我们要感谢教授约翰·理查兹，南卡罗来纳大学，授予我们访问发育的MRI数据库和有益的讨论。我们还要感谢我们的资助者大奥蒙德街儿童慈善，伦敦大学学院的影响及大挑战。

儿童1。设计脑电图与事件相关电位实验注：一个简单的实验是专为这篇文章可用于研究人脸处理幼儿的目的。下面的章节将描述实验，并解释如何利用MATLAB R2012b和Psychtoolbox V3.0.11 23,24来实现它。被用于这个例子从NimStim组情绪面部表情25拍摄的照片。根据要求这种刺激是一套可用于研究目的（ <a href="http://www.macbrain.org/resources.htm">http://www.macbrain.org/resources.htm</a> ）。 <ol><li>传输将RGB图像灰度，以减少刺激之间的差异。 见表1注：这些命令需要的图像处理工具箱（ <a href="http://www.mathworks.co.uk/products/image/">http://www.mathworks.co.uk/products/image/</a> ）。替代品可能会发现吨hrough的文件交换（ <a href="https://www.mathworks.co.uk/matlabcentral/fileexchange">https://www.mathworks.co.uk/matlabcentral/fileexchange</a> ）。 </li><li>用实验控制软件来实现的实验使用的一系列命令（ 见表1中的示例）刺激呈现触发器精确定时。 </li></ol> 2，数据采集<ol><li>确保儿童是舒服的测试环境。让年幼的孩子坐在他们的照顾者的膝盖上或在一个舒适的儿童座椅。让孩子看得见，摸得着的传感器网络应用到孩子的头之前。如果有多余的网，有​​家长也试一上，或放置一对玩偶或毛绒玩具。 </li><li>测量最大头围来选择对孩子正确的净尺寸。用尺量，并将其抱到鼻根。然后头部周围的测量周围的最大周长（〜1厘米INION以上）。注意：保持测量头围和记录用于日后分析26传感器网。它帮助，如果父母头上还测得让孩子更舒适的局面。 </li><li>识别头部的顶点在鼻根和INION和左和右耳部点之间的中点的距离的交叉点。标志着这点与中国的笔，以确保顶点通道应用时净值正确定位。 </li><li>适用于传感器网络，并确保关键通道与解剖标志（鼻根，INION，顶点和左/右乳突）对齐。注：为了获得最准确的结果，在头部通道的位置可以被数字使用特殊的数位化设备获得的。希望获得传感器的位置研究者应参阅相应的硬件和软件手册。另外，该承担的电极安置标准解剖沿兰电极地图dmarks都可以使用。这些地图可以被扭曲为在分析部分所述的年龄适当的头部模型。 </li><li>确保渠道有通过分别定位传感器与头皮接触良好;轻轻扭动每个传感器从一侧到另一侧移动的头发出的方式。 </li><li>测量信道增益和通道阻抗。点击“开始”，开始记录在NetStation的脑电记录软件，并开始增益和阻抗测量。如果测量不自动启动，使用“校准放大器”和“测量阻抗净”按钮。 </li><li>检查录音软件渠道阻抗大于50KΩ将出现红色的高。用移液管，以降低通道阻抗应用额外的电解质溶液。检查脑电图显示屏，显示频率高的活性，尽管比周边通道（扁线通道）低阻抗或明显少活动的渠道。这些信道可以甲肝e为头皮和需要调整接触不良。 </li><li>为了脑电图制备过程中让孩子舒适，让孩子听音乐，看年龄适当的卡通或使用其它实验者转移他们的注意力， 例如 ，吹肥皂泡的幼儿。 </li></ol> 3。分析<ol><li>预处理<ol><li>数字滤波器，一个高通滤波器的数据用切断在0.1赫兹，除去信道漂移27（表1）。 </li><li>对ERP的分析，应用低通滤波器，截止于30赫兹27（ 表1）。 </li><li>根据录制过程中设置的触发代码划时代的连续数据。对于大多数实验中，使用前200毫秒的基线刺激呈现和600毫秒后刺激间隔，以支付利息（ 表1）的时间间隔。 </li><li>删除包含移动或闪烁文物时代：标记C具有峰值hannels峰值幅度大于150毫伏 - 调整这个阈值取决于参与者组和数据质量。为了保持一致性，使用相同的阈值在一项研究中所有参与者。如果一个信道是高于此阈值的时期的30％以上，取出通道（通道活性可以从周围的通道内插，如果这些含有可接受的数据）。如果通道的20％以上都被标记为坏的时代，取出时代。如果信道的20％以上是由算法或拒绝历元的低于50％被保留，考虑从进一步的分析（ 表1）取出数据集。 注：百分比阈值时代和信道抑制是大概的数字是消除我们的经验噪音足量。神器在记录的金额有可能使用其他参与者组，实验范式或脑电图系统是不同的。实验者可能要调整的百分比阈值，并检查它们是否满意的神器拒绝。另外，实验者可以拒绝包含神器通过目视检查试验。 </li><li>再参照平均参考减去平均活动横跨从每个通道（ 表1）信道。注意：该顶点电极通常用作在NetStation的记录参考。 </li></ol></li><li>神器修正的独立成分分析<ol><li>将数据导入到更快的工具箱28和运行上的数据自动神器抑制算法（ 表1）。 </li><li>使用图形用户界面（GUI），用于速度更快;打开GUI，类型FA​​STER_GUI进入命令行模式。 </li><li>取消选择的过滤菜单中的过滤选项作为数据已经在悬置前过滤。 </li><li>指定的信道数：126脑电图频道与2 electrooculagram（EOG）频道。 </li><li>输入用于悬置的数据作为一个单元阵列的串标记。对于所提出的情况下，输入：{&#39;面子&#39;，&#39;涉农供应链&#39;}为面和炒脸上的条件。 </li><li>选择频道的独立成分分析（ICA）。通常情况下选择所有记录通道，包括。外部非脑电图渠道。 </li><li>指定在GUI的右窗格中的输入和输出文件夹。 </li><li>选择录音相应的频道文件。