This work was supported by ShanghaiCritical Clinical Specialties ConstructionProject(Grant Number: Shslczdzk04001); the Sailing program of Shanghai Science andTechnology Commission (Grant Number:22YF1444300); Projects within the budget ofShanghai University of Traditional ChineseMedicine(Grant Number: 2021LK091).

This work was carried out at the Pain Lab of the Neurobiology Institute at Fudan University. The experiments were approved and strictly adhered to the guidelines for the protection of laboratory animals established by the International Association for the Study of Pain (LASP) for all surgical procedures and animal handling. Clean-grade Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, consisting of 32 males between 40-50 days old, with an average weight of 220 &#177; 1.38 g, were used for the present study. These rats were obtained from the Experimental Animal Center of the Shanghai Academy of Life Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The animals were properly cared for and housed in a dedicated room with independent ventilation, regulated temperature (22 &#177; 1 &#176;C), and humidity (40%-50%). The rats had access to adequate food and water in their cages. The laboratory animal room followed a 12 h light-dark cycle to maintain the regularity of the rats&#39; circadian rhythms, and designated personnel regularly replaced the padding. The X-ray was performed at the Radiology Department of Yueyang Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, affiliated with the Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine.
1. Study participants and grouping
<ol>
	<li>Assign 32 rats to four groups: naive (control), sham (sham operation), CCD (chronic dorsal root ganglion compression), and CCD + Tuina (8 rats/group). Rats had free access to food and water in animal facilities. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Naive rats had no intervention, while the sham group underwent the same surgical procedure as the CCD group rats, but without leaving an &#34;L&#34;-shaped stainless steel rod in the L4 and L5 intervertebral foramen. Rats in the CCD group underwent complete chronic dorsal root ganglion compression model surgery. Rats in the CCD + Tuina group received tuina therapy starting on the fourth day after the CCD surgery.</li>
</ol>
2. Establishing animal model
<ol>
	<li>Administer isofluorane&#160;to anesthetize rats. Once the rats lose consciousness (no tail flick reflex or leg flexion reflex), shave the hair in the surgical area using a razor. 
	NOTE:&#160;Analgesic drugs were applied 15 min before surgery and rats were injected subcutaneously with tramadol 20 mg/kg.</li>
	<li>Secure the rat on a foam board (see Table of Materials) and use rubber bands to secure its limbs and incisors. Wipe the prepared area with a sterile prep of alcohol and iodine alternation for a minimum of 3 cycles.</li>
	<li>Insert the &#34;L&#34;-shaped probe (see Table of Materials).
	<ol>
		<li>Use scissors to make a 2-3 cm incision through the skin, superficial fascia, and deep fascia layer by layer. First, locate the anterior superior iliac spine, which corresponds to the fifth lumbar spine. Then, sequentially locate the third and fourth spinous processes.</li>
		<li>Clamp the spinous process with toothed forceps and lift it to allow the scissors to be close to the right side of the spinous process and cut the muscle attached to the right side of the spinous process.</li>
		<li>Then, bluntly dissect the muscle attached to the outer surface of the vertebral plate until there is resistance to the right side. The protrusion is the zygapophysial joint. Similarly, bluntly dissect the muscle and fascia on the zygapophysial joint. 
		NOTE: The transverse process pointing to the rat&#39;s head direction will be touched first in the lower outer front of the zygapophysial joint. Below the transverse process is the intervertebral foramen, which is filled with nerve roots and surrounding soft tissues and is not usually easy to find.</li>
		<li>First, use an &#34;L&#34;-shaped probe to determine the position of the intervertebral foramen, and then use an &#34;L&#34;-shaped stainless steel rod (which needs to be made with a diameter of 0.4 mm and a length of 4 mm) to insert it into the intervertebral foramen.</li>
		<li>If the dorsal root ganglion is compressed successfully, the rat will exhibit a tail flick and leg flexion reflex. Insert the stainless steel rod into the fourth and fifth lumbar intervertebral foramen. Then, suture (3-0, see Table of Materials) the muscle, fascia, and skin layer by layer.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place the rat in a thermostatic box until it wakes up. After waking up, observe whether the function of the right hind limb of the rat is normal. If there is dragging, it means that the operation has injured the motor nerves, and the rat should be discarded. If the function of the right hind limb is normal, the rat can be used and placed in a cage for feeding.</li>
</ol>
3. Tuina therapy
<ol>
