فإن الكتاب أود أن أشكر أعضاء مختبر للرعاية الزرد والصيانة. وأيد هذا العمل من قبل المعاهد الوطنية للصحة، جائزة الخدمة القومي للبحوث A155397 لEA هارفي وNIH R01GM074827 لآنا Huttenlocher.

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Immun. 77 (11), 5190-5201 (2009).</li><li>Volhard, C., Dahm, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Zebrafish: A Practical Approach. , (2002).</li><li>He, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil-mediated+experimental+metastasis+is+enhanced+by+VEGFR+inhibition+in+a+zebrafish+xenograft+model.">Neutrophil-mediated experimental metastasis is enhanced by VEGFR inhibition in a zebrafish xenograft model.</a> J. Pathol. 227 (4), 431-445 (2012).</li><li>Haldi, M., Ton, C., Seng, W. 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Immun. 81 (1), 110-121 (2013).</li><li>Haddon, C., Lewis, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+Ear+Development+in+the+Embryo+of+the+Zebrafish,+Danio+rerio.">Early Ear Development in the Embryo of the Zebrafish, Danio rerio.</a> J. Comp. Neurol. 365, 113-128 (1996).</li><li>Whitfield, T. T., Riley, B. B., Chiang, M. -. Y., Phillips, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+the+zebrafish+inner+ear.">Development of the zebrafish inner ear.</a> Dev. Dyn. 223 (4), 427-458 (2002).</li><li>Rosen, J. N., Sweeney, M. F., Mably, J. 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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

طريقة العدوى المستخدم هنا هو مفيد لدراسة الاستجابة المناعية لعدوى موضعية في البداية في 2-3 أجنة DPF واليرقات. محور حافز التهابات، مثل العدوى، في تجويف مغلق مثل الحويصلة الأذنية يسمح لدراسة العدلات والبلاعم الكيميائي والبلعمة. التحذير واحدة من حقن البكتيريا في الحويصل...

