Name: computational analysis of the caenorhabditis elegans germline to study the distribution of nuclei, proteins, and the cytoskeleton
Uploaded: 2018-04-19T12:30:00.000+00:00
Duration: 8 min 1 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton at JoVE.com

We thank Monash Microimaging for their technical support. Some strains were provided by the Caenorhabditis Genetics Center, which is funded by NIH Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (P40 OD010440). This work was supported by a Monash University Biomedicine Discovery Fellowship, NHMRC Project Grant (GNT1105374), NHMRC Senior Research Fellowship (GNT1137645) and veski innovation fellowship: VIF 23 to Roger Pocock.

1. Preparation and Worm Husbandry
Note: Refer Table of Materials for all product information.
<ol>
	<li>OP50 Escherichia coli culture: culture OP50 bacteria in Lysogeny broth (LB) (1% tryptone, 0.5% yeast, 0.5% NaCl, pH 7.0) overnight at 37 &#176;C without antibiotics.</li>
	<li>Seed 400 &#181;L of OP50 bacteria to nematode growth media (NGM) plates (1.5 g of NaCl, 8.5 g of agar, 1.25 g of peptone, 1 mL of 1 M CaCl2, 1 mL of 5 mg/mL cholesterol in ethanol, 1 mL of 1 M MgSO4, and 25 mL of 1 M KPO4 buffer) and air dry the bacteria for 48 h.</li>
	<li>Pick worms on seeded NGM plates and incubate at 15 &#176;C or 20 &#176;C.
	<ol>
		<li>For the analysis of the adult hermaphrodite germline, pick well-fed L4 worms to the bacterial lawn and incubate overnight at 20 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>For scoring sperm number in hermaphrodites, incubate L4 worms at 20 &#176;C for 12 h until the worms reach the L4/adult molt. To synchronize the worms to the L4 stage, prepare eggs by picking adult worms with a lot of eggs in bleach solution (1 M NaOH and bleach in 1:1 ratio). Allow the eggs to hatch and pick L4 animals for the experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare Teflon microscope slides by placing 25 &#181;L of poly-L-lysine solution on the slide and spreading the solution well, using a pipette tip. After removing excess poly-L-lysine with paper towel, allow the slides to air dry and incubate the slides at 65 &#176;C for 15 - 20 min.</li>
</ol>
2. Germline Dissection and Staining6,13
<ol>
	<li>Spot 10 &#181;L of 0.01% tetramisole (anesthetic) on a 22 mm &#215; 22 mm coverslip and pick one-day old adult worms into it.</li>
	<li>Dissect the worm at the tail as it becomes sedated using a syringe (5 mL) and a needle (24&#34; x&#160;1&#34;), and ensure that the germline is not damaged. 
	NOTE: The dissection must be carried out before the worm becomes fully paralyzed so that the negative pressure in the worm and the worm movement aid the ejection of the germline. For scoring sperm, precautions must be taken not to damage the spermatheca by the needle during dissection. Avoid touching the germline with the needle except the dissection point after the spermatheca. If there is break in the germline compartment or any discharge from the germline is observed, the germline should not be used for analysis.</li>
	<li>Place the inverted coverslip on a poly-L-lysine coated slide, keeping the dissected germline on the slide.</li>
	<li>Remove excess liquid under the coverslip by placing a paper tower at a corner of the coverslip, then place the slide in liquid nitrogen for 1 min. Quickly remove the coverslip using a needle with the germlines on the slide.</li>
	<li>Transfer the slides into -20 &#176;C methanol for 30 - 60 s in a chamber, then incubate for 30 min in freshly prepared fixing solution (1x phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 0.08 M HEPES pH 6.9, 1.6 mM MgSO4, 0.8 mM ethylene glycol-bis(beta-aminoethyl ether)-N,N,N&#39;,N&#39;-tetraacetic acid (EGTA), and 3.7% paraformaldehyde) at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Wash the slides by placing in a chamber containing 1x PBS, pH 7.4 with 0.1% Tween-20 for 10 min. Repeat this step once.</li>
	<li>Block the germlines with 30 &#181;L of blocking solution (30% of goat serum prepared by adding 900 &#181;L of goat serum in 1700 &#181;L of distilled H2O and 300 &#181;L of 10x PBS) in a humid chamber prepared by placing wet paper towel in a plastic box at room temperature for 30 min.</li>
	<li>Add 50 &#181;L of REC-8 antibody solution prepared in 30% goat serum in a ratio 1:300 to each sample. Incubate overnight at 4&#176;C.</li>
	<li>Wash the slides by placing in a chamber containing 1x PBS with 0.1% Tween-20 for 10 min. Repeat the step once and remove excess liquid by placing a paper towel at the corner of the slide.</li>
	<li>Prepare secondary antibody solution by diluting green fluorophore (488 nm emission wavelength) conjugated secondary antibody (1:1000), phalloidin (actin stain, 1:4000), and DAPI (DNA stain, 1:4000) in 30% normal goat serum.</li>
	<li>Add 50 &#181;L of secondary antibody solution to the slide.</li>
	<li>Incubate for 1 h at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Wash the slides twice by placing in a chamber containing 1x PBS with 0.1% Tween-20 for 10 min. Wipe off excess liquid.</li>
	<li>Add 30 &#181;L of fixing reagent onto the slide and place a 12 mm2 x 1.5 &#181;m coverslip on top and dry the slides at 4 &#176;C overnight.</li>
</ol>
3. Confocal Microscopy
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the confocal microscope, lasers, resonant scanner, and confocal microscope software. Place the slides with stained germlines on the slide holder above the 63X objective.</li>