	<li>Establish a comfortable environment: before initiating Tuina therapy, acclimate the rat in the restrainer for 30 min to allow it to adapt (Figure 1). This device can fully expose the rat&#39;s thigh and immobilize it, facilitating Tuina maneuvers (see Table of Materials). 
	NOTE: The temperature in the treatment room should be maintained between 22-26 &#176;C, and the humidity should be between 40%-50%.</li>
	<li>Standardization of Tuina: ensure that the therapists wear wireless finger sleeves that can monitor the pressure and frequency of Tuina and provide real-time feedback data. First, practice Tuina with the feedback data of the finger sleeves, adjusting the force to 5 N and the frequency to 2 Hz. Then, perform the same maneuvers on the rats, maintaining a consistent force and frequency throughout the procedure (Figure 2). 
	NOTE: Based on our previous work, the calculated optimal pressing force is 5 N (see Discussion section for details).</li>
	<li>Identify the acupoint: select the gastrocnemius muscle of the right hind limb as the Tuina area of the rat, at the junction of the two heads of the gastrocnemius muscle, approximately at the location of BL5714.</li>
	<li>Perform the Tuina: ensure that the therapist faces the posterior aspect of the rat&#39;s thigh and holds the rat&#39;s right hind limb with their right upper limb. Position the thumb vertically on the BL57 acupoint, and ensure the forearm and fingers exert force to perform rhythmic small-range rotary motion while applying a 5 N pressure (Figure 3).</li>
	<li>During treatment, ensure the manipulation feedback&#39;s force and frequency correspond to the preset values. Initiate the intervention from the fourth day after surgery, with Tuina performed once a day for 15 min, continuously for 18 days.</li>
</ol>
4. Behavioral testing for pain
NOTE: Behavioral tests were conducted before modeling, after modeling, on intervention day 1, intervention day 3, intervention day 7, intervention day 14, intervention day 17, and intervention day 21.
<ol>
	<li>Perform Mechanical Stimulation Response Threshold (Paw Withdrawal Threshold, PWT) following the steps below (Figure 4).
	<ol>
		<li>Use the von Frey method to test the response threshold of mechanical stimulation in the rats&#39; feet. Place the rats in a transparent tempered glass compartment measuring 20 cm &#215; 10 cm &#215; 20 cm, which was placed on a metal wire grid stand with 10 mm &#215; 10 mm apertures at a height of 40 cm. Keep the room temperature at 23 &#177; 2 &#176;C, and the surrounding environment quiet.</li>
		<li>Measure the mechanical withdrawal threshold with electronic Von Frey fibers (see Table of Materials). Stimulate the rat&#39;s foot center until it moves noticeably, such as raising the leg or avoiding it. The machine records the maximum pressure value (N) automatically.</li>
		<li>Wait for 15 s or more before stimulating the same rat again. Keep each stimulation under 5 s to prevent tactile sensitization in the rat&#39;s paws. Repeat the test five times until the three consecutive measurements differ by less than 10 N.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Perform Paw Withdrawal Latency (PWL) in response to thermal stimulation (Figure 5).
	<ol>
		<li>Assess the PWL using the Hargreaves method15,16. Place the rats in a small chamber made of transparent tempered glass, measuring 20 cm x 10 cm x 20 cm, with a transparent glass lid with a vent hole. Heat the central area of the glass lid to 45 &#176;C using a heating plate until it reaches a stable temperature.</li>
		<li>During the behavioral testing phase, acclimate the rats to the behavioral lab for at least 2 h each day to minimize the impact of environmental factors on test results.</li>
		<li>Before the formal testing, place the rats in the behavioral lab for 30 min to allow them to adapt to the environment and reduce interference.</li>
		<li>Heat the heating plate to 45 &#176;C, and place the rat&#39;s hind limbs on the heating plate.</li>
		<li>The paw withdrawal latency (PWL) was defined as the time from the start of heating to the appearance of the paw withdrawal reflex in response to thermal stimulation. In each test, test the same hind limb three times in a row, and the average value to obtain the response latency of that hind limb. After testing, return the rats to their cages for feeding.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Perfusion
<ol>
	<li>Preparation: prepare a 0.9% saline solution and a 4% paraformaldehyde solution in advance. Place the saline solution in an oven set to a constant temperature of 37 &#176;C, and store the paraformaldehyde solution in a refrigerator at 4 &#176;C for later use.</li>
	<li>Perform anesthesia and establish access.
	<ol>
		<li>Start by injecting 25% Urethane (0.6 mL/100 g, see Table of Materials) into the rat&#39;s abdominal cavity to induce deep anesthesia. Wait until no toe, corneal, or turning reflex is observed. Fix the rat on a foam board.</li>
		<li>Cut the chest bone with scissors and open the skin and fascia layer by layer. Cut the diaphragm and cut off the ribs on both sides to fully expose the heart. Carefully separate the pericardium. Separate the lungs from the heart.</li>