注：通道的文件的大部分EEG系统可以是从制造商处下载，或者可以从EEGLAB网站下载。 </li><li>点击RUN启动更快的处理速度。取决于记录和文件的数目的长度，这样的处理可能需要几个小时。 </li><li>目视检查记录，独立成分地图和ERP的处理后。 </li></ol></li><li>事件相关电位数据的通道电平分析<ol><li>结合几个渠道，形成一个虚拟的CHANNEL具有更好的信噪比（ 表1）。注：渠道的选择应根据文献或先验假设以前的报告。这表明在给定的时间窗口中的最高振幅选择信道是不建议29。 </li><li>获得类似的峰值幅度的措施，是指振幅和峰潜伏期表征的波形和进行统计检验（ 表1）。 </li></ol></li><li>建立边界元模型（BEM） <ol><li>段解剖MRI扫描与FreeSurfer。注：为了获得最准确的结果，基部边界元模型对单个MRI扫描每个参与者。如果这是不可行的，参与者的年龄匹配尽可能平均MRI模板应该被使用。请注意，BEMS不能被用于24个月以下的儿童。边界元模型假定每个壳（脑，头骨，皮肤）由一个封闭的外壳。然而，沿y翁荣南孩子的囟门在头骨不是封闭的，这违反了封闭外壳假设。 <ol><li>为了安装FreeSurfer软件，首先从FreeSurfer网站（下载<a href="http://freesurfer.net/fswiki/DownloadAndInstall">http://freesurfer.net/fswiki/DownloadAndInstall</a> ）。接下来，设置shell环境包括FreeSurfer;对于bashrc中，包括在bashrc文件下面的命令： <ol><li>导出FREESURFER_HOME = /应用/ freesurfer / </li><li>来源$ FREESURFER_HOME / FreeSurferEnv.sh 注意：这些命令假定FreeSurfer文件夹是在Unix系统上的应用程序文件夹。有关于如何设置FreeSurfer更多的细节与替代shell环境， 如 CSH / tcsh中，或FreeSurfer网站上的操作系统（ <a href="http://freesurfer.net/fswiki/DownloadAndInstall">http://freesurfer.net/fswiki/DownloadAndInstall</a> ）。 </li></ol></li><li>接下来，定义主题方向托里，即输出将被写入使用以下命令的文件夹： <ol><li>出口SUBJECTS_DIR = / ... / BEMS / 注意：结果可能会被写入到系统上的任何文件夹。 </li></ol></li><li>接下来，工作目录更改为包含使用以下命令为边界元模型的MRI检查文件的文件夹： <ol><li> CD /用户/ joebathelt / Neurodevelopmental_MRI_database /儿童/脑/ 注：在系统上的任何文件夹可以使用cd命令的语法来指定。这是主要的研究人员的文件结构的一个例子。 </li></ol></li><li>最后，使用以下命令启动重建： <ol><li>重建全我&lt;mri_file&gt;-subjid &lt;subject_id&gt; </li><li>重建全全subjid &lt;subject_id&gt; 注意：需要更换与所需的MRI扫描的在当前目录中的文件名&lt;mri_file&gt;。 &lt;subject_id&gt;可以代表股价与任何名称。 FreeSurfer将在主题目录下创建一个文件夹，此名称。根据所使用的系统上，最后一个命令可能需要一些时间来执行。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li>检查FreeSurfer分割不正确的分割， 例如 。重叠的领域，解剖学上不可能车厢等 。通过导入段到头脑风暴，并使用显示工具在GUI中： <ol><li>在头脑风暴中，选择解剖窗格。通过右键单击对象并选择“导入解剖文件夹”导入分割MRI检查。确保该文件夹与FreeSurfer输出被选中。通过右击并选择“显示”检查分割视觉。注意：可替换地，可以使用FreeSurfer命令。详细说明可在FreeSurfer网站上找到： <a href="http://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fswiki/RecommendedReconstruction">http://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fswiki/RecommendedR</a>econstruction。如果感兴趣分析的基础上解剖土地分割区域是理想，FreeSurfer功能<a href="https://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fswiki/mris_ca_label?action=fullsearch&amp;context=180&amp;value=linkto%3A%22mris_ca_label%22">mris_ca_label</a> ， <a href="https://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fswiki/mri_annotation2label?action=fullsearch&amp;context=180&amp;value=linkto%3A%22mri_annotation2label%22">mri_annotation2label</a>和<a href="https://surfer.