العقدية iniae هو الممرض المائية الكبرى التي هي قادرة على التسبب في أمراض جهازية في كل من الأسماك والبشر 1. في حين S. iniae مسؤولة عن خسائر كبيرة في صناعة تربية الأحياء المائية، وإنما هو أيضا الممرض الحيوانية المحتملين، القادرة على إحداث أمراض في المضيف البشري المناعة مع الأمراض السريرية مشابهة لتلك التي تسببها أخرى مسببات الأمراض البشرية العقديات. ونظرا التشابه مع مسببات الأمراض البشرية، فمن المهم دراسة S. iniae المرض والتسبب في سياق مجموعة الطبيعي. نموذج الزرد الكبار من S. وكشف العدوى iniae تسلل قوي من الكريات البيض المضيف الى الموقع المترجمة من العدوى وكذلك وقت سريع لاستضافة الموت، وهو وقت قصير جدا لإشراك جهاز المناعة التكيفية 7. من اجل الحصول على نظرة متعمقة في الاستجابة المناعية الفطرية للS. iniae العدوى في الجسم الحي، فمن الضروري استخدام النموذج الذي هو أكثر قابلية لنعلى الغازية التصوير الحي. الزرد اليرقات لديها عدد من المزايا التي تجعل من نموذج الفقاريات جذابة على نحو متزايد لدراسة التفاعلات المضيف الممرض. الزرد غير مكلفة نسبيا وسهلة الاستخدام والحفاظ مقارنة نماذج الثدييات. الحصانة التكيف ليست ناضجة وظيفيا حتى 4-6 أسابيع الإخصاب آخر، ولكن اليرقات لها الفقاريات حفظا للغاية نظام المناعة الفطري مع تكملة، تول مثل مستقبلات، السيتوكينات، والعدلات والضامة مع قدرات مضادة للميكروبات بما في ذلك البلعمة وانفجر الجهاز التنفسي 2-6، 8-11. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، فإن قابلية الإستطراق الجيني والشفافية البصرية من المراحل الجنينية واليرقات للتنمية تسمح لتوليد خطوط المعدلة وراثيا مستقرة مع الخلايا المناعية fluorescently المسمى مما يجعل من الممكن لدراسة التفاعلات المضيف الممرض في الوقت الحقيقي في الجسم الحي. جيل من هذه خطوط المعدلة وراثيا باستخدام البروتين photoconvertible مثل دنdra2 يسمح لتتبع الفردي أصل الخلية المضيفة ومصير على مدار 12 إصابة. عند وضع الزرد نموذج عدوى اليرقات، فإن الموقع المختار لحقن مكروي تحديد ما إذا كان وجود عدوى هو في البداية موضعية أو جهازية. وتستخدم الالتهابات الجهازية الدم في الوريد الذيلية أو القناة كوفييه الأكثر شيوعا لدراسة مسببات الأمراض الميكروبية في الزرد ومفيدة لدراسة التفاعلات بين المضيف والخلايا الميكروبية، والاستجابات خلوى، والاختلاف في الفوعة بين سلالات الممرض. لالكائنات الحية الدقيقة المتزايد أبطأ، والحقن في وقت مبكر في الكيس المحي من الجنين في مرحلة 16-1،000 الخلايا يمكن استخدامها لتوليد العدوى النظامية 13،14، مع مرحلة التطوير الأمثل ل microinjection من الكائنات الحية الدقيقة التي تشهد نموا بطيئا جدت لتكون بين المرحلة 16-128 خلية 15. ومع ذلك، صفار حقن SAC العديد من الميكروبات في مراحل لاحقة من التطور المضيف تميل إلى أن تكون قاتلة إلى tكان من المقرر أن تستضيف البيئة الغنية بالمغذيات للميكروب وعدم التسلل الكريات البيض 16-18. عدوى موضعية عادة النتائج في الهجرة موجهة من الكريات البيض نحو موقع العدوى التي يمكن قياسها كميا بسهولة مع التصوير غير الغازية. هذا النوع من العدوى يمكن أن تسمح للتشريح للآليات التي تتوسط هجرة الكريات البيض وكذلك التحقيق في قدرات المهاجرة وأكلة مختلفة من مختلف السكان الكريات البيض. التهابات موضعية مفيدة أيضا عند دراسة الاختلافات في الفوعة بين السلالات البكتيرية وكذلك دراسة آليات الغزو ميكروب منذ الحواجز المادية المضيف يجب أن عبرت عن عدوى موضعية لتصبح النظامية. وعادة ما تثار الزرد عند درجة حرارة 25-31 ° C 19، ولكنها يمكن أيضا أن الحفاظ على درجات حرارة تصل إلى 34-35 درجة مئوية لمدة دراسات من الغزو من بعض مسببات الأمراض البشرية مع متطلبات درجة حرارة صارمةلالفوعة 20 و 21. وقد استخدمت العديد من المواقع المختلفة لتوليد عدوى بكتيرية موضعية في البداية بما في البطين الدماغ المؤخر 22، الظهرية العضلات الذيل 18، جوف التامور 23، والحويصلة الأذنية (الأذن) 5، 16، 24. ومع ذلك، فقد وجد أن حقن البكتيريا في عضلة الذيل يمكن أن يسبب تلف الأنسجة والتهاب مستقلة عن البكتيريا، والتي قد تحرف النتائج عند التحقيق استجابة الكريات البيض 13. على الرغم من أن أقل ضرر يرتبط مع الحقن في الدماغ المؤخر وعلى الرغم من أنه يخلو في البداية من الكريات البيض في الأجنة الشباب، البطين الدماغ المؤخر مكاسب بشكل مطرد خلايا مناعية أكثر مع مرور الوقت كما تأخذ الخلايا الدبقية الصغيرة إقامة. البطين الدماغ المؤخر هو أيضا المكان أكثر صعوبة في الصورة. الحويصلة الأذنية هي تجويف جوفاء مغلقة مع أي الوصول المباشر إلى الأوعية الدموية 25 و 26. فمن عادة خالية من ليوkocytes، ولكن الكريات البيض يمكن تجنيدهم للالحويصلة الأذنية في الاستجابة للمثيرات الالتهابية مثل التهاب. وهو أيضا الموقع المفضل من Microinjection من البكتيريا في العمر الزرد 2-3 أيام بعد الإخصاب (إدارة الشرطة الاتحادية) بسبب سهولة التصوير والتصور للحقن. لذلك، اخترنا الحويصلة الأذنية كما موقعنا من عدوى بكتيرية موضعية.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.7 ml eppendorfs</td>
			<td>MidSci</td>
			<td>AVSS1700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>14 ml falcon tube</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>352059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>27 G x 1/2 in. needle</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>305109</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96 well plate</td>
			<td>Corning Incorporated</td>
			<td>3596</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>214030</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CellTracker Red</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes, Invitrogen</td>
			<td>C34552</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CNA agar</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific, Inc</td>
			<td>7126A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable transfer pipets</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-711-7m</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissecting Scope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>SMZ745</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D2650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol 200 proof</td>
			<td>MDS</td>
			<td>2292</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fine tweezers</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11251-20</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel comb</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>27372-482</td>
			<td>4.2 mm width, 1.5 mm thick</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass bottom dishes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Custom made by drilling a 16&#8211;18 mm hole in the center of a 35-mm tissue culture dish bottom and placing a 22-mm round #1 coverslip in the hole and sealing with a thin layer of Norland Optical Adhesive 68 cured by UV light.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>G33-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High melt agarose</td>
			<td>Denville Scientific, Inc.</td>
			<td>CA3510-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen peroxide</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>H325</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser Scanning Confocal Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>with FV-1000 system</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low melt agarose</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP165-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic stand</td>
			<td>Tritech (Narishige)</td>
			<td>GJ-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microinjection system</td>
			<td>Parker</td>
			<td>Picospritzer III</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microloader pipet tips</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>930001007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Tritech (Narishige)</td>
			<td>M-152</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument Company</td>
			<td>Flaming/Brown P-97</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanodrop spectrophotmeter</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>ND-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-Phenylthiourea (PTU)</td>
			<td>Sigma aldrich</td>
			<td>P7629</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldheyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>15710</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri Dishes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FB0875712</td>
			<td>100 mm x 15 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P-4557</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol Red</td>
			<td>Ricca Chemoical Company</td>
			<td>572516</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP665-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P-6310</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pronase</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>165921</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease peptone</td>
			<td>Fluka Biochemika</td>
			<td>29185</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small cell culture dish</td>
			<td>Corning Incorporated</td>
			<td>430165</td>
			<td>35 mm x 10 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sudan Black</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2380</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thin wall glass capillary injection needles</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments, Inc.</td>
			<td>TW100-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Todd Hewitt</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich/Fluka Analytical</td>
			<td>T1438</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tricaine (ethyl 3-aminobenzoate)</td>
			<td>Argent Chemical Laboratory/Finquel</td>
			<td>C-FINQ-UE-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP151-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween 20</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP337-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Fluka Biochemika</td>
			<td>92144</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