		<li>Use forceps to pull and expose the aorta by pulling the heart toward oneself. Align the needle, left ventricle, and aorta in a straight line and on the same horizontal plane. Then insert the needle from the left ventricle into the aorta until the needle is visible inside the aorta.</li>
		<li>Use forceps to clamp the aorta and the needle inside the aorta, and then cut open the left atrium with scissors. At this time, a large amount of blood will spurt out of the left atrium. Open the valve for the saline solution and connect the saline injection to perfuse 37 &#176;C saline solution, for a total of about 150-200 mL.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After the saline perfusion is completed, switch to the 4% paraformaldehyde solution and perfuse with 4% paraformaldehyde solution for a total of about 400 mL at 4 &#176;C. When starting the paraformaldehyde perfusion, hold the rat&#39;s front teeth with one pair of forceps and pull them forward, while holding the tail with one hand and pulling it backward, which is advantageous for fully extending the spine and increasing the intervertebral foramen to facilitate DRG sampling.</li>
	<li>During the perfusion, the rat&#39;s liver, mesentery, and greater omentum gradually turn pale until the liver becomes stiff. Then, slow down the flow rate and adjust it to about 2 drops per second until all the paraformaldehyde is perfused.</li>
</ol>
6. Dorsal root ganglion collection
NOTE: After perfusion, quickly cut off the lumbar section of the rat spine. Locate the L5 and L4 intervertebral foramen by connecting the highest points of the iliac crest on both sides to the L5 lumbar spinous process using this positioning method, and remove the dorsal root ganglion from the intervertebral foramen. The specific collection method is as follows:
<ol>
	<li>From the entrance of the spinal canal (thoracic spinal canal), insert the scissors into the spinal canal and cut off the lamina on both sides until all the laminae can be completely removed, exposing the entire spinal canal. 
	NOTE: Be careful not to damage the spinal cord and nerve roots outside the spinal canal when cutting the laminae.</li>
	<li>Carefully remove the spinal cord and posterior longitudinal ligament. Separate the dura mater attached to the inner hole of the intervertebral foramen.</li>
	<li>Use ophthalmic forceps to clamp and pull out the dorsal root ganglion, which is shaped like a pearl and slightly yellowish. 
	NOTE: Due to the fragility and poor toughness of nervous tissue, it is necessary to grasp the strength and pulling direction when pulling out the dorsal root ganglion and not use brute force.</li>
	<li>When pulling out the dorsal root ganglion, ensure to clean the surrounding soft tissues, including the dura mater and arachnoid, in advance to facilitate the smooth pulling of the dorsal root ganglion.</li>
	<li>Place the dorsal root ganglion on absorbent paper, cut off the axon with a blade, and clean the blood vessels on the surface of the dorsal root ganglion.</li>
	<li>After trimming, weigh the dorsal root ganglion and immerse it in a 4% paraformaldehyde solution with a concentration of 4% and a temperature of 4 &#176;C for sufficient time, usually about 2-4 h, then transfer the dorsal root ganglion to 10%, 20%, and 30% PB sucrose solution (4 &#176;C) prepared in advance for stepwise dehydration.</li>
</ol>
7. Cryosectioning
<ol>
	<li>Start by placing the dorsal root ganglion in a 0.01 M PBS solution. Shake them for 10 min and then wash away the sucrose solution. Carefully trim the axon fibers of both segments of the dorsal root ganglia. Clean the cryosectioning machine&#39;s freezing head and add the optimal cutting temperature (OCT) compound to it (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Place the freezing head on the surface of a metal shell containing liquid nitrogen, wait until the tissue is frozen, remove it, and trim it flat. After that, place the freezing head on the base of the slicer. The thickness of the dorsal root ganglia slices should be 15 mm. Arrange the sliced thin sections in a wooden box in order and store them in a -20 &#176;C refrigerator, away from light.</li>
</ol>
8. Hematoxylin and Eosin staining
<ol>
	<li>Place the sections 2 min in xylene, and dehydrate them in a series of alcohols, including 100%, 95%, 80%, and 70%, for 2 min each. Then place the sections 2 min in distilled water, 1 min in hematoxylin, perform 5 min of tap water rinse, and perform differentiation in 1% saline alcohol solution for 30 s, followed by 30 s in saturated lithium carbonate.</li>
	<li>Next, place the slices 2 min each in distilled water and tap water, 5 min in eosin solution (0.5%), a 1 min quick rinse in distilled water, two rounds of 2 min each in 95% and 100% alcohol, 30 s in 100% xylene with added sodium bicarbonate, three rounds of 3 min each in xylene, and finally, seal with neutral balsam (see Table of Materials).</li>
</ol>