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fswiki/mri_mergelabels?action=fullsearch&amp;context=180&amp;value=linkto%3A%22mri_mergelabels%22">mri_mergelabels</a>都可以使用。请参阅FreeSurfer出版物和在线帮助页以获取更多详细信息。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li>估计在头脑风暴的源活动<ol><li>通过在命令窗口中键入“头脑风暴”开始头脑风暴。 </li><li>通过从文件菜单中选择新建协议创建一个新的协议。 </li><li>添加一个新的主旨ECT的协议通过从文件菜单中选择新建主题。 </li><li>进口脑电图数据，关于这一问题的参与者通过右键单击并选择“导入MEG / EEG”。 </li><li>通过右键单击并选择“导入通道文件”导入声道文件。注：通道文件需要对齐MRI对源重建。头脑风暴使用的用户需要在MRI，以纪念4解剖参考点的系统。请参阅教程脑力激荡更多信息（ <a href="http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/CoordinateSystems">http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/CoordinateSystems</a> ）。作为一个特定的脑电图系统或理想情况下，可以使用进行了数字化的EEG记录之前，该头的位置所定义的信道文件的标准位置。 </li><li>检查边界元法和渠道调整预期：右键单击通道文件为主体，并导航到“MRI注册”和“;检查“。注意：如果模型中的领域重叠，或者如果通道边界元法中，源重建会产生不正确的结果。通过使用“编辑”选项中的“MRI分割”菜单中调整对齐。 </li><li>选择“噪声协方差矩阵”和“从拍摄计算”通过右键单击参与者来自各个时代的基线计算噪声协方差矩阵和。注：头脑风暴工具箱的作者建议使用短录音对角线噪声协方差矩阵（〜比渠道较少的时间点）和一个完整的一个用于较长的录音。请参阅头脑风暴源估计教程的详细资料： <a href="http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/Tutorials/TutSourceEstimation">http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/Tutorials/TutSourceEstimation</a> 。 </li><li>通过右击计算源模型上的主题，然后选择“COMPUT辰源模式“。 </li><li>使用深度加权最小模估计通过右击对象并选择“计算源”和“最小模估计”计算的反解。注：其他选项（DSPM，sLORETA）可供选择。每个选项都有不同的优点和缺点。该算法应该基于先验的考虑和以前的报告在文献中进行选择。此外，一些算法是在某些领域解决焦活化较好，而另一些更适合于广泛的活化。跨国公司用于此研究的基础上文献16以前的报告。为了保持一致性，应采用在一项研究中所有参与者的相同算法进行逆溶液。研究人员还可能需要比较​​强劲的结果如何是不同的逆解算法的应用。 </li><li>重复第3节研究中的所有参与者。注意：无论是使用梯度PHICAL混油界面或脚本重复处理步骤的参与者。看到头脑风暴文档说明（ <a href="http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/Tutorials/TutRawScript">http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/Tutorials/TutRawScript</a> ）。 </li><li>每多参加试验的平均源活动通过拖动录音过程菜单并选择“一般”和“按条件（须平均）”。 </li><li>通过选择“过程2”和拖动每个条件在一个窗口中对比的条件。然后，选择“测试”和“学生t-检验”或“学生t检验（配对）”根据设计。要在生成的统计图中的“统计”菜单中的显示进行多重比较，设置幅度和面积阈值。注：另外，在激活图可以导出到SPM（ <a href="http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/">http://www.fil。</a>ion.ucl.ac.uk / SPM /）进行更深入的统计分析（ <a href="http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/ExportSpm12%20HYPERLINK%20%22http:/neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/ExportSpm12%22)">http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/ExportSpm12 HYPERLINK“http://neuroimage.usc.edu/brainstorm/ExportSpm12”） 。</a> </li><li>计算的感兴趣的区域中的与事件相关的响应。对于基于土地分割的ROI，加载FreeSurfer土地分割右击皮质表面解剖菜单，选择“导入标签”。浏览相应的文件并加载它。现在，选择在功能数据菜单中的“侦察兵”窗格中的投资回报率。 </li><li>获得通过拖动文件到程序1窗口中的投资回报率事件相关的活动，然后从源菜单中的“童军提取时间序列”。注：有几个投资回报可同时选择和投资回报率的时间序列可以导出为进一步绘制和分析右击侦察员​​时间系列数据并选择“导出到Matlab的”。 </li></ol></li></ol>

