نشكر KY تان، P. الكرسي وGC Tettamanzi لإجراء مناقشات مفيدة. ونحن نعترف بدعم مالي من المجلس الأسترالي للبحوث (منحة رقم DP120104710)، وأكاديمية فنلندا (منحة رقم 251748، 135794، 272806) وبدعم من الاسترالي مرفق التصنيع الوطنية لتصنيع الجهاز. يعترف AR بدعم مالي من برنامج منحة باحث جامعة نيو ساوث ويلز في وقت مبكر الوظيفي. ومن المسلم به أيضا توفير التسهيلات والدعم الفني من قبل جامعة آلتو في مركز Micronova Nanofabrication.

ملاحظة: يصف هذا البروتوكول الإجراءات المستخدمة لتلفيق، حزمة واختبار مضخات واحد الإلكترون على أساس السيليكون التكنولوجيا MOS QD. يتم تنفيذ الخطوات التي نوقشت في الأقسام الفرعية 1 و 2 في غرف الأبحاث ISO5، في حين أن من القسم 3 يتم تنفيذها في مختبرات ISO6. يتم التحكم باستمرار الظروف المحيطة. يتم تعيين القيم الاسمية لدرجة الحرارة والرطوبة في 20 ± 1 درجة مئوية و 55٪ ± 5٪، على التوالي. 1. التصنيع الدقيق <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> أكسيد الميدان <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تنظيف الرقاقة عن طريق الغمر في ما يلي: حفر سمكة البيرانا (10 دقيقة)، منزوع الأيونات (DI) الماء (10 دقيقة)، RCA-2 الحل (DI الماء 175 مل، 30 مل حمض الهيدروكلوريك، H 2 O 2 30 مل بسعر 100 ° C لمدة 10 دقيقة)، والماء منزوع الأيونات (5 دقائق)، الهيدروفلوريك (HF) حمض المخفف في الماء 10: 1 (10 ثانية)، والمياه DI (10 دقيقة). استخدام الملابس الواقية عند التعامل مع HF (أي، نظارات، المريلة البلاستيكية، وقفازات PVC). المضي قدما في النظام المذكور. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> وضع رقاقةفي أكسدة الفرن على 900 درجة مئوية، وأكسدة في خطوات على النحو التالي: O الجاف 2 (10 دقيقة)، O الرطب 2 (40 دقيقة)، O الجاف 2 (10 دقيقة)، N 2 (15 دقيقة). </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> أومية اتصالات <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تنفيذ ضوئيه وأكسيد حفر. <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> إيداع طبقة قليل نانومتر سميكة من التصاق المروج hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) على سطح الرقاقة على النحو التالي: مرحلة ما قبل الخبز على موقد على 110 درجة مئوية لمدة 1 دقيقة، صب ~ 50 مل من HMDS في كوب من الزجاج، ضع الكأس والرقاقة في فراغ الغرفة، إخلاء والانتظار لمدة 2 دقيقة. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تدور طبقة 2-4 ميكرون سميكة من مقاوم الضوء على كل من الظهر والجانبين الأمامية للرقاقة (3،000-5،000 دورة في الدقيقة، 25-40 ثانية اعتمادا على سمك المطلوب). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> فضح لضوء الأشعة فوق البنفسجية في قناع اليجنر (10 ميغاواط / سم 2 ل10/04 ثانية وفقا لمقاومة سمك). بعد خبز على موقد على 110 درجة مئوية لمدة 1 دقيقة. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تطوير لمدة 1-2 دقائق، ثم يشطف في الماء منزوع الأيونات. </لى&gt; <li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> أداء O حفر 2 البلازما لمدة 20 دقيقة (الضغط = 340 mTorr؛ قوة الحادث = 50 W، تنعكس قوة &lt;1 W). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> أكسيد حفر في مخزنة محلول حمض HF (15: 1، 4-5 دقيقة، احفر معدل ≈ 20 نانومتر / دقيقة عند 30 ° C). شطف في الماء منزوع الأيونات (5 دقائق). ضربة الجافة مع N 2. </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> إزالة مقاومة للضوء عن طريق الغمر في الأسيتون. شطف في الأيزوبروبانول (IPA)، ثم ضربة الجافة مع N 2. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> وضع رقاقة في الفرن على 1000 درجة مئوية مع مصدر الفوسفور (N 2 تدفق ل30-45 دقيقة اعتمادا على الكثافة المطلوبة المنشطات). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> إزالة طبقة أكسيد الملوثة مع حمض HF المخفف في الماء (10: 1، 3-4 دقيقة، ومعدل حفر ≈ 40 نانومتر / دقيقة عند 30 ° C)، وشطف في الماء منزوع الأيونات (10 دقيقة). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> أكسدة كما هو الحال في 1.1.2. </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> بوابة أكسيد <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> كرر الخطوات من 1.2.1 و 1.2.2. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> وضع رقاقة في فرن مخصص في 800 ° C وأكسدة في خطوات على النحو التالي: O الجاف 2 (10 دقيقة)، دichloroethylene + O 2 (20 دقيقة)، O الجاف 2 (10-30 دقيقة حسب المطلوب سمك أكسيد)، N 2 (15 دقيقة). </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> أومية اتصالات معدنة <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> كرر الخطوة 1.2.1. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> وضع رقاقة في شعاع الإلكترون المبخر. تتبخر 100 نيوتن متر من الألومنيوم في 0،2-0،5 نانومتر / ثانية و 5 × 10 -6 عربة. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> نقع في رقاقة N -methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) على موقد في 80 درجة مئوية لمدة 1 ساعة لرفع قبالة المعادن. استخدام التحريض بالموجات فوق الصوتية إذا لزم الأمر. شطف في IPA لمدة 2 دقيقة. ضربة الجافة مع N 2. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> يصلب في تشكيل الغاز في 400 درجة مئوية لمدة 15 دقيقة على الأقل. </li></ol></li></ol> 2. Nanofabrication <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> رقاقة التكعيب <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تدور أي مقاومة على الرقاقة لتكون بمثابة طلاء واقية (نوع من البوليمر والغزل المعلمات ليست ذات صلة في هذه المرحلة). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> استخدام الماس الحافة المقامر لخفض الرقاقة إلى رقائق الفردية ~ 10 × 2 مم 2. </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl">تنظيف <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> نقع في NMP لمدة 1 ساعة على موقد في 80 درجة مئوية، ثم يشطف في IPA لمدة 2 دقيقة. ضربة الجافة مع N 2. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> أداء O حفر 2 البلازما لمدة 5 دقائق (قوة الحادث = 50 W، تنعكس قوة &lt;1 W). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تدور نظيفة مع الأسيتون وIPA (7500 دورة في الدقيقة، 30 ثانية) </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> علامات المحاذاة الزخرفة <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تدور ميتاكريلات (PMMA 950k) A4 مقاومة (5،000-7،500 دورة في الدقيقة، 30 ثانية اعتمادا على سمك المطلوب). سمك عمل نموذجي ≈ 150-200 نانومتر. خبز مقاومة على موقد على حرارة 180 درجة مئوية لمدة 90 ثانية. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تنفيذ شعاع ه الطباعة الحجرية. استخدام شروط الكتابة التالية: شعاع الطاقة = 30 كيلو، شعاع الحالية ≈ 30 السلطة الفلسطينية، جرعة منطقة ≈ 500-650 μC / سم 2 اعتمادا على علامات حجم ومقاومة سماكة. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تطوير مقاومة في حل من كيتون إيسوبوتيل الميثيل وIPA (1: 3) عن 40-60 ثانية، ثم يشطف في IPA لمدة 20 ثانية. ضربة الجافة مع N 2 بندقية. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> مكانرقاقة في شعاع الإلكترون المبخر. تتبخر 15 نانومتر من منظمة الشفافية الدولية و 65 نانومتر من حزب العمال في 0،2-0،4 نانومتر / ثانية و 5 × 10 -6 عربة. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> رفع قبالة المعدن كما في الخطوة 1.4.3. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> رقاقة نظيفة كما في الخطوات 2.2.2-2.2.3. </li></ol></li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> بوابة الزخرفة <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تدور مقاومة كما هو الحال في 2.3.1. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تنفيذ شعاع ه الطباعة الحجرية. استخدام شروط الكتابة التالية لميزات عالية الدقة: شعاع الطاقة = 30 كيلو، شعاع الحالية ≈ 30 السلطة الفلسطينية، جرعة منطقة ≈ 500-700 μC / سم 2. إرسال شروط ملامح منخفضة القرار: شعاع الطاقة = 15 كيلو، شعاع الحالية ≈ 10 غ، جرعة منطقة ≈ 400-600 μC / سم 2. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تطوير مقاومة كما هو الحال في 2.3.3. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> ضع الشريحة في المبخر الحراري. تتبخر آل في 0،1-0،4 نانومتر / ثانية و1-9 × 10 -6 م بار. سمك الهدف يختلف وفقا لعدد طبقة، كما هو مبين في الشكل 2B (25-35 نانومتر للطبقة 1، 45-65 نانومتر للطبقة 2، 75-90 نم للطبقة 3). </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> رفع قبالة المعدن كما في الخطوة 1.4.3. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> أداء آل الأكسدة على موقد في 150 درجة مئوية لمدة 5-10 دقيقة. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> رقاقة نظيفة كما في الخطوة 2.2.3. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> كرر الخطوات 2.4.1-2.4.7 مرتين لتحقيق البوابة 3-طبقة المكدس. </li></ol></li></ol> 3. جهاز التعبئة والتغليف <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> رقاقة الزهر كما في الخطوة 2.1 </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> شطف الناتجة رقائق صغيرة في الأسيتون وIPA لمدة 2 دقيقة. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> الغراء الفرد قطعة لوحة الدوائر المطبوعة (PCB) مع PMMA A5. الانتظار 2 دقيقة حتى يجف. بدلا من ذلك، من أجل تعزيز thermalization، تستخدم الفضة الايبوكسي. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> تحميل PCB الصعود إلى بوندر إسفين والمضي قدما في الأسلاك. </li></ol> 4. اختبارات النزاهة الأجهزة <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> جبل PCB التي تحتوي على جهاز سلكي على تحقيق تراجع. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> سلك الخطوط الكهربائية من الكلور لتلك لجنة التحقيق تراجع. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> إدراج التحقيق في وعاء يحتوي الهليوم السائل. المضي قدما ببطء لتجنب الإفراط في الهليوم بالنفط خارج. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> لكل بوابة الجهاز، ربط المقابل القطب درجة حرارة الغرفة لجنة التحقيق إلى وحدة المصدر التدبير، مع الحفاظ على بوابات أخرى الارض. تعيين الامتثال الحالي لعدد قليل غ. اكتساح الجهد من صفر إلى 1.5V في الخطوات من 0.1 V، وقياس وتسجيل التيار. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> ربط كل سطر بوابة لمصدر متغير العاصمة الجهد بطارية تعمل بالطاقة، خط المصدر إلى المدمج في مصدر التيار الكهربائي المتردد من مكبر للصوت قفل في وخط هجرة إلى مدخل الميناء من القفل في مكبر للصوت. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> قياس مصدر لاستنزاف تصرف للتكوينات بوابة الجهد مختلفة (انظر الشكل 4). <ol style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> المنحدر عالميا تصل الفولتية المطبقة على بوابات BL، BR، PL، SL وDL، عن طريق الحفاظ C1 و C2 البوابات على الارض. تسجيل خصائص الجهاز &#39;بدوره على&#39;. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> المنحدر بشكل فردي أسفل كل بوابة الجهد وتسجيل الخصائص بوابات &quot;قرصة قبالة &#39;. </li><li style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"> ضبط الفولتية بوابة لتعريف كهربية لتشونقطة أنتم سلفنا من خلال تحديد الفولتية على BL وBR (PL، SL وDL) أصغر (أكبر) من منعطف على الفولتية. تسجيل الخصائص الحصار كولوم. </li></ol></li></ol>