	<li>Locate a germline, focus on the top of the germline and mark it using confocal microscope software. Similarly focus on the bottom of the germline and mark it to establish the total germline thickness.</li>
	<li>Image the entire germline by defining the thickness of each slice up to 0.5 &#181;m. Mark the complete germline and start acquisition. Scan each slice 8 times and average the values to improve image quality. The resonant scanner will permit fast scanning to avoid bleaching during imaging. If the microscope does not have a resonant scanner, reduce the number of scans to four to avoid bleaching.</li>
</ol>
4. Post Imaging Analysis of Nuclei Number and Distribution
Note: Refer Supplementary Figure 1 for screenshots of the software tools and buttons used.
<ol>
	<li>Import the image to Imaris 8.4.1 or later versions of the software.</li>
	<li>Define mitotic region, transition zone, meiotic region, oocyte region, and spermatheca of the germline by identifying the nuclear morphology in each region.</li>
	<li>Use the surface function button (Supplementary Figure 1A) of the software to select the region of interest.</li>
	<li>Cancel automatic surface creation wizard and manually draw the region of interest at the first and last slice of the image from the three-dimensional stack.</li>
	<li>Click Create surface. 
	NOTE: The software will automatically develop the stacks between first and last stack.</li>
	<li>Mask all channels except DAPI by clicking Mask channel button (Supplementary Figure 1B-C).</li>
	<li>Define nuclear size parameters using the spot function button (Supplementary Figure 1A). For the mitotic region, define an XY diameter of 2 &#181;m while leaving Z diameter undefined. For the transition zone, define an XY diameter of 2 &#181;m and Z diameter as 1.5 &#181;m. (Supplementary Figure 1D). 
	NOTE: Troubleshoot the diameters according to the magnification and specifications of the microscope. For the current protocol, the objective used was 63X and provided an extra 1.70 times magnification during imaging. If the objective changes, for instance 40X, the diameters should be changed accordingly. Troubleshooting should be performed with wildtype germlines to establish the correct parameters. The mitotic region of a wild type germline arm has approximately 250 nuclei. The diameter should be modified to achieve this value. Use at least 15 germlines to determine the optimal value for the diameter. A similar approach should be used for calibrating the transition zone (150 - 170 nuclei) and meiotic region (600 - 700 nuclei).</li>
	<li>Limit the detection of spots by defining the minimum threshold (Supplementary Figure 1E). Use DAPI stained wild type germlines to establish minimum threshold by increasing the minimum three-dimensional rendering threshold until the first spot appears outside the germline.</li>
	<li>Save the image and obtain the number of nuclei from the table generated automatically by the software. Export the images as TIF files.</li>
</ol>
5. Post Imaging Analysis for Scoring Sperm and Chromosome Number
<ol>
	<li>Perform three-dimensional rendering by selecting the spermatheca as the region of interest. To detect each sperm, define the spot diameter between 0.75 - 1.0 &#181;m for X and Y- axis, while Z diameter remains undefined. Use the spots function button as shown in Supplementary Figure 1.</li>
	<li>Subtract the background by ticking background subtract box and using background correction values calculated by the software (Supplementary Figure 1D). 
	NOTE: Imaris software picks high intensity points first, therefore the effect of background is minimal as long as there is significant difference between the region of interest and the background. A second method is to define the background correction manually, where appropriate values can be given for the background. Manual background correction will be appropriate if the intensity of independent samples needs comparison.</li>
	<li>Adjust the three-dimensional rendering threshold to detect all DAPI stained sperm in the spermatheca (Supplementary Figure 1E).</li>
	<li>For chromosome counting, define the spot diameter &#60;0.75 &#181;m for X and Y- axis before developing three-dimensional models.</li>
	<li>Save the image and export as TIF file.</li>
</ol>
6. Post Imaging Analysis for Cytoskeletal Reconstruction of the Germline
<ol>
	<li>Identify the region of interest in the germline and mask all channels except phalloidin by clicking Mask channels button.</li>
	<li>Define a surface detail of 0.25 &#181;m by using the surface function button (Supplementary Figure 1). 
	Note: This means every 0.25 &#181;m will be rendered into three-dimensional models. Surface detail can be constant for any region of the germline where a three-dimensional surface model will be created for every 0.25 &#181;m. However, for the oocyte region, surface detail can be increased to 0.35 - 0.5 &#181;m due the presence of well-defined actin fibers in this region.</li>
	<li>Subtract the background by ticking background subtract box and using background correction values calculated by the software (Supplementary Figure 1D).</li>
	<li>Adjust three-dimensional rendering threshold depending on the structure requiring analysis (Supplementary Figure 1E).</li>
	<li>Save the developed three-dimensional image and export as a TIF file.</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare no conflict of interests.