non-invasive imaging of the innate immune response in a zebrafish larval model of streptococcus iniae infection

الممرض المائية، العقدية iniae، هي المسؤولة عن أكثر من 100 مليون دولار في خسائر سنوية لصناعة تربية الأحياء المائية، وقادر على التسبب في أمراض جهازية في كل من الأسماك والبشر. فهم أفضل للS. يتطلب iniae المرض والتسبب في نظام النموذج المناسب. وقابلية الإستطراق الجيني والشفافية البصرية من مراحل النمو المبكرة من الزرد تسمح لتوليد وغير الغازية التصوير من خطوط المعدلة وراثيا مع الموسومة fluorescently الخلايا المناعية. جهاز المناعة التكيفية ليست وظيفية بالكامل حتى عدة أسابيع بعد الإخصاب، ولكن اليرقات الزرد لديها الفقاريات المحفوظة نظام المناعة الفطري مع كل من العدلات والضامة. وهكذا، وتوليد نموذج العدوى اليرقات يسمح دراسة مساهمة محددة الحصانة الفطرية في السيطرة S. عدوى iniae. سوف موقع حقن مكروي تحديد ما إذا كان وجود عدوى هوالنظامية أو محلية في البداية. هنا، نقدم بروتوكولات لدينا أذني حقن حويصلة من الزرد الذين تتراوح أعمارهم بين 2-3 أيام الإخصاب آخر فضلا عن تقنيات لدينا لتصوير مبائر الفلورسنت من العدوى. موقع عدوى موضعية يسمح مراقبة غزو ميكروب الأولي، وتجنيد الخلايا المضيفة ونشر العدوى. النتائج التي توصلنا إليها باستخدام نموذج اليرقات الزرد من S. عدوى iniae تشير إلى أن الزرد يمكن استخدامها لدراسة مساهمات مختلفة من العدلات المضيفة والضامة في الالتهابات البكتيرية المحلية. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، نحن تصف كيف يمكن استخدام photolabeling من الخلايا المناعية لتعقب المضيف فرد مصير خلية أثناء العدوى.

