非常感谢这一范式的开发商，尤其是韦斯利克拉普，安妮·贝瑞，乔蒂·米什拉，迈克尔鲁本斯，和西奥多Zanto。这项工作是由美国国立卫生研究院资助5R01AG0403333（AG）的支持。

下面的步骤列举如何执行这项新的认知范式旨在阐明外部干扰的神经行为方面的延迟确认工作记忆，与变化的配对脑电图或功能磁共振成像进行了优化。在此之前，通过适当的机构审查委员会和/或人参加审查委员会开始收集数据，完成所有必要的人力，参与研究的批准。 1.准备<ol><li>下载并安装实验演示软件，如E-总理，演示文稿或PsychoPy，按照制造商的说明，到一个专用的刺激呈现计算机。 </li><li>准备一个合适的键盘，用于实验的反应。添加“是”和“否”的标签，以两个相邻的键（ 图1）。 注：在这个实验中利用核磁共振成像的版本，使用MR兼容的键盘。 </li><li>对于这名P听觉版本aradigm，准备适当的测试方式的耳机（即：脑电图或MR兼容，如果必要的话），根据制造商的指示，并在65分贝（dB）的声压级（SPL），这是一个舒适的水平调节声级以供呈现对于听力正常的人。 </li><li>对于老年人的实验，进行初步的神经和感官放映，如视觉和听觉来选择适当的筛选研究人群。 <ol><li> Neuropscyhological筛查<ol><li>创建一个神经心理学评估电池的老年人筛查认知障碍。管理测试由纸和铅笔，或用于测试计算机上适应的电池。 注：测试可能包括简易精神状态检查（MMSE）35，全球恶化分数（GDS）36，加州言语学习测试（CLVT）37，数字广度38,39，跨度符号40，字母-数字排序41，熟食店，卡普兰执行功能系统（D-KEFS） -连线测验42，控制字联想测验（COWAT）43，44。 </li><li>管理此电池给所有的成年参与者。分数按他们各自的得分指导方针的所有测试。 </li><li>如果招募健康的老年人，排除潜在参与者的分数低于人口大于两个标准差的意思，或根据客户要求排除标准。 </li></ol></li><li>视力筛查<ol><li>对于视觉实验，屏幕正常或矫正到正常视力采用问卷调查的初步询问是否参与者有正常或矫正到正常视力。 </li><li>跟进，进行一张视力表视力测试，并排除不参加正常或矫正到正常的（20/20或更高）的愿景。 </li></ol></li><li>对于听觉实验，筛选正常听力： <ol><li>在初步调查问卷​​，问WHE疗法参与者有正常或矫正到正常的听力，并排除那些谁不。 </li><li>跟进，获得听觉灵敏度的客观测量。进行一次实验室听力评估用几种方法之一： <ol><li>利用听力损失筛查应用程序，例如“uHear”。使用此应用程序的自动计算结果，排除患有听觉灵敏度“听力正常”范围之外。 </li><li>按升序和降序极限法6000赫兹的频率范围在两个耳朵 - 评估在250听力阈值。个体平均听力阈值大于50分贝的任一耳的任何测试频率，标志着中度听力损失，应排除</li></ol></li></ol></li></ol></li></ol> 2.实验设计<ol><li>辖下三个不同的干扰条件的延迟识别工作记忆任务秒（与用于神经实验第四基线条件）中的块设计（也参见图2和表1）。重复每个条件两次，平衡的顺序（平衡拉丁方设计建议）。需要注意的是实验时间和试验次数范式变种之间变化;利用表1中详述的参数。 </li><li>忽略分神刺激条件（DS）： <ol><li>显示一个提示指示参与者要记住的线索刺激而忽略了分散注意力的刺激​​，同时继续保持提示刺激的表示。指示参与者响应“是”，如果探测刺激匹配线索刺激或“NO”如果探针不刺激匹配。 </li><li>呈现提示的刺激，紧跟一个短的延迟（延迟1）。 </li><li>显示干扰“牵引”的刺激，紧接着第二短延迟（延迟2）。 注意：参与者不需要（并且不应该）与牵引刺激相互作用。 </li><li>目前探测刺激和收集响应。 </li></ol></li><li>顾不上中断刺激（辅助工作）条件（IS）： <ol><li>显示一个提示指示参与者要记住的线索刺激和使用后出现的干扰刺激完成次要任务。