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本文章介绍了高密度的脑电图为根据年龄适当的平均MRI模板和深度加权最小模估计在一个标准的ERP模式适合儿童使用的重建边界元模型皮质发电机的记录和分析。在这个范例中，面孔和炒面孔的照片呈现。不同的作者用这种模式来探讨人脸处理机制在开发35的发展。在渠道层面，在右侧枕颞渠道更负偏差的描述为面条件的炒脸上的条件。地形，延迟和响应特性都与N170组件34一致。?...

美国总统奥巴马所描述的人类大脑的科学发现与高度重视对健康和经济3（http://www.whitehouse.gov/share/brain-initiative）的下一个前沿领域。然而，像在自然科学的其他领域，神经科学依赖于方法和分析技术的进步进步。在大约在人类脑功能研究两种常用的非侵入性工具是磁共振成像（MRI）和脑电图（EEG）。这些工具利用不同的物理属性，并提供不同的见解与独特的优点和缺点大脑功能。 MRI使用的磁场内的水分子的磁特性，得到生物体组织的图像。受试者需要被放置在具有高磁场强度的磁体。在这个过程中参与者的运动受到限制，参与者必须容忍造成的磁快速变化的噪声场。除了结构图像，核磁共振也提供了衡量改变血液氧合研究脑功能成像（fMRI）的可能性。综上所述，MRI可提供高达0.5 立方毫米与现代高科技领域的扫描仪和优化参数4相对较高的空间分辨率。与此相反，功能磁共振成像的时间分辨率是有限的BOLD响应，其中仅间接反映神经活动5,6的高时间动态的慢动力学。 另一方面，脑电图测量通过放置在头皮上的电极所造成的神经元活性的改变的电活动。在脑电图技术的最新进展允许快速和方便的应用传感器的短期或长期的，固定的，以及动态的录音。因为脑电图的限制较少，它也是首选的某些参与者群体不容忍MRI环境中以及类似的方法儿科和某些老人科及精神科的人群。脑电图的特性显示出逆图案的那些核磁共振：时间分辨率是非常高的精确到毫秒，但其空间分辨率是有限的。电电流通过不同组织中的发电机和EEG电极之间的头皮的表面上。这导致混合并称为容积传导效应源活动的空间拖尾现象。因此，通过在电极上的头皮的表面上测得的活性反映了来自这可能是遥远的电极上的头1,7的位置多个源活性。 近年来大量的工作一直致力于MRI和脑电图的合并，以发挥各自的长处。工作的一号线是专门为同时采集脑电图和MRI的功能研究。另一种方法是使用由结构的MRI提供的空间信息来采取的卷C的账户onduction效果通过生物物理建模。对于脑电图记录的源重建利用结构信息是涉及儿童人群的研究特别有用。脑功能的发展的调查是了解如何复杂的认知技能是建立在简单的前体8顶。 这些调查有助于突出变化的神经基质和反应特性与变化，行为表现相关。但是，在开发过程中脑功能和认知的调查也带来了特殊的挑战。尤其是，这个机会对于功能性磁共振成像研究有限，因为让小孩和婴儿要么是睡着了还是镇静获得的MRI数据，而无需移动文物和参与者身心健康的负面影响。此外，脑电图是由父母，这让研究参与者的招聘更容易被认为是风险小，微创。 Ŧherefore，脑电图是首选幼儿大脑功能的许多调查的方法。在脑电图系统方法论的进步使高密度电极阵列具有128个或更多的渠道分钟内的应用。易于应用及穿着的舒适性是足够的，甚至允许脑电记录中最年轻的婴儿。然而，很多研究人员也不能只关心响应特定刺激的时空动态，也想比较介导的反应的神经基础。 在比较不同年龄组通道电平的ERP分析的普遍假设是相同的神经反应底物，但该时间或响应幅度的跨时代9有所不同。类似头皮地形经常被用来作为类似相关的神经活动的指标。然而，许多不同的源的配置可能会导致类似的头皮地形10。通过应用源估计，这uncertainty可以减小和量化。观测值的独立性是对脑功能的网络帐户的关键：如果源混合时，相关性会偏向更高的本地连接。源重建可应用于减少这种偏差11。可替换地，可以用于连接分析在定时和相位的差异，但这些数学模型要求是很难在非模拟的数据12，以评估假设。综上所述，源估计提供了额外的信息，以建立在有关解剖学和组织的生物物理特性通道水平脑电图和ERP分析。 不同的算法已经制订找到解决逆问题。这些算法大致可分为两类：参数和非参数13。参数模型假定一个或多个偶极子，可能在位置，方向和强度有所不同。与此相反，非参数模型含有多种呐大量偶极子与固定的位置和方向。在这些模型中，头皮电活动被解释为激活的在固定偶极子10,13,14的组合。非参数，分布源模型可以建立在有关解剖学和电导率在不同介质中。边界元模型结合电导率值的头部与不同的炮弹对大脑，脑脊髓液，和颅骨的主要组织。这是基于这样的假设电导率为每个隔间内大多不变，但显着的变化发生在不同的隔室的边界。有限元模型基础上，进一步细分MR扫描成灰质和白质，使电导率值可以分配给每个像素15。 在实际应用中，非参数化模型是用于重建源特别有用的复杂认知任务，其中所涉及的区域的数量可不知道10。边界元模型是最广泛使用于目前的文献，可能是因为更准确的有限元模型构成比较高的计算需求。此外，还有在灰质和白质相当大的个体间变异，使前端模块，应根据个人的MRI扫描。 非参数化模型需要匹配的头皮测定活性的正向模型的预测的第二步骤。再次，不同的方法具有不同的优点和缺点已经在文献中讨论的（参见Michel 等人，2004年为一个概观）。最广泛使用的算法是基于最小范数估计（MNE），其中头皮测量活动相匹配，以最低的总强度16的正向模型中的电流分布。跨国公司偏向疲弱和肤浅的来源。深度加权跨国公司算法试图通过引入权重降低表面偏置基于数学假设10矩阵。被广泛使用的LORETA方法也是基于加权跨国公司，但另外减少源的拉普拉斯算子，从而导致更顺畅的解决方案17,18。 LORETA已被发现表现最佳的单一来源的模拟研究19,20。然而，LORETA可能会导致过度的解决方案的平滑。深度加权MNE优选当来源是未知的或多个源可能是存在13，16。比较不同算法的结果来评估不同的模型假设的影响，建议。 综上所述，通过建模方法来源重建一直局限于儿童，直到最近。这是因为大多数脑电信号分析软件基于成人解剖，大大限制了孩子2,8源码解决方案的准确性依赖于头部模型。廉价获得的计算能力和提供源重建用户友好的软件使其能够克服这些限制。应用源估计到脑电提供基于单独通道水平的观察分析以上两个重要的优点：提高了空间分辨率和观测独立性。 源估计可能不翔实在某些情况下：头的良好覆盖，需要区分来源。具有128或更多个电极的高密度系统被推荐10,15;一个稀疏的覆盖面将作为一个空间滤波器导致更广泛的传播源的激活或假阴性结果10。此外，根据本文所述的方法源重建已被发现的皮质发电机。因此，不太适合约皮层下基底或皮质皮质下的相互作用假设检验。最后，源代码分析，应根据有关皮质基底详细的事先假设，同时现有的文献从其他成像方式考虑。空间滤波技术也可用于通过降低头皮上的电平的空间混合，以改善脑电图信号的空间分辨率。替代方法来减少无头造型容积传导效应的影响被使用， 例如 ，拉普拉斯滤波21或电流源密度分析22。但是，这些方法不提供有关神经发生源的详细信息，如体积传导效应不仅局限于传感器紧密的空间接近1。 在下面的章节中，本文介绍了如何为实验和脑在2岁以下的儿童认知功能的调查是在伦敦婴儿实验室设计的。接着，脑电图数据采集与孩子高密度低阻抗系统进行了讨论。然后，脑电图预处理和分析上的声道电平提出。 LastlY，本文侧重于结构MRI数据皮质来源的重建和源电平信号的分析处理。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1256">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:473px;">High-density EEG sensor net (128 or 256 channels)</td>