Microinjection من S. iniae في الحويصلة الأذنية (الشكل 1) والشكل (2) النتائج في رد المضيف محلية في البداية. عندما تم حقنها بشكل صحيح، يجب أن ينظر إلى البكتيريا فقط في الحويصلة الأذنية وليس في الأنسجة المحيطة أو الدم. هذا يمكن تصور خلال حقن مكروي باستخدام الفينول صبغة ?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Non-invasive Imaging of the Innate Immune Response in a Zebrafish Larval Model of Streptococcus iniae Infection at JoVE.com

Non-invasive Imaging of the Innate Immune Response in a Zebrafish Larval Model of Streptococcus iniae Infection

Here, we present a protocol for the generation and imaging of a localized bacterial infection in the zebrafish otic vesicle.

التصوير غير الغازية من الاستجابة المناعية الفطرية في نموذج الزرد يرقات<em&gt; العقدية iniae</em&gt; العدوى

The aquatic pathogen, Streptococcus iniae, is responsible for over 100 million dollars in annual losses for the aquaculture industry and is capable of ...

non-invasive-imaging-innate-immune-response-zebrafish-larval-model

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Non-invasive Imaging of the Innate Immune Response in a Zebrafish Larval Model of Streptococcus iniae Infection

10.7K Views.  University of Wisconsin-Madison. Here, we present a protocol for the generation and imaging of a localized bacterial infection in the zebrafish otic vesicle. 

Video: Non-invasive Imaging of the Innate Immune Response in a Zebrafish Larval Model of Streptococcus iniae Infection

Non-invasive Imaging of Leukocyte Homing and Migration in vivo

Two-photon (2P) microscopy is a high resolution imaging technique that has been broadly adapted by biologists. The value of 2P microscopy is that it provides rich spatiotemporal information regarding cell behaviors within intact tissues and in live mice. Leukocyte recruitment plays a significant role in host defense against infection and when unchecked, can contribute to inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Studying leukocyte recruitment in vivo is technically challenging since cells are moving rapidly within vessels located deep within light scattering tissues. To date, most intravital imaging studies require surgical preparation to expose the blood vessels and tissues. To avoid the tissue damage and inflammation induced by surgery itself, here, we describe a non-invasive single-cell imaging approach that can be used to study leukocyte trafficking in the mouse footpad and phalanges. We discuss the technical aspects of our 2P imaging preparation and walk the reader through a typical experiment from initial set up to execution and data collection.

Non-invasive Imaging of Leukocyte Homing and Migration in vivo

Here, we describe a non-invasive two-photon (2P) microscopy approach to study leukocyte homing in the mouse footpad. We discuss the technical aspects of our tissue imaging preparation and walk the reader through a typical experiment from initial set up to execution and data collection.

غير الغازية تصوير الزاجل كريات بيضاء والهجرة في الجسم الحي</em

Two-photon (2P) microscopy is a high resolution imaging technique that has been broadly adapted by biologists.  The value of 2P microscopy is that it ...

Using Bioluminescent Imaging to Investigate Synergism Between Streptococcus pneumoniae and Influenza A Virus in Infant Mice

During the 1918 influenza virus pandemic, which killed approximately 50 million people worldwide, the majority of fatalities were not the result of infection with influenza virus alone. Instead, most individuals are thought to have succumbed to a secondary bacterial infection, predominately caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus). The synergistic relationship between infections caused by influenza virus and the pneumococcus has subsequently been observed during the 1957 Asian influenza virus pandemic, as well as during seasonal outbreaks of the virus (reviewed in 1, 2). Here, we describe a protocol used to investigate the mechanism(s) that may be involved in increased morbidity as a result of concurrent influenza A virus and S. pneumoniae infection. We have developed an infant murine model to reliably and reproducibly demonstrate the effects of influenza virus infection of mice colonised with S. pneumoniae. Using this protocol, we have provided the first insight into the kinetics of pneumococcal transmission between co-housed, neonatal mice using in vivo imaging 3.

Using Bioluminescent Imaging to Investigate Synergism Between Streptococcus pneumoniae and Influenza A Virus in Infant Mice

A concurrent infection with influenza A virus is one of the factors implicated in the induction of invasive pneumococcal disease during asymptomatic Streptococcus pneumoniae carriage. Here we describe a mixed infection method using infant mice to investigate the synergism between these two respiratory pathogens.