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Nanotech. 9 (12), 981-985 (2014).</li><li>Fujiwara, A., Nishiguchi, K., Ono, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanoampere+charge+pump+by+single-electron+ratchet+using+silicon+nanowire+metal-oxide-semiconductor+field-effect+transistor.">Nanoampere charge pump by single-electron ratchet using silicon nanowire metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor.</a> Appl. Phys. Lett. 92 (4), 042102-1-042102-3 (2008).</li><li>Jehl, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hybrid+Metal-Semiconductor+Electron+Pump+for+Quantum+Metrology.">Hybrid Metal-Semiconductor Electron Pump for Quantum Metrology.</a> Phys. Rev. X. 3 (2), 021012-1-021012-7 (2013).</li><li>Tettamanzi, G. C., Wacquez, R., Rogge, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Charge+pumping+through+a+single+donor+atom.">Charge pumping through a single donor atom.</a> New J. Phys. 16 (6), 063036-1-063036-17 (2014).</li><li>Koppinen, P. J., Stewart, M. D., Zimmerman, N. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fabrication+and+Electrical+Characterization+of+Fully+CMOS-Compatible+Si+Single-Electron+Devices.">Fabrication and Electrical Characterization of Fully CMOS-Compatible Si Single-Electron Devices.</a> IEEE Trans Electron Devices. 60 (1), 78-83 (2013).</li><li>Fletcher, J. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stabilization+of+single-electron+pumps+by+high+magnetic+fields.">Stabilization of single-electron pumps by high magnetic fields.</a> Phys. Rev. B. 86 (15), 155311-1-155311-6 (2012).</li><li>Kataoka, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tunable+Nonadiabatic+Excitation+in+a+Single-Electron+Quantum+Dot.">Tunable Nonadiabatic Excitation in a Single-Electron Quantum Dot.</a> Phys. Rev. Lett. 106 (12), 126801-1-126801-4 (2011).</li></ol>

الكتاب ليس لديهم ما يكشف.

