabolism relative to wake.
	Two technical challenges had to be addressed in order for this hypothetical relationship to be tested. First, it was necessary to measure cerebral glycolytic metabolism with a temporal resolution reflective of the dynamics of the cerebral EEG (that is, over seconds rather than minutes). To do so, we measured the concentration of lactate, the product of aerobic glycolysis, and therefore a readout of the rate of glucose metabolism in the brains of mice. Lactate was measured using a lactate oxidase based real time sensor embedded in the frontal cortex. The sensing mechanism consists of a platinum-iridium electrode surrounded by a layer of lactate oxidase molecules. Metabolism of lactate by lactate oxidase produces hydrogen peroxide, which produces a current in the platinum-iridium electrode. So a ramping up of cerebral glycolysis provides an increase in the concentration of substrate for lactate oxidase, which then is reflected in increased current at the sensing electrode. It was additionally necessary to measure these variables while manipulating the excitability of the cerebral cortex, in order to isolate this variable from other facets of NREMS.
	We devised an experimental system for simultaneous measurement of neuronal activity via the elecetroencephalogram, measurement of glycolytic flux via a lactate biosensor, and manipulation of cerebral cortical neuronal activity via optogenetic activation of pyramidal neurons. We have utilized this system to document the relationship between sleep-related electroencephalographic waveforms and the moment-to-moment dynamics of lactate concentration in the cerebral cortex. The protocol may be useful for any individual interested in studying, in freely behaving rodents, the relationship between neuronal activity measured at the electroencephalographic level and cellular energetics within the brain.

A procedure is described for manipulating the activity of cerebral cortical pyramidal neurons optogenetically while the electroencephalogram, electromyogram, and cerebral lactate concentration are monitored. Experimental recordings are performed on cable-tethered mice while they undergo spontaneous sleep/wake cycles. Optogenetic equipment is assembled in our laboratory; recording equipment is commercially available.

في وقت واحد رسم المخ، في الوقت الحقيقي قياس تركيز اللاكتات والتلاعب Optogenetic من نشاط الخلايا العصبية في القشرة الدماغية القوارض

Although the brain represents less than 5% of the body  by mass, it utilizes approximately one quarter of the glucose used by the body  at rest1. The ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

سريع الصغرى، الرحلان الشاردي من الغلوتامات وGABA: أداة مفيدة لبحث تكامل متشابك

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

Deriving the Time Course of Glutamate Clearance with a Deconvolution Analysis of Astrocytic Transporter Currents

The highest density of glutamate transporters in the brain is found in astrocytes. Glutamate transporters couple the movement of glutamate across the membrane with the co-transport of 3 Na+ and 1 H+ and the counter-transport of 1 K+. The stoichiometric current generated by the transport process can be monitored with whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from astrocytes. The time course of the recorded current is shaped by the time course of the glutamate concentration profile to which astrocytes are exposed, the kinetics of glutamate transporters, and the passive electrotonic properties of astrocytic membranes. Here we describe the experimental and analytical methods that can be used to record glutamate transporter currents in astrocytes and isolate the time course of glutamate clearance from all other factors that shape the waveform of astrocytic transporter currents. The methods described here can be used to estimate the lifetime of flash-uncaged and synaptically-released glutamate at astrocytic membranes in any region of the central nervous system during health and disease.

We describe an analytical method to estimate the lifetime of glutamate at astrocytic membranes from electrophysiological recordings of glutamate transporter currents in astrocytes.

اشتقاق مدار الساعة من تخليص الغلوتامات مع تحليل Deconvolution من التيارات الناقل نجمي

The highest density of glutamate transporters in the brain is found in astrocytes. Glutamate transporters couple the movement of glutamate across the ...

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Developmental events in the brain including neuronal morphogenesis and migration are highly orchestrated processes. In vitro and in vivo analyses allow for an in-depth characterization to identify pathways involved in these events. Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) that are derived from the developing cerebellum are an ideal model system that allows for morphological analyses. Here, we describe a method of how to genetically manipulate CGNs and how to study axono- and dendritogenesis of individual neurons. With this method the effects of RNA interference, overexpression or small molecules can be compared to control neurons. In addition, the rodent cerebellar cortex is an easily accessible in vivo system owing to its predominant postnatal development. We also present an in vivo electroporation technique to genetically manipulate the developing cerebella and describe subsequent cerebellar analyses to assess neuronal morphology and migration.

Genetic Manipulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurons In Vitro and In Vivo to Study Neuronal Morphology and Migration

Neuronal morphogenesis and migration are crucial events underlying proper brain development. Here, we describe methods to genetically manipulate cultured cerebellar granule neurons and the developing cerebellum for the assessment of morphology and migratory characteristics of neurons.