باستخدام التصوير Bioluminescent بالتحقيق في التآزر بين العقدية الرئوية والأنفلونزا من الفيروسات في الفئران الرضع

During the 1918 influenza virus pandemic, which killed approximately 50 million people worldwide, the majority of fatalities were not the result of ...

Non-invasive Imaging of Disseminated Candidiasis in Zebrafish Larvae

Disseminated candidiasis caused by the pathogen Candida albicans is a clinically important problem in hospitalized individuals and is associated with a 30 to 40% attributable mortality6. Systemic candidiasis is normally controlled by innate immunity, and individuals with genetic defects in innate immune cell components such as phagocyte NADPH oxidase are more susceptible to candidemia7-9. Very little is known about the dynamics of C. albicans interaction with innate immune cells in vivo. Extensive in vitro studies have established that outside of the host C. albicans germinates inside of macrophages, and is quickly destroyed by neutrophils10-14. In vitro studies, though useful, cannot recapitulate the complex in vivo environment, which includes time-dependent dynamics of cytokine levels, extracellular matrix attachments, and intercellular contacts10, 15-18. To probe the contribution of these factors in host-pathogen interaction, it is critical to find a model organism to visualize these aspects of infection non-invasively in a live intact host. 
The zebrafish larva offers a unique and versatile vertebrate host for the study of infection. For the first 30 days of development zebrafish larvae have only innate immune defenses2, 19-21, simplifying the study of diseases such as disseminated candidiasis that are highly dependent on innate immunity. The small size and transparency of zebrafish larvae enable imaging of infection dynamics at the cellular level for both host and pathogen. Transgenic larvae with fluorescing innate immune cells can be used to identify specific cells types involved in infection22-24. Modified anti-sense oligonucleotides (Morpholinos) can be used to knock down various immune components such as phagocyte NADPH oxidase and study the changes in response to fungal infection5. In addition to the ethical and practical advantages of using a small lower vertebrate, the zebrafish larvae offers the unique possibility to image the pitched battle between pathogen and host both intravitally and in color. 
The zebrafish has been used to model infection for a number of human pathogenic bacteria, and has been instrumental in major advances in our understanding of mycobacterial infection3, 25. However, only recently have much larger pathogens such as fungi been used to infect larva5, 23, 26, and to date there has not been a detailed visual description of the infection methodology. Here we present our techniques for hindbrain ventricle microinjection of prim25 zebrafish, including our modifications to previous protocols. Our findings using the larval zebrafish model for fungal infection diverge from in vitro studies and reinforce the need to examine the host-pathogen interaction in the complex environment of the host rather than the simplified system of the Petri dish5.

The rapid development, small size and transparency of zebrafish are tremendous advantages for the study of innate immune control of infection1-4. Here we demonstrate techniques for infecting zebrafish larvae using the fungal pathogen Candida albicans by microinjection, methodology recently used to implicate phagocyte NADPH oxidase activity in control of fungal dimorphism5.

غير الغازية التصوير من المبيضات المنتشر في يرقات اسماك الزرد

Disseminated candidiasis caused by the pathogen Candida albicans is a clinically important problem in hospitalized individuals and is associated with a 30 ...