Standardized Tuina Protocol for Rat DRG Compression Model

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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+modified+Hargreaves+method+for+assessing+threshold+temperatures+for+heat+nociception.">A modified Hargreaves method for assessing threshold temperatures for heat nociception.</a> Journal of neuroscience methods. 219 (1), 41-51 (2013).</li><li>Cheah, M., Fawcett, J. W., Andrews, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+Thermal+pain+sensation+in+rats+and+mice+using+the+hargreaves+test.">Assessment of Thermal pain sensation in rats and mice using the hargreaves test.</a> Bio-protocol. 7 (16), e2506 (2017).</li><li>Randall, L. O., Selitto, J. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Our research group has conducted relevant studies on the parameters of Tuina manipulation in early stage. First, it is important to set the force intensity for Tuina manipulation. In clinical Tuina, practitioners adjust the force intensity according to their experience and patients&#39; subjective feelings, achieving the best Tuina effect through communication. However, this is not feasible in animal experiments. In animal experiments, a &#34;response threshold&#34; is used to define the intensity of Tuina manipulation. ...

In clinical settings, it is common to observe neurological pathological pain caused by nerve root compression due to various reasons. The most typical form of this neuropathic pain is lumbar disc herniation (LDH), which is often persistent, recurrent, and difficult to cure. Approximately 9% of the global population is affected by LDH, leading to significant social and economic burdens1. The incidence of this type of neuropathic pain is increasing yearly, with a trend toward younger patients, due to changes in human production and lifestyle2. Despite the use of non-steroidal painkillers, patients&#39; symptoms cannot be completely alleviated. As a result, alternative therapies, such as Tuina, for treating pain caused by LDH have gained increasing attention.
Tuina therapy, a form of conservative treatment for LDH, is widely recommended in various clinical practice guidelines worldwide for preventing and treating lower back pain3,4. Research has shown that Tuina can significantly lower inflammatory factors such as serum IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;) levels in LDH patients while improving patients&#39; pain and lumbar function impairment5. However, the specific mechanism behind Tuina therapy&#39;s pain-relieving effects remains unclear.
Animal models are a valuable tool for studying neuropathic pain caused by LDH6. They allow for behavioral measurements to evaluate the effectiveness of Tuina therapy and provide samples of the pathological physiology of LDH. For example, samples from the dorsal root ganglia in the thigh can be taken to verify changes in dorsal root ganglion cells. The chronic compression of the Dorsal Root Ganglion (CCD) model is commonly used to evaluate the pathological physiology of LDH, as it causes damage to the morphology of dorsal root ganglion cells that are consistent with the pathological changes seen in clinical cases of nerve compression caused by disc herniation7.
Many scholars have conducted several animal experiments on acupressure analgesia8,9,10. However, when implementing acupressure operations on animal models, they often imitate human acupressure. The therapeutic effect of acupressure is affected by factors such as the size, frequency, and the direction of the applied force11,12,13. If the experiment lacks a unified acupressure standard, such as the force, frequency, and duration of the operation, this may cause some deviation in the experimental results. This article introduces a set of acupressure treatment plans based on the characteristics of CCD rats, and promotes the development of standardized acupressure operations in animal models.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&#34;L&#34; stainless steel rod (4 mm long and 0.4 mm in diameter)</td>
			<td>hand-made</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>For CCD models making</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ALMEMO admeasuring apparatus</td>
			<td>ahlborn</td>
			<td>2450-1</td>
			<td>Mechanical Withdrawal Threshold test</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Constant temperature slicer CM-1900</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>1491950C1US</td>
			<td>For specimen production</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disinfectant (iodine) 100 mL/bottle</td>
			<td>LIRCON/Shandong Lilkang</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>For disinfection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable sterile syringe 5 mL</td>
			<td>Shanghai Misha Wa Medical Industry</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>For injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electron microscope CX-31</td>
			<td>Olympus, Japan</td>
			<td>BJ002318</td>
			<td>For specimen observation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Finger pressure recordings</td>
			<td>Suzhou Changxian Optoelectronic Technology</td>
			<td>CX1003w</td>
			<td>For Tuina manipulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Foam board (35 cm x 20 cm)</td>
			<td>hand-made</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>It is our homemade apparatus for fixing rats</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MERSILK W2512</td>
			<td>Johnson &#38; Johnson</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>For tissue suture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neutral balsam</td>
			<td>Sinopharm Chemical Reagent</td>
			<td>10004160</td>
			<td>For specimen production</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>China National Chemical Reagent</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>For specimen production</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pentobarbital sodium</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3761</td>
			<td>For anesthesia of rat</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plantar Test Apparatus (Hargreaves Method) for Mice and Rats</td>
			<td>IITC Life Science</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>Paw Withdrawal Latency</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Precision electronic scale for experiment JY3002</td>
			<td>Shanghai Precision Scientific Instrument</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>Weighing of rat</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rat hair clipper</td>
			<td>Philips</td>
			<td>HP6341/00</td>
			<td>Shaving of rat fur</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restrainer for rats</td>
			<td>Tongji University (self-made)</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>It is a homemade apparatus made by Tongji University, which can effectively immobilize the rats and fully expose their hind limbs.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek&#160;O.C.T. Compound</td>
			<td>SAKURA</td>
			<td>4583</td>
			<td>For specimen production</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Uratan</td>
			<td>China National Chemical Reagent</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>For anesthesia of rat</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>X-ray detector XR-600</td>
			<td>Dongguan Kaso Electronic Technology</td>
			<td>/</td>
			<td>Examination of CCD models</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>xylene</td>
			<td>Shanghai Sinopharm Group</td>
			<td>100092</td>
			<td>For specimen production</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analgesic effect of tuina on rat models with compression of the dorsal root ganglion pain