بروتوكول الواردة في هذه الدراسة يصف التقنيات لتصنيع السيليكون MOS QDS، فضلا عن الإجراءات التجريبية لاختبار سلامتها الفنية وتشغيلها مثل مضخات واحد الإلكترون. بشكل ملحوظ، من خلال تكييف تصميم البوابة، ويمكن استخدام عملية التصنيع ذاتها لإنتاج أجهزة مناسبة لنوعية الشيء قراءات والتحكم 17، فضلا عن تهمة ضخ 12،13. نلاحظ أن العديد من المعلمات عملية نقل في هذه المقالة قد تختلف اعتمادا على أدوات التصنيع المستخدمة (المعايرة، أو نموذج)، وكذلك على نوع من الركيزة السيليكون (سمك وكثافة الخلفية المنشطات). كميات مثل جرعة التعرض الطباعة الحجرية أو الوقت اللازم لتطوير، والحفر أو مدة الأكسدة، ويجب أن تكون محسوبة بدقة واختبارها للتأكد من تحقيق عائد موثوق بها. وعلاوة على ذلك، لا بد من تجنب انتقال الملوثات الناتجة عن استخدام أدوات التصنيع نفسها لعمليات مختلفة. تحقيقا لهذه الغاية، وعدد من كريتم تنفيذ الخطوات itical بمعدات مخصصة حصرا لتصنيع السيليكون مثل تبخر المعادن، وأفران الأكسجين والحمامات HF. بشكل أعم، والسيليكون يقترب اهتماما متزايدا كمادة من خيار لتحقيق مضخات تهمة 18-20. ويرجع هذا جزئيا إلى وجهة نظر جذابة تنفيذ معيار التيار الكهربائي الجديد القائم على الكم باستخدام عملية السيليكون في صناعة المتوافقة مع هذا. وهذا من شأنه الاستفادة من تقنيات التكامل راسخة وموثوقة لتطويره، الموازاة والنفقات العامة القيادة. الأهم، وهو مكمل MOS (CMOS) تقنية كاملة، وخالية من المعدن التقليدي كمادة البوابة، وقد أظهرت تقلص إلى حد كبير خلفية التقلبات المسؤول في أجهزة احد الإلكترون 21. ويمكن لهذه التقلبات أن تكون ضارة في تحقيق الدقة المترولوجية. بروتوكول مناقشتها هنا يقتصر على تحقيق MOS النانو الأجهزة مع البوابات المعدنية. لذلك، لachieلقد التوافق الكامل الصناعي والحد من التقلبات تهمة، ستكون هناك حاجة إلى تعديل أساليب ترسب البوابة واستخدام مخدر للغاية السيليكون متعدد الكريستالات كمادة البوابة. في الختام، المضخات MOS QD مناقشتها هنا تضافرت مؤخرا ميزة تكنولوجية من السيليكون مع أداء جيد جدا من حيث الجيل الحالي دقيقة 13. هذا نابع من مرونة عالية لعملية تصميم وتصنيع والتي تسمح لأحد على كومة طبقات بوابة متعددة تؤدي إلى نظام التعاقد وتنوعا. وtunability غرامة الناتجة من الحبس الكهربائي من نقطة جنبا إلى جنب مع القدرة على خفض خلفية التقلبات تهمة يمهد الطريق للتغلب على التحديات الرئيسية التي لوحظت في مجال أشباه الموصلات الأخرى مضخات 22،23.

Silicon is the material of choice for most of the modern microelectronics. Its properties, combined with advanced lithographic techniques, have allowed the semiconductor industry to achieve very large-scale integration and deliver billions of transistors per chip. The metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology1 has been the key of this relentless technological progress2. In brief, it is based on a selectively doped Si substrate which is thermally oxidized to grow a high quality SiO2 gate oxide on which a metal gate electrode is deposited. Recently, it has been shown that the use of a stack of gate oxides could be beneficial3 . While present industry standards have reached minimum feature sizes for gate lengths below 20 nm, it is becoming increasingly evident that, at this level of miniaturization, detrimental quantum mechanical phenomena come into play that may complicate further downscaling4.
Remarkably, silicon is also an excellent host material to exploit the quantum properties of the electron charge and spin5. This has broadened its range of applicability to entirely new fields such as quantum computing6 and quantum electrical metrology7. Among other approaches5, the use of a multi-gate MOS technology8,9 has led to electrostatically-defined quantum dots (QD) whose occupancy can be controlled down to single-electron level10. Unlike the conventional MOS process where just one gate per transistor is needed1, these QDs are defined via a three-layer stack of Al/AlyOx gates which are used to selectively accumulate electrons at the Si/SiO2 interface, as well as provide lateral and vertical confinement11.
Although these devices had been originally developed for quantum computing applications, they have also recently shown promising performances as metrological tools12,13. In the field of quantum electrical metrology, a long-standing goal is the redefinition of the unit ampere in terms of the elementary charge (e) 14. In particular, the emphasis is on the realization of nano-scale charge pumps to clock the transfer of individual electrons timely and accurately. These devices generate macroscopic quantized electric currents, I=nef, where f is the frequency of an external driving oscillator and n is an integer. To date, the best performance has been achieved with a GaAs-based pump by yielding a current in excess of 150 pA with a relative uncertainty of 1.2 parts per million15. Recently, silicon MOS QDs have also stood out for the implementation of highly accurate single-electron pumps thanks to the capability of finely tuning the charge confinement13.
Here, we discuss the protocol used for the fabrication of silicon MOS QDs. Furthermore, the cryogenic set-up used to test the integrity of the devices after fabrication and the one to perform charge pumping experiments are described. Finally, representative measurements of quantized electric current are reported.