التلاعب الجيني للمخيخي الحبيبة الخلايا العصبية<em&gt; في المختبر</em&gt; و<em&gt; في فيفو</em&gt; لدراسة مورفولوجيا الخلايا العصبية والهجرة

Developmental events in the brain including neuronal morphogenesis and migration are highly orchestrated processes. In vitro and in vivo analyses allow ...

An In Vitro Adult Mouse Muscle-nerve Preparation for Studying the Firing Properties of Muscle Afferents

Muscle sensory neurons innervating muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs encode length and force changes essential to proprioception. Additional afferent fibers monitor other characteristics of the muscle environment, including metabolite buildup, temperature, and nociceptive stimuli. Overall, abnormal activation of sensory neurons can lead to movement disorders or chronic pain syndromes. We describe the isolation of the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle and nerve for in vitro study of stretch-evoked afferent responses in the adult mouse. Sensory activity is recorded from the nerve with a suction electrode and individual afferents can be analyzed using spike sorting software. In vitro preparations allow for well controlled studies on sensory afferents without the potential confounds of anesthesia or altered muscle perfusion. Here we describe a protocol to identify and test the response of muscle spindle afferents to stretch. Importantly, this preparation also supports the study of other subtypes of muscle afferents, response properties following drug application and the incorporation of powerful genetic approaches and disease models in mice.

An In Vitro Adult Mouse Muscle-nerve Preparation for Studying the Firing Properties of Muscle Afferents

Muscle sensory neurons are involved in proprioceptor signaling and also report on metabolic state and injury related events. We describe an adult mouse in vitro muscle-nerve preparation for studies on stretch-activated muscle afferents.

و<em&gt; في المختبر</em&gt; ماوس الكبار إعداد العضلات العصبية لدراسة خصائص اطلاق Afferents العضلات

Muscle sensory neurons innervating muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs encode length and force changes essential to proprioception. Additional ...

Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Kindling Mouse Model

Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) is a GABA-A receptor antagonist. An intraperitoneal injection of PTZ into an animal induces an acute, severe seizure at a high dose, whereas sequential injections of a subconvulsive dose have been used for the development of chemical kindling, an epilepsy model. A single low-dose injection of PTZ induces a mild seizure without convulsion. However, repetitive low-dose injections of PTZ decrease the threshold to evoke a convulsive seizure. Finally, continuous low-dose administration of PTZ induces a severe tonic-clonic seizure. This method is simple and widely applicable to investigate the pathophysiology of epilepsy, which is defined as a chronic disease that involves repetitive seizures. This chemical kindling protocol causes repetitive seizures in animals. With this method, vulnerability to PTZ-mediated seizures or the degree of aggravation of epileptic seizures was estimated. These advantages have led to the use of this method for screening anti-epileptic drugs and epilepsy-related genes. In addition, this method has been used to investigate neuronal damage after epileptic seizures because the histological changes observed in the brains of epileptic patients also appear in the brains of chemical-kindled animals. Thus, this protocol is useful for conveniently producing animal models of epilepsy.

This protocol describes a method of chemical kindling with pentylenetetrazole and provides a mouse model of epilepsy. This protocol can also be used to investigate vulnerability to seizure induction and pathogenesis after epileptic seizures in mice.

نموذج الماوس إشعال الناجمة عن بينتيلينيتيترازولي

Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) is a GABA-A receptor antagonist. An intraperitoneal injection of PTZ into an animal induces an acute, severe seizure at a high ...

Non-invasive Strategies for Chronic Manipulation of DREADD-controlled Neuronal Activity

Chemogenetic strategies have emerged as reliable tools for remote control of neuronal activity. Among these, designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) have become the most popular chemogenetic approach used in modern neuroscience. Most studies deliver the ligand clozapine-N-oxide (CNO) using a single intraperitoneal injection, which is suitable for the acute activation/inhibition of the targeted neuronal population. There are, however, only a few examples of strategies for chronic modulation of DREADD-controlled neurons, the majority of which rely on the use of delivery systems that require surgical intervention. Here, we expand on two non-invasive strategies for delivering the ligand CNO to chronically manipulate neural population in mice. CNO was administered either by using repetitive (daily) eye-drops, or chronically through the animal&#39;s drinking water. These non-invasive paradigms result in robust activation of the designer receptors that persisted throughout the CNO treatments. The methods described here offer alternatives for the chronic DREADD-mediated control of neuronal activity and may be useful for experiments designed to evaluate behavior in freely moving animals, focusing on less-invasive CNO delivery methods.

Here we describe two non-invasive methods to chronically control neuronal activity using chemogenetics in mice. Eye-drops were used to deliver clozapine-N-oxide (CNO) daily. We also describe two methods for prolonged administration of CNO in drinking water. These strategies for chronic neuronal control require minimal intervention reducing animals&#8217; stress.

استراتيجيات غير الغازية للتلاعب المزمن من النشاط العصبي الذي تسيطر عليه DREADD

Chemogenetic strategies have emerged as reliable tools for remote control of neuronal activity. Among these, designer receptors exclusively activated by ...