Neuropathic pain is a prevalent condition that affects 6.9%-10% of the population and results from nerve damage due to various etiologies, such as lumbar disc herniation, spinal canal stenosis, and intervertebral foramen stenosis. Although Tuina, a traditional Chinese manual therapy, has shown analgesic effects in clinical practice for the treatment of neuropathic pain, its underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain unclear. Animal models are essential for elucidating the basic principles of Tuina. In this study, we propose a standardized Tuina protocol for rats with compression of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG), which involves inducing DRG compression by inserting a stainless steel rod into the intervertebral foramen, performing Tuina manipulation with specific parameters of location, intensity, and frequency in a controlled environment, and assessing the behavioral and histopathological outcomes of Tuina treatment. This article also discusses the potential clinical implications and limitations of the study and suggests directions for future research on Tuina.

Tuina therapy can help decrease rats&#39; mechanical and thermal stimulation thresholds caused by CCD modeling 
After 17 days of Tuina therapy, a significant difference was observed in PWT thresholds between the CCD rats receiving Tuina therapy and the untreated CCD group (P = 0.021, &#60;0.05) (Figure 6 and Table 1).
The rats in the CCD group receiving Tuina therapy showed improvement in pain threshold from the begi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analgesic Effect of Tuina on Rat Models with Compression of the Dorsal Root Ganglion Pain at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Analgesic Effect of Tuina on Rat Models with Compression of the Dorsal Root Ganglion Pain  

This article presents a manipulation for treating chronic compression of the dorsal root ganglion in rats using Tuina therapy, along with a method for evaluating its effectiveness based on pain behavior and histopathological results.

Analgesic Effect of Tuina on Rat Models with Compression of the Dorsal Root Ganglion Pain

Neuropathic pain is a prevalent condition that affects 6.9%-10% of the population and results from nerve damage due to various etiologies, such as lumbar ...

analgesic-effect-tuina-on-rat-models-with-compression-dorsal-root

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

1.3K Views.  Yueyang Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional  Chinese Medicine. This article presents a manipulation for treating chronic compression of the dorsal root ganglion in rats using Tuina therapy, along with a method for evaluating its effectiveness based on pain behavior and histopathological results.

Video: Author Spotlight: Analgesic Effect of Tuina on Rat Models with Compression of the Dorsal Root Ganglion Pain  

Calibrated Forceps Model of Spinal Cord Compression Injury

Compression injuries of the murine spinal cord are valuable animal models for the study of spinal cord injury (SCI) and spinal regenerative therapy. The calibrated forceps model of compression injury is a convenient, low cost, and very reproducible animal model for SCI. We used a pair of modified forceps in accordance with the method published by Plemel et al. (2008) to laterally compress the spinal cord to a distance of 0.35 mm. In this video, we will demonstrate a dorsal laminectomy to expose the spinal cord, followed by compression of the spinal cord with the modified forceps. In the video, we will also address issues related to the care of paraplegic laboratory animals. This injury model produces mice that exhibit impairment in sensation, as well as impaired hindlimb locomotor function. Furthermore, this method of injury produces consistent aberrations in the pathology of the SCI, as determined by immunohistochemical methods. After watching this video, viewers should be able to determine the necessary supplies and methods for producing SCI of various severities in the mouse for studies on SCI and/or treatments designed to mitigate impairment after injury.

Spinal cord injury models should be highly reproducible. We demonstrate that the calibrated forceps compression model of spinal cord injury is an easy to use surgical method for generating reproducible injuries to the murine spinal cord.

Compression injuries of the murine spinal cord are valuable animal models for the study of spinal cord injury (SCI) and spinal regenerative therapy. The ...