			<td style="width:448px;">HydroCel Geodesic Sensor Net 128</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Electrical Geodesic Inc., Oregon, US</td>
			<td style="width:88px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">EEG high impendance amplifier</td>
			<td>NetAmps 200</td>
			<td>Electrical Geodesic Inc., Oregon, US</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Data Acquisition Computer&#160;</td>
			<td>PowerMac G4</td>
			<td>Apple Inc, California, US</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Stimulus Presentation Computer</td>
			<td>Optiplex 745</td>
			<td>Dell Computers Inc., Texas, US</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Stimulus Presentation Software</td>
			<td>Matlab R2012b with PsychToolBox</td>
			<td>Brainard et al. 1997</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">EEG recording software</td>
			<td>NetStation 4.5.1</td>
			<td>Electrical Geodesic Inc., Oregon, US</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">EEG analysis software</td>
			<td>Matlab R2012b</td>
			<td>The Mathworks Inc.,&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td>EEGLAB</td>
			<td>Delorme et al. 2004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td>BrainStorm</td>
			<td>Sylvain et al. 2001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MRI processing software</td>
			<td>FreeSurfer</td>
			<td>Fischl et al. 2004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td>OpenMEEG</td>
			<td>Gramfort et al. 2010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">References</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="4" height="21" style="height:21px;">Delorme, A., &#38; Makeig, S. (2004). EEGLAB: an open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 134(1), 9&#8211;21.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="3" height="21" style="height:21px;">Sylvain, B., John, C., Dimitrios, P., &#38; Richard, M. (2011). Brainstorm: A User-Friendly Application for MEG/EEG Analysis. Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience, 2011, 1&#8211;13.</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="3" height="21" style="height:21px;">Fischl, B., Van Der Kouwe, A., Destrieux, C., Halgren, E., S&#233;gonne, F., Salat, D. H., et al. (2004). Automatically parcellating the human cerebral cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 14(1), 11&#8211;22.</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td colspan="4" height="21" style="height:21px;">Gramfort, A., Papadopoulo, T., Olivi, E., &#38; Clerc, M. (2010). OpenMEEG: opensource software for quasistatic bioelectromagnetics. BioMedical Engineering OnLine, 9(1), 45. doi:10.1186/1475-925X-9-45</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Brainard, D. H. (1997). The psychophysics toolbox. Spatial vision.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