The goal of this protocol is to improve the accuracy and reduce the time required for germline analysis. After standard preparation of dissected germlines, a three-dimensional model of germline nuclei is prepared by computational rendering. While allowing the observation of germline nuclei distribution in space, three-dimensional rendering calculates the number of nuclei at specific regions of the germline. The critical aspect of our method is accurate definition of size and shape parameters of nuclei. This depends on cl...

The conservation of signaling pathways with mammals makes C. elegans an excellent model to study multiple biological processes1,2. In our lab, we use the C. elegans germline to study stem cell development, apoptosis, and gene expression. While the germline is a three-dimensional structure, many studies are two dimensional due to the time-consuming and labor-intensive nature of three-dimensional analysis. It is highly likely that two-dimensional analysis may misrepresent in vivo events in the germline. The C. elegans adult hermaphrodite has two germline arms, each of which houses a somatic distal tip cell (DTC) that maintains distal germ cells in an undifferentiated state3,4. These germ cells begin to differentiate as they move away from the DTC, escaping its influence, and become oocytes and sperm as they reach the proximal end of the germline. During this process, germ cell nuclei undergo mitosis, before transitioning to meiosis5,6. Sperm production is completed by larval stage 4 (L4) of the development, after which oocytes are produced during the adulthood. The sperm are stored in the spermatheca where they fertilize oocytes to generate embryos.
There are multiple genetic and environmental factors that can influence germline development in C. elegans resulting in changes in the number of nuclei, number of apoptotic events, chromosome dynamics, and protein expression and/or localization7,8,9,10,11. The analysis of these events requires the identification of each stage of differentiation based on nuclear morphology and distribution. To accurately analyze these parameters manually with a large sample size is labor-intensive and time-consuming. To circumvent these drawbacks and to enable the consistency of analysis, we developed an automated method for three-dimensional examination of the C. elegans germline for nuclei counting, nuclei distribution, protein expression, and cytoskeletal structure. By combining confocal microscopy with three-dimensional rendering, we generated size and shape parameters for the identification of each stage of germ cell differentiation. Further, this method enables counting of germ cell nuclei and sperm plus scoring of chromosome number in each oocyte.
One crucial structure in the germline is the cytoskeleton, which provides stability to the germline compartment, aids cytoplasmic streaming and protection to germline nuclei12. Using computational rendering, we performed three-dimensional reconstruction of the germline cytoskeleton and identified distinct cytoskeletal features within the germline. Here, we describe a step-by-step protocol to illustrate how computational analysis combined with confocal imaging enables comprehensive analysis of the C. elegans germline.
We propose a rapid method for the three-dimensional analysis of C. elegans germline (Figure 1). Using three-dimensional analysis, it is possible to study the three-dimensional distribution of germline nuclei (Figure 2 and Figure 3), automated counting of cells (Figure 2), reconstruction of the germline cytoskeleton (Figure 3), distribution of proteins (Figure 4), and scoring the number of sperm in the spermatheca and chromosomes in oocytes (Figure 5). The method not only enables easy and accurate quantification of the germline but identifies physiologically relevant phenotypes.