Surgical Models of Gastroesophageal Reflux with Mice

Multiple surgical procedures have been reported to induce gastroesophageal reflux in animals. Herein, we report three surgical models with mice aiming to induce reflux of gastric contents, duodenal contents or mixed contents. Surgical procedures and general principles have been described in detail. A researcher with surgical experience should be able to grasp the technique after a short period of practice. After surgery, most mice can survive and develop reflux esophagitis similar to that in humans. However, it should be noted that histological differences between mouse and human esophagus are the inherent limitations of these surgical models. If used for research on Barrett&#8217;s esophagus and adenocarcinoma, these procedures may need to be combined with genetic modifications.

This article demonstrates surgical procedures of gastroesophageal reflux with mice. These models are useful tools for research on mechanisms and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease and potentially Barrett&#8217;s esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma.

Multiple surgical procedures have been reported to induce gastroesophageal reflux in animals. Herein, we report three surgical models with mice aiming to ...

The Monoiodoacetate Model of Osteoarthritis Pain in the Mouse

A major symptom of patients with osteoarthritis (OA) is pain that&#160;is triggered by peripheral as well as central changes within the pain pathways. The current treatments for OA pain such as NSAIDS or opiates are neither sufficiently effective nor devoid of detrimental side effects. Animal models of OA are being developed to improve our understanding of OA-related pain mechanisms and define novel pharmacological targets for therapy. Currently available models of OA in rodents include surgical and chemical interventions into one knee joint. The monoiodoacetate (MIA) model has become a standard for modelling joint disruption in OA in both rats and mice. The model, which is easier to perform in the rat, involves injection of MIA into a knee joint that induces rapid pain-like responses in the ipsilateral limb, the level of which can be controlled by injection of different doses. Intra-articular injection of MIA disrupts chondrocyte glycolysis by inhibiting glyceraldehyde-3-phosphatase dehydrogenase and results in chondrocyte death, neovascularization, subchondral bone necrosis and collapse, as well as inflammation. The morphological changes of the articular cartilage and bone disruption are reflective of some aspects of patient pathology. Along with joint damage, MIA injection induces referred mechanical sensitivity in the ipsilateral hind paw and weight bearing deficits that are measurable and quantifiable. These behavioral changes resemble some of the symptoms reported by the patient population, thereby validating the MIA injection in the knee as a useful and relevant pre-clinical model of OA pain.
The aim of this article is to describe the methodology of intra-articular injections of MIA and the behavioral recordings of the associated development of hypersensitivity with a mind to highlight the necessary steps to give consistent and reliable recordings.

Osteoarthritis (OA), or degenerative joint disease, is a debilitating condition associated with pain that remains only partially controlled by available analgesics. Animal models are being developed to improve our understanding of OA-related pain mechanisms. Here we describe the methodology for the monoiodoacetate model of OA pain in the mouse.

A major symptom of patients with osteoarthritis (OA) is pain that&#160;is triggered by peripheral as well as central changes within the pain pathways. The ...

Measuring the Effect of Chemicals on the Growth and Reproduction of Caenorhabditis elegans

Toxicological evaluation is crucial for understanding the effects of chemicals on living organisms in basic and applied biological science fields. A non-mammalian soil round worm, Caenorhabditis elegans, is a valuable model organism for toxicology studies due to its convenience and lack of animal ethics issues compared with mammalian animal systems. In this protocol, a detailed procedure of toxicological evaluation of chemicals in C. elegans is described. A clinical anticancer drug, etoposide, which targets human topoisomerase II and inhibits DNA replication of human cancer cells, was selected as a model testing chemical. Age-synchronized C. elegans eggs were exposed to either dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or etoposide, and then the growth of C. elegans was monitored every day for 4 days by the stereo microscope observation. The total number of eggs laid from C. elegans treated with DMSO or etoposide was also counted by using the stereo microscope. Etoposide treatment significantly affected the growth and reproduction of C. elegans. By comparison of the total number of eggs laid from worms with different treatment periods of chemicals, it can be decided that the reproductive toxicity of chemicals on C. elegans reproduction is reversible or irreversible. These protocols may be helpful for both the development of various drugs and risk assessment of environmental toxicants.

Measuring the Effect of Chemicals on the Growth and Reproduction of Caenorhabditis elegans

A basic protocol to evaluate the toxicity of chemicals in a model animal, Caenorhabditis elegans, is described. The method is convenient and useful for the development of pharmaceuticals as well as for the risk assessment of various environmental pollutants.

Toxicological evaluation is crucial for understanding the effects of chemicals on living organisms in basic and applied biological science fields. A ...