cortical source analysis of high-density eeg recordings in children

脑电图是传统描述为具有高时间和低空间分辨率的影像学技术。在生物物理建模和信号处理的最新进展使人们有可能利用从类似结构的MRI能够提供高空间分辨率来克服这个限制1其他成像方式的信息。这对于那些需要高解析度的时间和空间域的研究特别有用。此外，由于应用方便和脑电图记录的成本低，脑电图往往是首选的方法，与人群，如幼儿，不容忍功能性磁共振成像扫描工作顺利。然而，为了调查哪些神经基础是从结构的MRI介入，解剖信息还是需要的。大多数脑电图分析软件包与基于成人解剖学标准头型号。这些模型用于儿童时的精确度是有限的2，因为合作mposition和头部的空间构型组织中的变化较显着的发展。3。 在本文中，我们提供基于单个结构MRI扫描或特定年龄头部模型重建高密度的脑电图皮质发电机在利用头部模型我们近期工作的概述。本文介绍如何脑电图记录被收购，加工，并与儿童人群在伦敦婴儿实验室，包括实验室的设置，任务设计，脑电图预处理，MRI检查处理，和EEG通道的水平和来源分析分析。

设计的ERP实验婴儿和儿童往往是具有挑战性的，因为他们的能力有限忍受长期反复的实验30。当实验者计划申请源的重建，因为准确的来源重建将需要高信噪比1， 图1显示了一个实验性协议，可以用非常年幼的儿童使用面处理机制，调查这个问题进一步恶化。该模式适用于a）在刺激呈现减少眨眼和眼球运动，因为孩子会少一些能够控制眼球运动比成年志?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cortical Source Analysis of High-Density EEG Recordings in Children at JoVE.com

Cortical Source Analysis of High-Density EEG Recordings in Children

近年来，出现了在估计头皮测量电活动的认知神经科学实验的皮质来源的兴趣日渐浓厚。本文介绍了如何高密度脑电图是从2岁在伦敦婴儿实验室采集和录音如何处理孩子的皮质来源的估计。

高密度的脑电图记录在儿童的皮质来源分析

EEG is traditionally described as a neuroimaging technique with high temporal and low spatial resolution. Recent advances in biophysical modelling and ...

cortical-source-analysis-of-high-density-eeg-recordings-in-children

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

21.2K 次观看.  UCL Institute of Child Health. 近年来，出现了在估计头皮测量电活动的认知神经科学实验的皮质来源的兴趣日渐浓厚。本文介绍了如何高密度脑电图是从2岁在伦敦婴儿实验室采集和录音如何处理孩子的皮质来源的估计。 

视频: Cortical Source Analysis of High-Density EEG Recordings in Children

Quantitative Assessment of Cortical Auditory-tactile Processing in Children with Disabilities

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology to quantitatively assess children&#39;s cortical processing of light touch, speech sounds and the multisensory processing of the 2 stimuli, without requiring active subject participation or causing children discomfort. To accomplish this we developed a dual channel, time and strength calibrated air puff stimulator that allows both tactile stimulation and sham control. We combined this with the use of event-related potential methodology to allow for high temporal resolution of signals from the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices as well as higher order processing. This methodology also allowed us to measure a multisensory response to auditory-tactile stimulation.

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology to quantitatively assess infants and children&#39;s cortical processing of light touch, speech sounds, and the multisensory processing of the 2 stimuli, without requiring active subject participation or causing discomfort in vulnerable patients.

皮质听觉，触觉加工的残疾儿童定量评价

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology ...

科研

行为学

Measurement of Fronto-limbic Activity Using an Emotional Oddball Task in Children with Familial High Risk for Schizophrenia

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with schizophrenia who are at familial high risk (FHR) may show similar cognitive and emotional changes. However, the neurological changes underlying the emergence of these symptoms remain unclear. This study sought to identify differences in frontal, striatal, and limbic regions in children and adolescents with FHR using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Groups of 21 children and adolescents at FHR and 21 healthy controls completed an emotional oddball task that relied on selective attention and the suppression of task-irrelevant emotional information. The standard oddball task was modified to include aversive and neutral distractors in order to examine potential group differences in both emotional and executive processing. This task was designed specifically to allow for children and adolescents to complete by keeping the difficulty and emotional image content age-appropriate. Furthermore, we demonstrate a technique for suitable fMRI registration for children and adolescent participants. This paradigm may also be applied in future studies to measure changes in neural activity in other populations with hypothesized developmental changes in executive and emotional processing.

This paper describes how to use the emotional oddball task and fMRI to measure brain activation in children and adolescents at familial high risk for schizophrenia (FHR).&#160;FMRI was used to measure differences in fronto-striato-limbic regions during an emotional oddball task. Children with FHR exhibited abnormal functional activation during adolescence.

的额边缘活度测量在儿童使用情绪穿着或行为古怪的任务与家族性高风险的精神分裂症

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with ...