<table><tbody><tr><td>&lt;em&gt;C. elegans&lt;/em&gt; strains: wild type (N2, Bristol), &lt;em&gt;rnp-8(tm2435) I/hT2[bli-4(e937) let-?(q782) qIs48] (I;III), cpb-3(bt17) I, glp-1 (e2141) III&amp;nbsp;&lt;/em&gt;</td><td>Caenorhabditis Genetics Center (CGC)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OP50 &lt;em&gt;Escherichia coli&lt;/em&gt; bacteria</td><td>Homemade</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nematode Growth Media (NGM) plates</td><td>Homemade</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>polyclonal rabbit anti-REC-8&amp;nbsp;</td><td>SDIX</td><td>29470002</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Alexa 488 conjugated antibody raised in goat</td><td>Thermofisher Scientific</td><td>A-21236</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cytoskeletal dye phalloidin&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Thermofisher Scientific</td><td>A-12380</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DAPI&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Thermofisher Scientific&amp;nbsp;</td><td>62248</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Poly-L-lysine&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>P5899</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tetramisol&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>P5899</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MgSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>M7506</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>1M HEPES buffer, pH 7.4&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>G0887</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>10X PBS pH 7.4&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Thermofisher Scientific</td><td>AM9625</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tween-20&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>P1389</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EGTA</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>E3889</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>37% Paraformaldehyde solution</td><td>Merck Millipore</td><td>1040031000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Normal goat serum</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>G9023</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fluoroshield fixing reagent&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>F6182</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Millipore&amp;nbsp;</td><td>1009832511</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Methanol</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>34860</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>20&amp;deg;C &amp;amp; 25&amp;deg;CIncubator&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Any brand</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Light microscope</td><td>Any brand</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Confocal microscope&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Any brand (Leica, Zeiss)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Computer equipped with Imaris suit 8.4.1 or later version, full licence to use the software and Matlab software.</td><td>Bitplane</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Phospho buffered saline, pH 7.4</td><td>Homemade</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Teflon microscope slides&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Tekdon&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&amp;nbsp;941-322-8288</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

computational analysis of the caenorhabditis elegans germline to study the distribution of nuclei, proteins, and the cytoskeleton

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and chromosome dynamics. While the germline is an excellent model, the analysis is often two dimensional due to the time and labor required for three-dimensional analysis. Major readouts in such studies are the number/position of nuclei and protein distribution within the germline. Here, we present a method to perform automated analysis of the germline using confocal microscopy and computational approaches to determine the number and position of nuclei in each region of the germline. Our method also analyzes germline protein distribution that enables the three-dimensional examination of protein expression in different genetic backgrounds. Further, our study shows variations in cytoskeletal architecture in distinct regions of the germline that may accommodate specific spatial developmental requirements. Finally, our method enables automated counting of the sperm in the spermatheca of each germline. Taken together, our method enables rapid and reproducible phenotypic analysis of the C. elegans germline.

Figure 1 indicates the time required for three-dimensional germline analysis. L4 hermaphrodites incubated at 20 &#176;C were dissected to isolate germlines and stained with DAPI, phalloidin, and antibodies against germline proteins. Germlines are imaged using confocal microscopy. Staining and confocal microscopy requires approximately 24 h. Computational analysis for the complete germline requires 10 - 15 min to count the number and position of nuclei, identi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton at JoVE.com

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

We present an automated method for three-dimensional reconstruction of the Caenorhabditis elegans germline. Our method determines the number and position of each nucleus within the germline and analyses germline protein distribution and cytoskeletal structure.

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and ...

computational-analysis-caenorhabditis-elegans-germline-to-study

Universidad San Sebastian

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

6.2K Views.  Monash University. We present an automated method for three-dimensional reconstruction of the Caenorhabditis elegans germline. Our method determines the number and position of each nucleus within the germline and analyses germline protein distribution and cytoskeletal structure.

Video: Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

The C. elegans Intestine As a Model for Intercellular Lumen Morphogenesis and In Vivo Polarized Membrane Biogenesis at the Single-cell Level: Labeling by Antibody Staining, RNAi Loss-of-function Analysis and Imaging