A Primary Human Trophoblast Model to Study the Effect of Inflammation Associated with Maternal Obesity on Regulation of Autophagy in the Placenta

Maternal obesity is associated with an increased risk of adverse perinatal outcomes that are likely mediated by compromised placental function that can be attributed to, in part, the dysregulation of autophagy. Aberrant changes in the expression of autophagy regulators in the placentas from obese pregnancies may be regulated by inflammatory processes associated with both obesity and pregnancy. Described here is a protocol for sampling of villous tissue and isolation of villous cytotrophoblasts from the term human placenta for primary cell culture. This is followed by a method for simulating the inflammatory milieu in the obese intrauterine environment by treating primary trophoblasts from lean pregnancies with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF&#945;), a proinflammatory cytokine that is elevated in obesity and in pregnancy. Through the implementation of the protocol described here, it is found that exposure to exogenous TNF&#945; regulates the expression of Rubicon, a negative regulator of autophagy, in trophoblasts from lean pregnancies with female fetuses. While a variety of biological factors in the obese intrauterine environment maintain the potential to modulate critical pathways in trophoblasts, this ex vivo system is especially useful for determining if expression patterns observed in vivo in human placentas with maternal obesity are a direct result of TNF&#945; signaling. Ultimately, this approach affords the opportunity to parse out the regulatory and molecular implications of inflammation associated with maternal obesity on autophagy and other critical cellular pathways in trophoblasts that have the potential to impact placental function.

Presented here is a protocol for sampling of human placental villous tissue followed by isolation of cytotrophoblasts for primary cell culture. Treatment of trophoblasts with TNF&#945; recapitulates inflammation in the obese intrauterine environment and facilitates the discovery of molecular targets regulated by inflammation in placentas with maternal obesity.

Maternal obesity is associated with an increased risk of adverse perinatal outcomes that are likely mediated by compromised placental function that can be ...

Spontaneous and Evoked Measures of Pain in Murine Models of Monoarticular Knee Pain

Pain is the main cause of disability from arthritis. There is currently an unmet need for adequate treatments for arthritis pain. Pre-clinical models are necessary and useful for studying the mechanisms of pain and for evaluating efficacy of arthritis therapies. Measuring pain in animal models of arthritis is challenging. We have developed methods for measuring evoked and spontaneous pain in three models of murine arthritis. We quantitate the evoked pain responses of mice subjected to firm palpation of a painful knee. We also evaluate spontaneous pain by the proportion of weight and the amount of time placed on each of their 4 limbs after induction of arthritis pain in one knee. Joint pain in these mouse models produces a significant increase in evoked pain responses and an alteration in weight bearing. Since mice are quadrupeds, they offload the painful limb to the contralateral limb, to the forelimbs, or some combination. These methods are simple, require minimal equipment, and are reproducible and sensitive for detecting pain. They are useful for studying both disease-modifying arthritis treatments and analgesics in mice.

We have developed an evoked measure of arthritis pain and coupled it with a standardized method for measuring spontaneous pain in different murine models of chemically induced arthritis. These measures are sensitive and reproducible for different types of joint pain.

Pain is the main cause of disability from arthritis. There is currently an unmet need for adequate treatments for arthritis pain. Pre-clinical models are ...

Three-Dimensional Finger Motion Tracking during Needling: A Solution for the Kinematic Analysis of Acupuncture Manipulation

Three-dimensional (3D) motion tracking has been used in many fields, such as the researches of sport and medical skills. This experiment aimed to use 3D motion tracking technology to measure the kinematic parameters of the joints of fingers during acupuncture manipulation (AM) and establish three technical indicators "amplitude, velocity and time". This method can reflect the operation characteristics of AM and provide quantitative parameters along three axes of multiple finger joints. The current evidence shows that the method has great potential for future applications such as the study of the dose-effect relationship of acupuncture, teaching, and learning of AM, and the measurement and preservation of famous acupuncturists' AM.

This experimental method describes a solution for the kinematic analysis of acupuncture manipulation with three-dimensional finger motion tracking technology.

Three-dimensional (3D) motion tracking has been used in many fields, such as the researches of sport and medical skills. This experiment aimed to use 3D ...