Non-invasive Optical Imaging of the Lymphatic Vasculature of a Mouse

The lymphatic vascular system is an important component of the circulatory system that maintains fluid homeostasis, provides immune surveillance, and mediates fat absorption in the gut. Yet despite its critical function, there is comparatively little understanding of how the lymphatic system adapts to serve these functions in health and disease1. Recently, we have demonstrated the ability to dynamically image lymphatic architecture and lymph "pumping" action in normal human subjects as well as in persons suffering lymphatic dysfunction using trace administration of a near-infrared fluorescent (NIRF) dye and a custom, Gen III-intensified imaging system2-4. NIRF imaging showed dramatic changes in lymphatic architecture and function with human disease. It remains unclear how these changes occur and new animal models are being developed to elucidate their genetic and molecular basis. In this protocol, we present NIRF lymphatic, small animal imaging5,6 using indocyanine green (ICG), a dye that has been used for 50 years in humans7, and a NIRF dye-labeled cyclic albumin binding domain (cABD-IRDye800) peptide that preferentially binds mouse and human albumin8. Approximately 5.5 times brighter than ICG, cABD-IRDye800 has a similar lymphatic clearance profile and can be injected in smaller doses than ICG to achieve sufficient NIRF signals for imaging8. Because both cABD-IRDye800 and ICG bind to albumin in the interstitial space8, they both may depict active protein transport into and within the lymphatics. Intradermal (ID) injections (5-50 &mu;l) of ICG (645 &mu;M) or cABD-IRDye800 (200 &mu;M) in saline are administered to the dorsal aspect of each hind paw and/or the left and right side of the base of the tail of an isoflurane-anesthetized mouse. The resulting dye concentration in the animal is 83-1,250 &mu;g/kg for ICG or 113-1,700 &mu;g/kg for cABD-IRDye800. Immediately following injections, functional lymphatic imaging is conducted for up to 1 hr using a customized, small animal NIRF imaging system. Whole animal spatial resolution can depict fluorescent lymphatic vessels of 100 microns or less, and images of structures up to 3 cm in depth can be acquired9. Images are acquired using V++ software and analyzed using ImageJ or MATLAB software. During analysis, consecutive regions of interest (ROIs) encompassing the entire vessel diameter are drawn along a given lymph vessel. The dimensions for each ROI are kept constant for a given vessel and NIRF intensity is measured for each ROI to quantitatively assess "packets" of lymph moving through vessels.

Recently developed imaging techniques using near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) may help elucidate the role the lymphatic system plays in cancer metastasis, immune response, wound repair, and other lymphatic-associated diseases.

غير الغازية التصوير الضوئي من الأوعية الدموية اللمفية على فأرة الحاسوب

The lymphatic  vascular system is an important component of the circulatory system that  maintains fluid homeostasis, provides immune surveillance, and ...

Quantitative Measurement of the Immune Response and Sleep in Drosophila

A complex interaction between the immune response and host behavior has been described in a wide range of species. Excess sleep, in particular, is known to occur as a response to infection in mammals 1 and has also recently been described in Drosophila melanogaster2. It is generally accepted that sleep is beneficial to the host during an infection and that it is important for the maintenance of a robust immune system3,4. However, experimental evidence that supports this hypothesis is limited4, and the function of excess sleep during an immune response remains unclear. We have used a multidisciplinary approach to address this complex problem, and have conducted studies in the simple genetic model system, the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster. We use a standard assay for measuring locomotor behavior and sleep in flies, and demonstrate how this assay is used to measure behavior in flies infected with a pathogenic strain of bacteria. This assay is also useful for monitoring the duration of survival in individual flies during an infection. Additional measures of immune function include the ability of flies to clear an infection and the activation of NF&kappa;B, a key transcription factor that is central to the innate immune response in Drosophila. Both survival outcome and bacterial clearance during infection together are indicators of resistance and tolerance to infection. Resistance refers to the ability of flies to clear an infection, while tolerance is defined as the ability of the host to limit damage from an infection and thereby survive despite high levels of pathogen within the system5. Real-time monitoring of NF&kappa;B activity during infection provides insight into a molecular mechanism of survival during infection. The use of Drosophila in these straightforward assays facilitates the genetic and molecular analyses of sleep and the immune response and how these two complex systems are reciprocally influenced.

Quantitative Measurement of the Immune Response and Sleep in Drosophila

To understand a link between the immune response and behavior, we describe a method to measure locomotor behavior in Drosophila during bacterial infection as well as the ability of flies to mount an immune response by monitoring survival, bacterial load, and real-time activity of a key regulator of innate immunity, NF&kappa;B.

قياس كمية الاستجابة المناعية والنوم في<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em

A complex interaction between the immune response and  host behavior has been described in a wide range of species. Excess sleep, in  particular, is known ...