Multicellular tubes, fundamental units of all internal organs, are composed of polarized epithelial or endothelial cells, with apical membranes lining the lumen and basolateral membranes contacting each other and/or the extracellular matrix. How this distinctive membrane asymmetry is established and maintained during organ morphogenesis is still an unresolved question of cell biology. This protocol describes the C. elegans intestine as a&#160;model for the analysis of polarized membrane biogenesis during tube morphogenesis, with emphasis on apical membrane and lumen biogenesis. The C. elegans twenty-cell single-layered intestinal epithelium is arranged into a simple bilaterally symmetrical tube, permitting analysis on a single-cell level. Membrane polarization occurs concomitantly with polarized cell division and migration during early embryogenesis, but de novo polarized membrane biogenesis continues throughout larval growth, when cells no longer proliferate and move. The latter setting allows one to separate subcellular changes that simultaneously mediate these different polarizing processes, difficult to distinguish in most polarity models. Apical-, basolateral membrane-, junctional-, cytoskeletal- and endomembrane components can be labeled and tracked throughout development by GFP fusion proteins, or assessed by in situ antibody staining. Together with the organism&#39;s genetic versatility, the C. elegans intestine thus provides a unique in vivo model for the visual, developmental, and molecular genetic analysis of polarized membrane and tube biogenesis. The specific methods (all standard) described here include how to: label intestinal subcellular components by antibody staining; analyze genes involved in polarized membrane biogenesis by loss-of-function studies adapted to the typically essential tubulogenesis genes; assess polarity defects during different developmental stages; interpret phenotypes by epifluorescence, differential interference contrast (DIC) and confocal microscopy; quantify visual defects. This protocol can be adapted to analyze any of the often highly conserved molecules involved in epithelial polarity, membrane biogenesis, tube and lumen morphogenesis.

The C. elegans Intestine As a Model for Intercellular Lumen Morphogenesis and In Vivo Polarized Membrane Biogenesis at the Single-cell Level: Labeling by Antibody Staining, RNAi Loss-of-function Analy

The transparent C. elegans intestine can serve as an "in vivo tissue chamber" for studying apicobasal membrane and lumen biogenesis at the single-cell and subcellular level during multicellular tubulogenesis. This protocol describes how to combine standard labeling, loss-of-function genetic/RNAi and microscopic approaches to dissect these processes on a molecular level.

Multicellular tubes, fundamental units of all internal organs, are composed of polarized epithelial or endothelial cells, with apical membranes lining the ...

C. elegans Gonad Dissection and Freeze Crack for Immunofluorescence and DAPI Staining

The C. elegans germline makes an excellent model for studying meiosis, in part due to the ease of conducting cytological analyses on dissected animals. Whole mount preparations preserve the structure of meiotic nuclei, and importantly, each gonad arm contains all stages of meiosis, organized in a temporal-spatial progression that makes it easy to identify nuclei at different stages. Adult hermaphrodites have two gonad arms, each organized as a closed tube with proliferating germline stem cells at the distal closed end and cellularized oocytes at the proximal open end, which join in the center at the uterus. Dissection releases one or both gonad arms from the body cavity, allowing the entirety of meiosis to be visualized. Here, a common protocol for immunofluorescence against a protein of interest is presented, followed by DAPI staining to mark all chromosomes. Young adults are immobilized in levamisole and quickly dissected using two syringe needles. After germline extrusion, the sample is fixed before undergoing a freeze crack in liquid nitrogen, which helps permeabilize the cuticle and other tissues. The sample can then be dehydrated in ethanol, rehydrated, and incubated with primary and secondary antibodies. DAPI is added to the sample in the mounting medium, which allows reliable visualization of DNA and makes it easy to find animals to image under a fluorescent microscope. This technique is readily adopted by those familiar with handling C. elegans after a few hours spent practicing the dissection method itself. This protocol has been taught to high-schoolers and undergraduates working in a research lab and incorporated into a course-based undergraduate research experience at a liberal arts college.

C. elegans Gonad Dissection and Freeze Crack for Immunofluorescence and DAPI Staining

This is a commonly used method for C. elegans gonad dissection followed by freeze crack, which produces germline samples for immunofluorescence via antibody staining, or for simple DAPI staining to visualize DNA. This protocol has been successful for undergraduates in a research lab and in a course-based undergraduate research experience.

The C. elegans germline makes an excellent model for studying meiosis, in part due to the ease of conducting cytological analyses on dissected animals. ...

Genetics

Comparative Analysis of Experimental Methods to Quantify Animal Activity in Caenorhabditis elegans Models of Mitochondrial Disease