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			<td>Silicon wafers</td>
			<td>TOPSIL</td>
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			<td>4 inch</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electron-beam lithography machine</td>
			<td>Raith gmbh</td>
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			<td>Raith 150two</td>
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			<td>E-beam resist&#160;</td>
			<td>MicroChem gmbh</td>
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			<td>PMMA</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Photoresist</td>
			<td>MicroChem gmbh</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>nLOF2020</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Mask aligner</td>
			<td>Quintel</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Q6000</td>
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silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor quantum dots for single-electron pumping

As mass-produced silicon transistors have reached the nano-scale, their behavior and performances are increasingly affected, and often deteriorated, by quantum mechanical effects such as tunneling through single dopants, scattering via interface defects, and discrete trap charge states. However, progress in silicon technology has shown that these phenomena can be harnessed and exploited for a new class of quantum-based electronics. Among others, multi-layer-gated silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology can be used to control single charge or spin confined in electrostatically-defined quantum dots (QD). These QD-based devices are an excellent platform for quantum computing applications and, recently, it has been demonstrated that they can also be used as single-electron pumps, which are accurate sources of quantized current for metrological purposes. Here, we discuss in detail the fabrication protocol for silicon MOS QDs which is relevant to both quantum computing and quantum metrology applications. Moreover, we describe characterization methods to test the integrity of the devices after fabrication. Finally, we give a brief description of the measurement set-up used for charge pumping experiments and show representative results of electric current quantization.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Silicon Metal-oxide-semiconductor Quantum Dots for Single-electron Pumping at JoVE.com

Silicon Metal-oxide-semiconductor Quantum Dots for Single-electron Pumping

The fabrication process and experimental characterization techniques relevant to single-electron pumps based on silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor quantum dots are discussed.

السيليكون المعدنية أكسيد أشباه الموصلات الكم النقاط لالضخ وحيد الإلكترون

As mass-produced silicon transistors have reached the nano-scale, their behavior and performances are increasingly affected, and often deteriorated, by ...

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14.3K Views.  University of New South Wales. The fabrication process and experimental characterization techniques relevant to single-electron pumps based on silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor quantum dots are discussed.

Video: Silicon Metal-oxide-semiconductor Quantum Dots for Single-electron Pumping

Compact Quantum Dots for Single-molecule Imaging

Single-molecule imaging is an important tool for understanding the mechanisms of biomolecular function and for visualizing the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of molecular behaviors that underlie cellular biology 1-4. To image an individual molecule of interest, it is typically conjugated to a fluorescent tag (dye, protein, bead, or quantum dot) and observed with epifluorescence or total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. While dyes and fluorescent proteins have been the mainstay of fluorescence imaging for decades, their fluorescence is unstable under high photon fluxes necessary to observe individual molecules, yielding only a few seconds of observation before complete loss of signal. Latex beads and dye-labeled beads provide improved signal stability but at the expense of drastically larger hydrodynamic size, which can deleteriously alter the diffusion and behavior of the molecule under study.
Quantum dots (QDs) offer a balance between these two problematic regimes. These nanoparticles are composed of semiconductor materials and can be engineered with a hydrodynamically compact size with exceptional resistance to photodegradation 5. Thus in recent years QDs have been instrumental in enabling long-term observation of complex macromolecular behavior on the single molecule level. However these particles have still been found to exhibit impaired diffusion in crowded molecular environments such as the cellular cytoplasm and the neuronal synaptic cleft, where their sizes are still too large 4,6,7.
Recently we have engineered the cores and surface coatings of QDs for minimized hydrodynamic size, while balancing offsets to colloidal stability, photostability, brightness, and nonspecific binding that have hindered the utility of compact QDs in the past 8,9. The goal of this article is to demonstrate the synthesis, modification, and characterization of these optimized nanocrystals, composed of an alloyed HgxCd1-xSe core coated with an insulating CdyZn1-yS shell, further coated with a multidentate polymer ligand modified with short polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains (Figure 1). Compared with conventional CdSe nanocrystals, HgxCd1-xSe alloys offer greater quantum yields of fluorescence, fluorescence at red and near-infrared wavelengths for enhanced signal-to-noise in cells, and excitation at non-cytotoxic visible wavelengths. Multidentate polymer coatings bind to the nanocrystal surface in a closed and flat conformation to minimize hydrodynamic size, and PEG neutralizes the surface charge to minimize nonspecific binding to cells and biomolecules. The end result is a brightly fluorescent nanocrystal with emission between 550-800 nm and a total hydrodynamic size near 12 nm. This is in the same size range as many soluble globular proteins in cells, and substantially smaller than conventional PEGylated QDs (25-35 nm).

We describe the preparation of colloidal quantum dots with minimized hydrodynamic size for single-molecule fluorescence imaging. Compared to conventional quantum dots, these nanoparticles are similar in size to globular proteins and are optimized for single-molecule brightness, stability against photodegradation, and resistance to nonspecific binding to proteins and cells.

الكم النقاط المدمجة لواحدة جزيء التصوير

Single-molecule imaging is an important tool for  understanding the mechanisms of biomolecular function and for visualizing the  spatial and temporal ...