Quantification of the Respiratory Burst Response as an Indicator of Innate Immune Health in Zebrafish

The phagocyte respiratory burst is part of the innate immune response to pathogen infection and involves the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are toxic and function to kill phagocytized microorganisms. In vivo quantification of phagocyte-derived ROS provides information regarding an organism's ability to mount a robust innate immune response. Here we describe a protocol to quantify and compare ROS in whole zebrafish embryos upon chemical induction of the phagocyte respiratory burst. This method makes use of a non-fluorescent compound that becomes fluorescent upon oxidation by ROS. Individual zebrafish embryos are pipetted into the wells of a microplate and incubated in this fluorogenic substrate with or without a chemical inducer of the respiratory burst. Fluorescence in each well is quantified at desired time points using a microplate reader. Fluorescence readings are adjusted to eliminate background fluorescence and then compared using an unpaired t-test. This method allows for comparison of the respiratory burst potential of zebrafish embryos at different developmental stages and in response to experimental manipulations such as protein knockdown, overexpression, or treatment with pharmacological agents. This method can also be used to monitor the respiratory burst response in whole dissected kidneys or cell preparations from kidneys of adult zebrafish and some other fish species. We believe that the relative simplicity and adaptability of this protocol will complement existing protocols and will be of interest to researchers who seek to better understand the innate immune response.

The innate immune response protects organisms against pathogen infection. A critical component of the innate immune response, the phagocyte respiratory burst, generates reactive oxygen species that kill invading microorganisms. We describe a respiratory burst assay that quantifies reactive oxygen species produced when the innate immune response is chemically induced.

الكمي للاستجابة انفجر الجهاز التنفسي باعتبارها مؤشر الفطري المناعي الصحة في الزرد

The phagocyte respiratory burst is part of the innate immune response to  pathogen infection and involves the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ...

Dissecting Innate Immune Signaling in Viral Evasion of Cytokine Production

In response to a viral infection, the host innate immune response is activated to up-regulate gene expression and production of antiviral cytokines. Conversely, viruses have evolved intricate strategies to evade and exploit host immune signaling for survival and propagation. Viral immune evasion, entailing host defense and viral evasion, provides one of the most fascinating and dynamic interfaces to discern the host-virus interaction. These studies advance our understanding in innate immune regulation and pave our way to develop novel antiviral therapies.
Murine &#947;HV68 is a natural pathogen of murine rodents. &#947;HV68 infection of mice provides a tractable small animal model to examine the antiviral response to human KSHV and EBV of which perturbation of in vivo virus-host interactions is not applicable. Here we describe a protocol to determine the antiviral cytokine production. This protocol can be adapted to other viruses and signaling pathways.
Recently, we have discovered that &#947;HV68 hijacks MAVS and IKK&#946;, key innate immune signaling components downstream of the cytosolic RIG-I and MDA5, to abrogate NF&#922;B activation and antiviral cytokine production. Specifically, &#947;HV68 infection activates IKK&#946; and that activated IKK&#946; phosphorylates RelA to accelerate RelA degradation. As such, &#947;HV68 efficiently uncouples NF&#922;B activation from its upstream activated IKK&#946;, negating antiviral cytokine gene expression. This study elucidates an intricate strategy whereby the upstream innate immune activation is intercepted by a viral pathogen to nullify the immediate downstream transcriptional activation and evade antiviral cytokine production.

We describe a protocol to measure the antiviral cytokine production in mice infected with a model herpesvirus, murine gamma herpesvirus 68 (&#947;HV68) that is closely-related to human Kaposi&#8217;s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Utilizing genetically modified mouse strains and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), we assessed the antiviral cytokine production both in vivo and ex vivo. &#8220;Reconstituting&#8221; the expression of innate immune components in knockout embryonic fibroblasts by lentiviral transduction, we further pinpoint specific innate immune molecules and dissect the key signaling events that differentially regulate the antiviral cytokine production.

تشريح الفطري اشارة المناعة في التهرب الفيروسية من الإنتاج خلوى

In response to a viral infection, the host innate immune response is activated to up-regulate gene expression and production of antiviral cytokines. ...

Using RNA-interference to Investigate the Innate Immune Response in Mouse Macrophages

Macrophages are key phagocytic innate immune cells. When macrophages encounter a pathogen, they produce antimicrobial proteins and compounds to kill the pathogen, produce various cytokines and chemokines to recruit and stimulate other immune cells, and present antigens to stimulate the adaptive immune response. Thus, being able to efficiently manipulate macrophages with techniques such as RNA-interference (RNAi) is critical to our ability to investigate this important innate immune cell. However, macrophages can be technically challenging to transfect and can exhibit inefficient RNAi-induced gene knockdown. In this protocol, we describe methods to efficiently transfect two mouse macrophage cell lines (RAW264.7 and J774A.1) with siRNA using the Amaxa Nucleofector 96-well Shuttle System and describe procedures to maximize the effect of siRNA on gene knockdown. Moreover, the described methods are adapted to work in 96-well format, allowing for medium and high-throughput studies. To demonstrate the utility of this approach, we describe experiments that utilize RNAi to inhibit genes that regulate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cytokine production.