Partial Sciatic Nerve Ligation: A Mouse Model of Chronic Neuropathic Pain to Study the Antinociceptive Effect of Novel Therapies

Management of chronic pain remains challenging to this day, and current treatments are associated with adverse effects, including tolerance and addiction. Chronic neuropathic pain results from lesions or diseases in the somatosensory system. To investigate potential therapies with reduced side effects, animal pain models are the gold standard in preclinical studies. Therefore, well-characterized and well-described models are crucial for the development and validation of innovative therapies. 
Partial ligation of the sciatic nerve (pSNL) is a procedure that induces chronic neuropathic pain in mice, characterized by mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity, ongoing pain, and changes in limb temperature, making this model a great fit to study neuropathic pain preclinically. pSNL is an advantageous model to study neuropathic pain as it reproduces many symptoms observed in humans with neuropathic pain. Furthermore, the surgical procedure is relatively fast and straightforward to perform. Unilateral pSNL of one limb allows for comparison between the ipsilateral and contralateral paws, as well as evaluation of central sensitization. 
To induce chronic neuropathic hypersensitivity, a 9-0 non-absorbable nylon thread is used to ligate the dorsal third of the sciatic nerve. This article describes the surgical procedure and characterizes the development of chronic neuropathic pain through multiple commonly used behavioral tests. As a plethora of innovative therapies are now being investigated to treat chronic pain, this article provides crucial concepts for standardization and an accurate description of surgeries required to induce neuropathic pain.

Partial sciatic nerve ligation induces long-lasting chronic neuropathic pain, characterized by exaggerated responses to thermal and mechanical stimuli. This mouse model of neuropathic pain is commonly used to study innovative therapies for pain management. This article describes in detail the surgical procedure to improve standardization and reproducibility.

Management of chronic pain remains challenging to this day, and current treatments are associated with adverse effects, including tolerance and addiction. ...

Tuina Therapy for Frozen Shoulders in a Rat Model

Tuina in a Frozen Shoulder Rat Model: An Efficient and Reproducible Protocol

Frozen shoulder (FS) is a common condition with no defined optimal therapy. Tuina therapy, a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) technique used to treat FS patients in Chinese hospitals, has demonstrated excellent results, but its mechanisms are not fully understood. Building on a previous study, this work aimed to develop a Tuina protocol for an FS rat model. We randomly divided 20 SD rats into control (C; n = 5), FS model (M; n = 5), FS model Tuina treatment (MT; n = 5), and FS model oral treatment (MO; n = 5) groups. This study used the cast immobilization method to establish the FS rat model. The effect of Tuina and oral dexamethasone on the glenohumeral range of motion (ROM) was evaluated, and the histological findings were assessed. Our study showed that Tuina and oral dexamethasone were able to improve shoulder active ROM and preserve the structure of the capsule, with Tuina therapy proving to be more effective than oral dexamethasone. In conclusion, the Tuina protocol established in this study was highly effective for FS.

Author Spotlight: Investigating the Effectiveness of Tuina Therapy for Frozen Shoulder 

This study develops an efficient and reproducible Tuina protocol for treating frozen shoulder established in a rat model. This approach will help to study the Tuina therapy treatment method for frozen shoulders.

Frozen shoulder (FS) is a common condition with no defined optimal therapy. Tuina therapy, a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) technique used to treat FS ...

A Massager Based on Ding's Roll Manipulation to Treat Muscle Injury in a Rat Model

Mimicking Ding's Roll Method on Notexin-Induced Muscle Injury in Rats

Ding's roll method is one of the most commonly used manipulations in traditional Chinese massage (Tuina) clinics and one of the most influential contemporary Tuina manipulations in China. It is based on the traditional rolling method commonly used in the one finger Zen genre and named Ding's roll method. Due to its anti-inflammatory and blood circulation-promoting effects, Ding's rolling method has sound therapeutic effects on myopathy. Because of the large area of force applied to human skin, Ding's roll method is challenging to perform on experimental animals with small skin areas, such as rats and rabbits. Additionally, the strength of Tuina applied to the human body differs from that applied to experimental animals, so it may happen that the strength is too high or too low to achieve the therapeutic effect of Tuina during the experiment. This experiment aims to create a simple massager suitable for rats based on Ding's rolling manipulation parameters (strength, frequency, Tuina duration). The device can standardize manipulation in animal experiments and reduce the variation in Tuina force applied to different animals due to subjective factors. A rat model of notexin-induced skeletal muscle injury was established, and plasma injury markers creatine kinase (CK) and fatty acid binding protein 3 (FABP3) were used to assess the therapeutic effect of Tuina on skeletal muscle injury. The results showed that this Tuina massager could reduce the levels of CK and FABP3 expression and slow down the degree of skeletal muscle injury. Therefore, the Tuina massager described here, mimicking Ding's roll method, contributes to standardizing Tuina manipulation in experimental research and is of great help for subsequent research on the molecular mechanism of Tuina for myopathy.

Author Spotlight: Performing Tuina Massage in Rats Using a Self-Made Massager 

This protocol describes a simple device that mimics Ding's roll method, establishes a rat model of skeletal muscle injury, and uses hematoxylin-eosin staining to observe the pathology of damaged tissue and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect changes in serum damage markers.