Caenorhabditis elegans is widely recognized for its central utility as a translational animal model to efficiently interrogate mechanisms and therapies of diverse human diseases. Worms are particularly well-suited for high-throughput genetic and drug screens to gain deeper insight into therapeutic targets and therapies by exploiting their fast development cycle, large brood size, short lifespan, microscopic transparency, low maintenance costs, robust suite of genomic tools, mutant repositories, and experimental methodologies to interrogate both in vivo and ex vivo physiology. Worm locomotor activity represents a particularly relevant phenotype that is frequently impaired in mitochondrial disease, which is highly heterogeneous in causes and manifestations but collectively shares an impaired capacity to produce cellular energy. While a suite of different methodologies may be used to interrogate worm behavior, these vary greatly in experimental costs, complexity, and utility for genomic or drug high-throughput screens. Here, the relative throughput, advantages, and limitations of 16 different activity analysis methodologies were compared that quantify nematode locomotion, thrashing, pharyngeal pumping, and/or chemotaxis in single worms or worm populations of C. elegans at different stages, ages, and experimental durations. Detailed protocols were demonstrated for two semi-automated methods to quantify nematode locomotor activity that represent novel applications of available software tools, namely, ZebraLab (a medium-throughput approach) and WormScan (a high-throughput approach). Data from applying these methods demonstrated similar degrees of reduced animal activity occurred at the L4 larval stage, and progressed in day 1 adults, in mitochondrial complex I disease (gas-1(fc21)) mutant worms relative to wild-type (N2 Bristol) C. elegans. This data validates the utility for these novel applications of using the ZebraLab or WormScan software tools to quantify worm locomotor activity efficiently and objectively, with variable capacity to support high-throughput drug screening on worm behavior in preclinical animal models of mitochondrial disease.

Comparative Analysis of Experimental Methods to Quantify Animal Activity in Caenorhabditis elegans Models of Mitochondrial Disease

This study presents protocols for two semi-automated locomotor activity analysis approaches in C. elegans complex I disease gas-1(fc21) worms, namely, ZebraLab (a medium-throughput assay) and WormScan (a high-throughput assay) and provide comparative analysis among a wide array of research methods to quantify nematode behavior and integrated neuromuscular function.

Caenorhabditis elegans is widely recognized for its central utility as a translational animal model to efficiently interrogate mechanisms and therapies of ...

Behavior

In Situ Detection of Ribonucleoprotein Complex Assembly in the C. elegans Germline using Proximity Ligation Assay

Understanding when and where protein-protein interactions (PPIs) occur is critical to understanding protein function in the cell and how broader processes such as development are affected. The Caenorhabditis elegans germline is a great model system for studying PPIs that are related to the regulation of stem cells, meiosis, and development. There are a variety of well-developed techniques that allow proteins of interest to be tagged for recognition by standard antibodies, making this system advantageous for proximity ligation assay (PLA) reactions. As a result, the PLA is able to show where PPIs occur in a spatial and temporal manner in germlines more effectively than alternative approaches. Described here is a protocol for the application and quantification of this technology to probe PPIs in the C. elegans germline.

In Situ Detection of Ribonucleoprotein Complex Assembly in the C. elegans Germline using Proximity Ligation Assay

This protocol demonstrates use of the proximity ligation assay to probe for protein-protein interactions in situ in the C. elegans germline.

Understanding when and where protein-protein interactions (PPIs) occur is critical to understanding protein function in the cell and how broader processes ...

Imaging C. elegans Embryos using an Epifluorescent Microscope and Open Source Software

Cellular processes, such as chromosome assembly, segregation and cytokinesis,are inherently dynamic. Time-lapse imaging of living cells, using fluorescent-labeled reporter proteins or differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy, allows for the examination of the temporal progression of these dynamic events which is otherwise inferred from analysis of fixed samples1,2. Moreover, the study of the developmental regulations of cellular processes necessitates conducting time-lapse experiments on an intact organism during development. The Caenorhabiditis elegans embryo is light-transparent and has a rapid, invariant developmental program with a known cell lineage3, thus providing an ideal experiment model for studying questions in cell biology4,5and development6-9. C. elegans is amendable to genetic manipulation by forward genetics (based on random mutagenesis10,11) and reverse genetics to target specific genes (based on RNAi-mediated interference and targeted mutagenesis12-15). In addition, transgenic animals can be readily created to express fluorescently tagged proteins or reporters16,17. These traits combine to make it easy to identify the genetic pathways regulating fundamental cellular and developmental processes in vivo18-21. In this protocol we present methods for live imaging of C. elegans embryos using DIC optics or GFP fluorescence on a compound epifluorescent microscope. We demonstrate the ease with which readily available microscopes, typically used for fixed sample imaging, can also be applied for time-lapse analysis using open-source software to automate the imaging process.

Imaging C. elegans Embryos using an Epifluorescent Microscope and Open Source Software

The C. elegans embryo is a powerful system for studying cell biology and development. We present a protocol for live imaging of C. elegans embryos utilizing DIC optics or fluorescence using readily available epifluorescent microscopes and open-source software.

Cellular processes, such as chromosome assembly, segregation and cytokinesis,are inherently dynamic. Time-lapse imaging of living cells, using ...