Measuring Attentional Biases for Threat in Children and Adults

Investigators have long been interested in the human propensity for the rapid detection of threatening stimuli. However, until recently, research in this domain has focused almost exclusively on adult participants, completely ignoring the topic of threat detection over the course of development. One of the biggest reasons for the lack of developmental work in this area is likely the absence of a reliable paradigm that can measure perceptual biases for threat in children. To address this issue, we recently designed a modified visual search paradigm similar to the standard adult paradigm that is appropriate for studying threat detection in preschool-aged participants. Here we describe this new procedure. In the general paradigm, we present participants with matrices of color photographs, and ask them to find and touch a target on the screen. Latency to touch the target is recorded. Using a touch-screen monitor makes the procedure simple and easy, allowing us to collect data in participants ranging from 3 years of age to adults. Thus far, the paradigm has consistently shown that both adults and children detect threatening stimuli (e.g., snakes, spiders, angry/fearful faces) more quickly than neutral stimuli (e.g., flowers, mushrooms, happy/neutral faces). Altogether, this procedure provides an important new tool for researchers interested in studying the development of attentional biases for threat.

Here we describe a touch-screen visual search paradigm that can be used to study threat detection across the lifespan. The paradigm has already been used in various studies demonstrating that both children and adults detect threatening stimuli like snakes, spiders, and angry faces faster than non-threatening stimuli.

测量注意偏向对威胁儿童和成人

Investigators have long been interested in the human propensity for the rapid detection of threatening stimuli. However, until recently, research in this ...

Testing Sensory and Multisensory Function in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

In addition to impairments in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, deficits in sensory processing are now recognized as a core symptom in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Our ability to perceive and interact with the external world is rooted in sensory processing. For example, listening to a conversation entails processing the auditory cues coming from the speaker (speech content, prosody, syntax) as well as the associated visual information (facial expressions, gestures). Collectively, the &#8220;integration&#8221; of these multisensory (i.e., combined audiovisual) pieces of information results in better comprehension. Such multisensory integration has been shown to be strongly dependent upon the temporal relationship of the paired stimuli. Thus, stimuli that occur in close temporal proximity are highly likely to result in behavioral and perceptual benefits &#8211; gains believed to be reflective of the perceptual system&#39;s judgment of the likelihood that these two stimuli came from the same source. Changes in this temporal integration are expected to strongly alter perceptual processes, and are likely to diminish the ability to accurately perceive and interact with our world. Here, a battery of tasks designed to characterize various aspects of sensory and multisensory temporal processing in children with ASD is described. In addition to its utility in autism, this battery has great potential for characterizing changes in sensory function in other clinical populations, as well as being used to examine changes in these processes across the lifespan.

We describe how to implement a battery of behavioral tasks to examine the processing and integration of sensory stimuli in children with ASD. The goal is to characterize individual differences in temporal processing of simple auditory and visual stimuli and relate these to higher order perceptual skills like speech perception.

测试儿童的感官和多感官功能自闭症谱系障碍

In addition to impairments in social communication and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors, deficits in sensory processing are ...

Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to adulthood. The method, which is identical for children, adolescents, and adults, is of short duration (&#60; 15 min), does not rely on sustained attention or place demands on memory (which would yield spurious age differences), and minimizes the impact of language development, making this method amenable to the cognitive limitations of pediatric populations. In this whole-mouth tasting method, subjects are asked to taste (without swallowing) pairs of solutions of different sucrose concentrations and to point to the solution they prefer. Each subsequent pair contains the participant&#39;s preceding preferred concentration and an adjacent stimulus concentration. The procedure continues until the subject chooses either a given concentration of sucrose when paired with both a higher and a lower concentration, or the highest or lowest concentration two consecutive times. Subjects are prevented from reaching response criteria on the basis of first or second position bias by the two-series design of the method, which counterbalances the order of solution presentation within each pair between the series (the weaker concentration is presented first in Series 1, second in Series 2). The geometric mean of the two sucrose concentrations chosen in Series 1 and 2 is an estimate of the participant&#39;s most preferred level of sucrose. Sucrose preference as determined with this laboratory-based measure has been shown to be associated with preference for sugars in foods and beverages and with taste receptor genotype, family history of alcoholism, and race/ethnicity, as well as depressive symptomatology among pediatric populations. The method has real-world relevance and has been applied to determine most preferred level of other tastes (e.g., salt), making it a valuable psychophysical tool.

Sweet taste has powerful hedonic appeal among people of all ages, particularly children. Described herein is a reliable and valid method that can be used to determine the level of sweetness most preferred, making it a valuable psychophysical tool for scientists.

心理跟踪方法来衡量儿童和成人的口味偏好

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to ...