Gradient Echo Quantum Memory in Warm Atomic Vapor

Gradient echo memory (GEM) is a protocol for storing optical quantum states of light in atomic ensembles. The primary motivation for such a technology is that quantum key distribution (QKD), which uses Heisenberg uncertainty to guarantee security of cryptographic keys, is limited in transmission distance. The development of a quantum repeater is a possible path to extend QKD range, but a repeater will need a quantum memory. In our experiments we use a gas of rubidium 87 vapor that is contained in a warm gas cell. This makes the scheme particularly simple. It is also a highly versatile scheme that enables in-memory refinement of the stored state, such as frequency shifting and bandwidth manipulation. The basis of the GEM protocol is to absorb the light into an ensemble of atoms that has been prepared in a magnetic field gradient. The reversal of this gradient leads to rephasing of the atomic polarization and thus recall of the stored optical state. We will outline how we prepare the atoms and this gradient and also describe some of the pitfalls that need to be avoided, in particular four-wave mixing, which can give rise to optical gain.

The gradient echo memory is a protocol for storing optical quantum states of light in atomic ensembles. Quantum memory is a key element of a quantum repeater, which can extend the range of quantum key distribution. We outline the operation of the scheme when implemented in a 3-level atomic ensemble.

التدرج صدى الذاكرة الكم في الحارة بخار الذرية

Gradient  echo memory (GEM) is a protocol for storing optical quantum states of light in  atomic ensembles. The primary motivation for such a technology ...

Nanofabrication of Gate-defined GaAs/AlGaAs Lateral Quantum Dots

A quantum computer is a computer composed of quantum bits (qubits) that takes advantage of quantum effects, such as superposition of states and entanglement, to solve certain problems exponentially faster than with the best known algorithms on a classical computer. Gate-defined lateral quantum dots on GaAs/AlGaAs are one of many avenues explored for the implementation of a qubit. When properly fabricated, such a device is able to trap a small number of electrons in a certain region of space. The spin states of these electrons can then be used to implement the logical 0 and 1 of the quantum bit. Given the nanometer scale of these quantum dots, cleanroom facilities offering specialized equipment- such as scanning electron microscopes and e-beam evaporators- are required for their fabrication. Great care must be taken throughout the fabrication process to maintain cleanliness of the sample surface and to avoid damaging the fragile gates of the structure. This paper presents the detailed fabrication protocol of gate-defined lateral quantum dots from the wafer to a working device. Characterization methods and representative results are also briefly discussed. Although this paper concentrates on double quantum dots, the fabrication process remains the same for single or triple dots or even arrays of quantum dots. Moreover, the protocol can be adapted to fabricate lateral quantum dots on other substrates, such as Si/SiGe.

This paper presents a detailed fabrication protocol for gate-defined semiconductor lateral quantum dots on gallium arsenide heterostructures. These nanoscale devices are used to trap few electrons for use as quantum bits in quantum information processing or for other mesoscopic experiments such as coherent conductance measurements.

النانوية من بوابة المعرفة الغاليوم / AlGaAs الجانبي نقاط الكم

A quantum computer is a computer composed of quantum bits (qubits) that takes advantage of quantum effects, such as superposition of states and ...

Scanning-probe Single-electron Capacitance Spectroscopy

The integration of low-temperature scanning-probe techniques and single-electron capacitance spectroscopy represents a powerful tool to study the electronic quantum structure of small systems - including individual atomic dopants in semiconductors. Here we present a capacitance-based method, known as Subsurface Charge Accumulation (SCA) imaging, which is capable of resolving single-electron charging while achieving sufficient spatial resolution to image individual atomic dopants. The use of a capacitance technique enables observation of subsurface features, such as dopants buried many nanometers beneath the surface of a semiconductor material1,2,3. In principle, this technique can be applied to any system to resolve electron motion below an insulating surface.
As in other electric-field-sensitive scanned-probe techniques4, the lateral spatial resolution of the measurement depends in part on the radius of curvature of the probe tip. Using tips with a small radius of curvature can enable spatial resolution of a few tens of nanometers. This fine spatial resolution allows investigations of small numbers (down to one) of subsurface dopants1,2. The charge resolution depends greatly on the sensitivity of the charge detection circuitry; using high electron mobility transistors (HEMT) in such circuits at cryogenic temperatures enables a sensitivity of approximately 0.01 electrons/Hz&frac12; at 0.3 K 5.

Scanning-probe single-electron capacitance spectroscopy facilitates the study of single-electron motion in localized subsurface regions. A sensitive charge-detection circuit is incorporated into a cryogenic scanning probe microscope to investigate small systems of dopant atoms beneath the surface of semiconductor samples.

المسح مسبار واحدة الإلكترون الطيفي السعة

The integration of low-temperature scanning-probe techniques and single-electron capacitance spectroscopy represents a powerful tool to study the ...