Biology

Tracking Calcium in the Early Developmental Phases of C. elegans

In Vivo Visualization of Calcium Transients during Fertilization and Early Development in C. elegans

Calcium is an important signaling molecule during the oocyte-to-embryo transition (OET) and early embryogenesis. The hermaphroditic nematode Caenorhabditis elegans provides several unique advantages for the study of the OET as it is transparent and has an ordered gonad that produces one mature oocyte every ~23 min at 20 &#176;C. We have modified the genetically encoded calcium indicator jGCaMP7s to fluorescently indicate the moment of fertilization within a living organism. We have termed this reporter &#34;CaFE&#34; for Calcium during Fertilization in C. elegans. The CaFE reporter was&#160;engineered into a safe harbor locus in single copy, has no significant impact on physiology or fecundity, and produces a robust signal upon fertilization. Here, a series of protocols is presented for utilizing the CaFE reporter as an in vivo tool for dissecting the OET and embryogenesis. We include methods to synchronize worms, examine the effects of RNAi knockdown, mount worms for imaging, and to visualize calcium in oocytes and embryos. Additionally, we present the generation of additional worm strains to aid in this type of analysis. Demonstrating the utility of the CaFE reporter to visualize the timing of fertilization, we report that double ovulation occurs when ipp-5 is targeted by RNAi and that only the first oocyte undergoes immediate fertilization. Furthermore, the discovery of single-cell calcium transients during early embryogenesis is reported here, demonstrating that the CaFE reporter persists into early development. Importantly, the CaFE reporter in worms is simple enough to use for incorporation into course-based undergraduate research (CURE) laboratory classes. The CaFE reporter, coupled with the ordered gonad and ease of RNAi in worms, facilitates inquiry into the cell-cell dynamics required to regulate internal fertilization and early embryogenesis.

Here, we present protocols and tools for visualizing calcium during fertilization and early embryogenesis using a genetically encoded calcium reporter expressed in the germline of the model nematode C. elegans.

Calcium is an important signaling molecule during the oocyte-to-embryo transition (OET) and early embryogenesis. The hermaphroditic nematode ...

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

Research into the molecular and developmental biology of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was begun in the early seventies by Sydney Brenner and it has since been used extensively as a model organism 1. C. elegans possesses key attributes such as simplicity, transparency and short life cycle that have made it a suitable experimental system for fundamental biological studies for many years 2. Discoveries in this nematode have broad implications because many cellular and molecular processes that control animal development are evolutionary conserved 3.
C. elegans life cycle goes through an embryonic stage and four larval stages before animals reach adulthood. Development can take 2 to 4 days depending on the temperature. In each of the stages several characteristic traits can be observed. The knowledge of its complete cell lineage 4,5 together with the deep annotation of its genome turn this nematode into a great model in fields as diverse as the neurobiology 6, aging 7,8, stem cell biology 9 and germ line biology 10. 
An additional feature that makes C. elegans an attractive model to work with is the possibility of obtaining populations of worms synchronized at a specific stage through a relatively easy protocol. The ease of maintaining and propagating this nematode added to the possibility of synchronization provide a powerful tool to obtain large amounts of worms, which can be used for a wide variety of small or high-throughput experiments such as RNAi screens, microarrays, massive sequencing, immunoblot or in situ hybridization, among others. 
Because of its transparency, C. elegans structures can be distinguished under the microscope using Differential Interference Contrast microscopy, also known as Nomarski microscopy. The use of a fluorescent DNA binder, DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole), for instance, can lead to the specific identification and localization of individual cells, as well as subcellular structures/defects associated to them.

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

The easiness of maintaining and propagating the nematode C. elegans make it a nice model organism to work with. The possibility of synchronizing worms allows the work with a significant amount of subjects at the same developmental stage, what facilitates the study of one particular process in many animals.

Research into the molecular and developmental biology of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was begun in the early seventies by Sydney Brenner and it has ...

Tracking and Quantifying Developmental Processes in C. elegans Using Open-source Tools

Quantitatively capturing developmental processes is crucial to derive mechanistic models and key to identify and describe mutant phenotypes. Here protocols are presented for preparing embryos and adult C. elegans animals for short- and long-term time-lapse microscopy and methods for tracking and quantification of developmental processes. The methods presented are all based on C. elegans strains available from the Caenorhabditis Genetics Center and on open-source software that can be easily implemented in any laboratory independently of the microscopy system used. A reconstruction of a 3D cell-shape model using the modelling software IMOD, manual tracking of fluorescently-labeled subcellular structures using the multi-purpose image analysis program Endrov, and an analysis of cortical contractile flow using PIVlab (Time-Resolved Digital Particle Image Velocimetry Tool for MATLAB) are shown. It is discussed how these methods can also be deployed to quantitatively capture other developmental processes in different models, e.g., cell tracking and lineage tracing, tracking of vesicle flow.