In this protocol, we describe methods to efficiently transfect murine macrophage cell lines with siRNAs using the Amaxa Nucleofector 96-well Shuttle System, stimulate the macrophages with lipopolysaccharide, and monitor the effects on inflammatory cytokine production.

باستخدام الحمض النووي الريبي التدخل للتحقيق في الاستجابة المناعية الفطرية في الفأر الضامة

Macrophages are key phagocytic innate immune cells.  When macrophages encounter a pathogen, they produce antimicrobial proteins and compounds to kill the ...

Non-Invasive Model of Neuropathogenic Escherichia coli Infection in the Neonatal Rat

Investigation of the interactions between animal host and bacterial pathogen is only meaningful if the infection model employed replicates the principal features of the natural infection. This protocol describes procedures for the establishment and evaluation of systemic infection due to neuropathogenic Escherichia coli K1 in the neonatal rat. Colonization of the gastrointestinal tract leads to dissemination of the pathogen along the gut-lymph-blood-brain course of infection and the model displays strong age dependency. A strain of E. coli O18:K1 with enhanced virulence for the neonatal rat produces exceptionally high rates of colonization, translocation to the blood compartment and invasion of the meninges following transit through the choroid plexus. As in the human host, penetration of the central nervous system is accompanied by local inflammation and an invariably lethal outcome. The model is of proven utility for studies of the mechanism of pathogenesis, for evaluation of therapeutic interventions and for assessment of bacterial virulence.

Non-Invasive Model of Neuropathogenic Escherichia coli Infection in the Neonatal Rat

Here, a procedure is described for the establishment of systemic infection in the neonatal rat with cultures of Escherichia coli K1. This non-invasive procedure permits colonization of the gastrointestinal tract, translocation of the pathogen to the systemic circulation, and invasion of the central nervous system at the choroid plexus.

نموذج غير الغازية من ممرض للأعصاب<em&gt; الإشريكية القولونية</em&gt; العدوى في الأطفال حديثي الولادة الجرذ

Investigation of the interactions between animal host and bacterial pathogen is only meaningful if the infection model employed replicates the principal ...

In Vitro Analysis of Myd88-mediated Cellular Immune Response to West Nile Virus Mutant Strain Infection

An attenuated West Nile virus (WNV), a nonstructural (NS) 4B-P38G mutant, induced higher innate cytokine and T cell responses than the wild-type WNV in mice. Recently, myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) signaling was shown to be important for initial T cell priming and memory T cell development during WNV NS4B-P38G mutant infection. In this study, two flow cytometry-based methods &#8211; an in vitro T cell priming assay and an intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) &#8211; were utilized to assess dendritic cells (DCs) and T cell functions. In the T cell priming assay, cell proliferation was analyzed by flow cytometry following co-culture of DCs from both groups of mice with carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) - labeled CD4+ T cells of OTII transgenic mice. This approach provided an accurate determination of the percentage of proliferating CD4+ T cells with significantly improved overall sensitivity than the traditional assays with radioactive reagents. A microcentrifuge tube system was used in both cell culture and cytokine staining procedures of the ICS protocol. Compared to the traditional tissue culture plate-based system, this modified procedure was easier to perform at biosafety level (BL) 3 facilities. Moreover, WNV- infected cells were treated with paraformaldehyde in both assays, which enabled further analysis outside BL3 facilities. Overall, these in vitro immunological assays can be used to efficiently assess cell-mediated immune responses during WNV infection.

In Vitro Analysis of Myd88-mediated Cellular Immune Response to West Nile Virus Mutant Strain Infection

Two flow cytometry-based methods &#8211; an in vitro T cell priming assay and intracellular cytokine staining were utilized to measure antigen presenting capacity of dendritic cells and antigen-specific T cell responses to a West Nile virus mutant infection in mice.

في تحليل المختبر من الاستجابة المناعية الخلوية بوساطة Myd88 لفيروس غرب النيل المسخ سلالة العدوى

An attenuated West Nile virus (WNV), a nonstructural (NS) 4B-P38G mutant, induced higher innate cytokine and T cell responses than the wild-type WNV in ...