Analysis of Contact Interfaces for Single GaN Nanowire Devices

Single GaN nanowire (NW) devices fabricated on SiO2 can exhibit a strong degradation after annealing due to the occurrence of void formation at the contact/SiO2 interface. This void formation can cause cracking and delamination of the metal film, which can increase the resistance or lead to a complete failure of the NW device. In order to address issues associated with void formation, a technique was developed that removes Ni/Au contact metal films from the substrates to allow for the examination and characterization of the contact/substrate and contact/NW interfaces of single GaN NW devices. This procedure determines the degree of adhesion of the contact films to the substrate and NWs and allows for the characterization of the morphology and composition of the contact interface with the substrate and nanowires. This technique is also useful for assessing the amount of residual contamination that remains from the NW suspension and from photolithographic processes on the NW-SiO2 surface prior to metal deposition. The detailed steps of this procedure are presented for the removal of annealed Ni/Au contacts to Mg-doped GaN NWs on a SiO2 substrate.

A technique was developed that removes Ni/Au contact metal films from their substrate to allow for the examination and characterization of the contact/substrate and contact/NW interfaces of single GaN nanowire devices.

تحليل الاتصال واجهات لأجهزة أسلاك متناهية الصغر واحدة الجاليوم

Single GaN nanowire (NW) devices fabricated on SiO2 can exhibit  a strong degradation after annealing due to the  occurrence of void formation at the ...

Monolayer Contact Doping of Silicon Surfaces and Nanowires Using Organophosphorus Compounds

Monolayer Contact Doping (MLCD) is a simple method for doping of surfaces and nanostructures1. MLCD results in the formation of highly controlled, ultra shallow and sharp doping profiles at the nanometer scale. In MLCD process the dopant source is a monolayer containing dopant atoms.
In this article a detailed procedure for surface doping of silicon substrate as well as silicon nanowires is demonstrated. Phosphorus dopant source was formed using tetraethyl methylenediphosphonate monolayer on a silicon substrate. This monolayer containing substrate was brought to contact with a pristine intrinsic silicon target substrate and annealed while in contact. Sheet resistance of the target substrate was measured using 4 point probe. Intrinsic silicon nanowires were synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process using a vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) mechanism; gold nanoparticles were used as catalyst for nanowire growth. The nanowires were suspended in ethanol by mild sonication. This suspension was used to dropcast the nanowires on silicon substrate with a silicon nitride dielectric top layer. These nanowires were doped with phosphorus in similar manner as used for the intrinsic silicon wafer. Standard photolithography process was used to fabricate metal electrodes for the formation of nanowire based field effect transistor (NW-FET). The electrical properties of a representative nanowire device were measured by a semiconductor device analyzer and a probe station.

A detailed procedure for surface doping of Silicon interfaces is provided. The ultra-shallow surface doping is demonstrated by using phosphorus containing monolayers and rapid annealing process. The method can be used for doping of macroscopic area surfaces as well as nanostructures.

الاتصال أحادي الطبقة المنشطات من السيليكون السطوح والأسلاك المتناهية الصغر عن طريق المركبات الفوسفورية العضوية

Monolayer Contact Doping (MLCD) is a simple method for doping of surfaces and nanostructures1. MLCD results in the formation of highly controlled, ultra ...

Fabrication of Uniform Nanoscale Cavities via Silicon Direct Wafer Bonding

Measurements of the heat capacity and superfluid fraction of confined 4He have been performed near the lambda transition using lithographically patterned and bonded silicon wafers. Unlike confinements in porous materials often used for these types of experiments3, bonded wafers provide predesigned uniform spaces for confinement. The geometry of each cell is well known, which removes a large source of ambiguity in the interpretation of data.
Exceptionally flat, 5 cm diameter, 375 &#181;m thick Si wafers with about 1 &#181;m variation over the entire wafer can be obtained commercially (from Semiconductor Processing Company, for example). Thermal oxide is grown on the wafers to define the confinement dimension in the z-direction. A pattern is then etched in the oxide using lithographic techniques so as to create a desired enclosure upon bonding. A hole is drilled in one of the wafers (the top) to allow for the introduction of the liquid to be measured. The wafers are cleaned2 in RCA solutions and then put in a microclean chamber where they are rinsed with deionized water4. The wafers are bonded at RT and then annealed at ~1,100 &#176;C. This forms a strong and permanent bond. This process can be used to make uniform enclosures for measuring thermal and hydrodynamic properties of confined liquids from the nanometer to the micrometer scale.

A method for permanently bonding two silicon wafers so as to realize a uniform enclosure is described. This includes wafer preparation, cleaning, RT bonding, and annealing processes. The resulting bonded wafers (cells) have uniformity of enclosure ~1%1,2. The resulting geometry allows for measurements of confined liquids and gasses.

تصنيع تجاويف نانوية موحدة عبر الترابط رقاقة السيليكون المباشر

Measurements of the heat capacity and superfluid fraction of confined 4He have been performed near the lambda transition using lithographically patterned ...