Tracking and Quantifying Developmental Processes in C. elegans Using Open-source Tools

Here it is shown how to track and quantify developmental processes in C. elegans. The methods presented are based on open-source tools that can be easily implemented. It is demonstrated how to reconstruct 3D cell-shape models, how to manually track subcellular structures, and how to analyze cortical contractile flow.

Quantitatively capturing developmental processes is crucial to derive mechanistic models and key to identify and describe mutant phenotypes. Here ...

Quantitative Approaches for Studying Cellular Structures and Organelle Morphology in Caenorhabditis elegans

Defining the cellular mechanisms underlying disease is essential for the development of novel therapeutics. A strategy frequently used to unravel these mechanisms is to introduce mutations in candidate genes and qualitatively describe changes in the morphology of tissues and cellular organelles. However, qualitative descriptions may not capture subtle phenotypic differences, might misrepresent phenotypic variations across individuals in a population, and are frequently assessed subjectively. Here, quantitative approaches are described to study the morphology of tissues and organelles in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans using laser scanning confocal microscopy combined with commercially available bio-image processing software. A quantitative analysis of phenotypes affecting synapse integrity (size and integrated fluorescence levels), muscle development (muscle cell size and myosin filament length), and mitochondrial morphology (circularity and size) was performed to understand the effects of genetic mutations on these cellular structures. These quantitative approaches are not limited to the applications described here, as they could readily be used to quantitatively assess the morphology of other tissues and organelles in the nematode, as well as in other model organisms.

Quantitative Approaches for Studying Cellular Structures and Organelle Morphology in Caenorhabditis elegans

This study outlines quantitative measurements of synaptic size and localization, muscle morphology, and mitochondrial shape in C. elegans using freely available image processing tools. This approach allows future studies in&#160;C. elegans&#160;to quantitatively compare the extent of tissue and organelle structural changes as a result of genetic mutations.

Defining the cellular mechanisms underlying disease is essential for the development of novel therapeutics. A strategy frequently used to unravel these ...

Purification and Analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans Extracellular Vesicles

The secretion of small membrane-bound vesicles into the external environment is a fundamental physiological process of all cells. These extracellular vesicles (EVs) function outside the cell to regulate global physiological processes by transferring proteins, nucleic acids, metabolites, and lipids between tissues. EVs reflect the physiological state of their cells of origin. EVs are implicated to have fundamental roles in virtually every aspect of human health. Thus, EV protein and genetic cargos are being increasingly analyzed for biomarkers of health and disease. However, the EV field still lacks a tractable invertebrate model system that permits the study of EV cargo composition. C. elegans is well suited for EV research because it actively secretes EVs outside of its body into its external environment, permitting facile isolation. This article provides all the necessary information for generating, purifying, and quantifying these environmentally secreted C. elegans EVs including how to work quantitatively with very large populations of age-synchronized worms, purifying EVs, and a flow cytometry protocol that directly measures the number of intact EVs in the purified sample. Thus, the large library of genetic reagents available for C. elegans research can be tapped into for investigating the impacts of genetic pathways and physiological processes on EV cargo composition.

Purification and Analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans Extracellular Vesicles

This article presents methods for generating, purifying, and quantifying Caenorhabditis elegans extracellular vesicles.

The secretion of small membrane-bound vesicles into the external environment is a fundamental physiological process of all cells. These extracellular ...

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

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Chapters in this video

The C. elegans Intestine As a Model for Intercellular Lumen Morphogenesis and In Vivo Polarized Membrane Biogenesis at the Single-cell Level: Labeling by Antibody Staining, RNAi Loss-of-function Analysis and Imaging

C. elegans Gonad Dissection and Freeze Crack for Immunofluorescence and DAPI Staining

Comparative Analysis of Experimental Methods to Quantify Animal Activity in Caenorhabditis elegans Models of Mitochondrial Disease

In Situ Detection of Ribonucleoprotein Complex Assembly in the C. elegans Germline using Proximity Ligation Assay

Imaging C. elegans Embryos using an Epifluorescent Microscope and Open Source Software

In Vivo Visualization of Calcium Transients during Fertilization and Early Development in C. elegans

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

Tracking and Quantifying Developmental Processes in C. elegans Using Open-source Tools

Quantitative Approaches for Studying Cellular Structures and Organelle Morphology in Caenorhabditis elegans

Purification and Analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans Extracellular Vesicles