Automatic Detection of Highly Organized Theta Oscillations in the Murine EEG

Theta activity is generated in the septohippocampal system and can be recorded using deep intrahippocampal electrodes and implantable electroencephalography (EEG) radiotelemetry or tether system approaches. Pharmacologically, hippocampal theta is heterogeneous (see dualistic theory) and can be differentiated into type I and type II theta. These individual EEG subtypes are related to specific cognitive and behavioral states, such as arousal, exploration, learning and memory, higher integrative functions, etc. In neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer&#39;s, structural and functional alterations of the septohippocampal system can result in impaired theta activity/oscillations. A standard quantitative analysis of the hippocampal EEG includes a Fast-Fourier-Transformation (FFT)-based frequency analysis. However, this procedure does not provide details about theta activity in general and highly-organized theta oscillations in particular. In order to obtain detailed information on highly-organized theta oscillations in the hippocampus, we have developed a new analytical approach. This approach allows for time- and cost-effective quantification of the duration of highly-organized theta oscillations and their frequency characteristics.

Theta activity in the hippocampus is related to specific cognitive and behavioral stages. Here, we describe an analytical method to detect highly-organized theta oscillations within the hippocampus using a time-frequency (i.e., wavelet analysis)-based approach.

高度组织的Theta振荡在鼠脑的自动检测

Theta activity is generated in the septohippocampal system and can be recorded using deep intrahippocampal electrodes and implantable ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &amp;#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

评估儿童工作记忆：儿童综合评估电池 - 工作记忆（CABC-WM）

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

Reversible Cooling-induced Deactivations to Study Cortical Contributions to Obstacle Memory in the Walking Cat

On complex, naturalistic terrain, sensory information about an environmental obstacle can be used to rapidly adjust locomotor movements for avoidance. For example, in the cat, visual information about an impending obstacle can modulate stepping for avoidance. Locomotor adaptation can also occur independent of vision, as sudden tactile inputs to the leg by an expected obstacle can modify the stepping of all four legs for avoidance. Such complex locomotor coordination involves supraspinal structures, such as the parietal cortex. This protocol describes the use of reversible, cooling-induced cortical deactivation to assess parietal cortex contributions to memory-guided obstacle locomotion in the cat. Small cooling loops, known as cryoloops, are specially shaped to deactivate discrete regions of interest to assess their contributions to an overt behavior. Such methods have been used to elucidate the role of parietal area 5 in memory-guided obstacle avoidance in the cat.

Complex locomotion in naturalistic environments requiring careful coordination of the limbs involves regions of the parietal cortex. The following protocol describes the use of reversible cooling-induced deactivation to demonstrate the role of parietal area 5 in memory-guided obstacle avoidance in the walking cat.

可逆冷却诱导 Deactivations 对行走猫的障碍记忆的皮层贡献研究

On complex, naturalistic terrain, sensory information about an environmental obstacle can be used to rapidly adjust locomotor movements for avoidance. For ...

Classical Short-Delay Eyeblink Conditioning in One-Year-Old Children

Classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) refers to the learned association between a conditioned stimulus (an auditory tone) and an unconditioned stimulus (a puff of air to the cornea). Eyeblink conditioning is often used experimentally to detect abnormalities in cerebellar-dependent learning and memory that underlies this type of associative learning. While experiments in adults and older children are relatively simple to administer using commercial equipment, eyeblink conditioning in infants is more challenging due to their poor compliance, which makes correct positioning of the equipment difficult. To achieve conditioning in one-year-old infants, a custom-made or an adapted commercial system can be used to deliver the air puff to the infant's cornea. The main challenge lies in successfully detecting and classifying the behavioral responses. We report that automated blink detection methods are unreliable in this population, and that conditioning experiments should be analyzed using frame-by-frame analysis of supplementary video camera recordings. This method can be applied to study developmental changes in eyeblink conditioning and to examine whether this paradigm can detect children with neurological disorders.

This protocol describes an eyeblink conditioning paradigm appropriate for experiments with one-year-old infants. Commercial or custom-made equipment can be used to deliver the stimuli, and data collection and analysis should be performed on the video recordings.

经典短时滞上只是一眨眼在一岁儿童中的调节作用

Classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) refers to the learned association between a conditioned stimulus (an auditory tone) and an unconditioned stimulus (a ...

An Electrophysiology Protocol to Measure Reward Anticipation and Processing in Children

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation and processing. Its purpose is to create a reward task that is appropriate for young children with and without autism while controlling reward properties between two conditions: social and nonsocial. The current protocol allows for comparisons of brain activity between social and nonsocial reward conditions while keeping the reward itself identical between conditions. Using this protocol, we found evidence that neurotypical children demonstrate enhanced anticipatory brain activity during the social condition. Furthermore, we found that neurotypical children anticipate social reward more robustly than children with autism diagnoses. As the task uses snacks as a reward, it is most appropriate for young children. However, the protocol may be adapted for use with adolescent or adult populations if snacks are replaced by monetary incentives. The protocol is designed to measure electrophysiological events (event-related potentials), but it may be customized for use with eye-tracking or fMRI.

This protocol is designed to measure reward anticipation and processing in young children with and without autism. Specifically, the protocol is designed to study the neural correlates of reward during social and nonsocial conditions while controlling for reward between conditions.

儿童奖励预期与处理的电生理学协议

We present a protocol designed to measure the neural correlates of reward in children. The protocol allows researchers to measure both reward anticipation ...