Construction and Characterization of External Cavity Diode Lasers for Atomic Physics

Since their development in the late 1980s, cheap, reliable external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) have replaced complex and expensive traditional dye and Titanium Sapphire lasers as the workhorse laser of atomic physics labs1,2. Their versatility and prolific use throughout atomic physics in applications such as absorption spectroscopy and laser cooling1,2 makes it imperative for incoming students to gain a firm practical understanding of these lasers. This publication builds upon the seminal work by Wieman3, updating components, and providing a video tutorial. The setup, frequency locking and performance characterization of an ECDL will be described. Discussion of component selection and proper mounting of both diodes and gratings, the factors affecting mode selection within the cavity, proper alignment for optimal external feedback, optics setup for coarse and fine frequency sensitive measurements, a brief overview of laser locking techniques, and laser linewidth measurements are included.

This is an instructional paper to guide the construction and diagnostics of external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs), including component selection and optical alignment, as well as the basics of frequency reference spectroscopy and laser linewidth measurements for applications in the field of atomic physics.

البناء وتوصيف الخارجية تجويف ديود ليزر للفيزياء الذرية

Since their development in the late 1980s, cheap, reliable external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) have replaced complex and expensive traditional dye and ...

Selective Area Modification of Silicon Surface Wettability by Pulsed UV Laser Irradiation in Liquid Environment

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of biosensing devices. We report on a protocol of using KrF and ArF lasers irradiating Si (001) samples immersed in a liquid environment with low number of pulses and operating at moderately low pulse fluences to induce Si wettability modification. Wafers immersed for up to 4 hr in a 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution did not show measurable change in their initial contact angle (CA) ~75&#176;. However, the 500-pulse KrF and ArF lasers irradiation of such wafers in a microchamber filled with 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution at 250 and 65 mJ/cm2, respectively, has decreased the CA to near 15&#176;, indicating the formation of a superhydrophilic surface. The formation of OH-terminated Si (001), with no measurable change of the wafer&#8217;s surface morphology, has been confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy measurements. The selective area irradiated samples were then immersed in a biotin-conjugated fluorescein-stained nanospheres solution for 2 hr, resulting in a successful immobilization of the nanospheres in the non-irradiated area. This illustrates the potential of&#160;the method for selective area biofunctionalization and fabrication of advanced Si-based biosensing architectures. We also describe a similar protocol of irradiation of wafers immersed in methanol (CH3OH) using ArF laser operating at pulse fluence of 65 mJ/cm2 and in situ formation of a strongly hydrophobic surface of Si (001) with the CA of 103&#176;. The XPS results indicate ArF laser induced formation of Si&#8211;(OCH3)x compounds responsible for the observed hydrophobicity. However, no such compounds were found by XPS on the Si surface irradiated by KrF laser in methanol, demonstrating the inability of the KrF laser to photodissociate methanol and create -OCH3 radicals.

We report on a process of in situ alteration of HF treated Si (001) surface into a hydrophilic or hydrophobic state by irradiating samples in microfluidic chambers filled with&#160;H2O2/H2O solution (0.01%-0.5%) or methanol solutions using pulsed UV laser of a relative low pulse fluence.

انتقائية المساحة تعديل السيليكون بلل السطح بواسطة الليزر النبضي للأشعة فوق البنفسجية تشعيع في البيئة السائلة

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of ...

Light Enhanced Hydrofluoric Acid Passivation: A Sensitive Technique for Detecting Bulk Silicon Defects

A procedure to measure the bulk lifetime (&#62;100 &#181;sec) of silicon wafers by temporarily attaining a very high level of surface passivation when immersing the wafers in hydrofluoric acid (HF) is presented. By this procedure three critical steps are required to attain the bulk lifetime. Firstly, prior to immersing silicon wafers into HF, they are chemically cleaned and subsequently etched in 25% tetramethylammonium hydroxide. Secondly, the chemically treated wafers are then placed into a large plastic container filled with a mixture of HF and hydrochloric acid, and then centered over an inductive coil for photoconductance (PC) measurements. Thirdly, to inhibit surface recombination and measure the bulk lifetime, the wafers are illuminated at 0.2 suns for 1 min&#160;using a halogen lamp, the illumination is switched off, and a PC measurement is immediately taken. By this procedure, the characteristics of bulk silicon defects can be accurately determined. Furthermore, it is anticipated that a sensitive RT surface passivation technique will be imperative for examining bulk silicon defects when their concentration is low (&#60;1012 cm-3).

A RT liquid surface passivation technique to investigate the recombination activity of bulk silicon defects is described. For the technique to be successful, three critical steps are required: (i) chemical cleaning and etching of silicon, (ii) immersion of silicon in 15% hydrofluoric acid and (iii) illumination for 1 min.

ضوء المحسن حمض الهيدروفلوريك التخميل: تقنية حساسة للكشف عن العيوب السيليكون السائبة

A procedure to measure the bulk lifetime (&#62;100 &#181;sec) of silicon wafers by temporarily attaining a very high level of surface passivation when ...