显示说明如下：“按一个按钮只有在中断刺激匹配的一套判别准则”完成的次要任务。指示参与者响应“是”，如果探测刺激匹配线索刺激或“NO”如果探针不刺激匹配。 注：判别标准是不同的每个范例的变体，并在接下来的部分中描述。 </li><li>目前线索刺激，紧接着一个短的延迟（延迟1）。）提出了一个干扰“阻断”刺激一第二收集辅​​助（歧视）任务的响应。下面，介绍第二短的延迟（延迟2）。 注：完成次要任务，需要关注“阻断”。 </li><li>目前探测刺激和收集响应。 注：试验的百分之十是抓审判中的断续相匹配的判别准则;添加额外的试验（10％），以该块以补偿丢弃试验。排除神经分析所有捕捞试验由于混杂的运动反应。 </li></ol></li><li>无干扰刺激条件（NI）： <ol><li>显示一个提示，指示参与者要记住的线索刺激和记住它。指示参与者响应“是”，如果探测刺激匹配线索刺激或“NO”如果探针不刺激匹配。 </li><li>呈现提示的刺激，紧跟一个延迟。显示中央固定十字上的空白s在延迟期间creen。 </li><li>目前探测刺激和收集响应。 </li></ol></li><li>基线/被动视图（或收听）条件（仅限于神经的实验）（PV / PL） <ol><li>神经影像学的任务，使&#39;增强&#39;和神经活动过程中/ DS条件相对时被动的参与者了解基本活动的“镇压”的计算（/听）的工作记忆和干扰刺激中包括被动观看/收听条件，无任务目标。 （ 见表2）。 </li><li>显示一个提示指示参与者被动视图（/听）所有视频（/听觉）任务的刺激。显示提示完成简单的辨别任务。 <ol><li>对于视觉任务，指示参与者按对应于所显示的箭头的方向的按钮（左或右）。 </li><li>对于听觉任务，指导参与者按相应频率的按钮范围容易地辨别高（2千赫）或低（0.5千赫）频率的声音扫描（高或低）。 </li></ol></li><li>目前顺序或显示提示刺激，延迟1，干扰刺激，并延迟2。 </li><li>提出了一个箭头（视觉）或声音扫描（听觉）代替探针的刺激并收集反应作为参与者完成简单辨别任务（如上所述）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 3.刺激 1.一般制备的刺激<ol><li>从下面所描述的类别的一组刺激（也参见图2和表1）。 </li><li>仔细决定是否对主内存的工作任务与刺激的主题一致或不一致的干扰刺激（见下文说明）。 </li><li>确保所有的图像大小或重新大小225像素宽，300像素高（14×18厘米）。 </li><li>目前图像foveally，对着3度视觉ANGL的E从固定。 注：对于fMRI的实验中，使用干扰的刺激不一致与主工作记忆任务的刺激，例如，面部干扰场景工作存储器或反之亦然期间。为了精确定位面部和现场具体感觉皮层区域，适用于之前工作记忆实验的fMRI定位任务。然后，干扰模式中，使用这些场景和脸选择性皮层区域来同时分析神经活动动力学到工作存储器线索刺激（ 例如，场景）和不一致的干扰刺激。 （ 例如，面对） </li></ol> 2.高级别视觉刺激<ol><li>对于正面的刺激，从准备灰阶照片的男性和女性的面孔几百提示/探头面的刺激，用中性的表达，在一个大型的成人年龄范围。清除头发和耳朵数字，和整个脸的轮廓应用模糊。 </li><li>对于场面的刺激，准备几个洪特红色提示/探头场景刺激，从灰阶照片的自然景象。 </li><li>延迟1之后，提出了一个刺激的干扰，包括场景或脸。在90％的试验，提出了一个脸，是不是“男性和年龄超过40岁的”;在审判的另外10％，呈现出面部是男性，年龄超过40岁。 </li><li>对于“顾不上中断”的情况，指导参与者使用干扰刺激（线索和探头之间呈现）来完成以下次要任务。请参与者回答“YES”，如果中断的脸是男性，年龄超过40岁。 </li></ol> 3.低级别的视觉运动刺激<ol><li>创建一个包含290空间随机灰度点的圆孔提示/探针刺激（0.08度x 0.08每度）的对着8度的可视角度在75厘米观看距离，在中心凹。 </li><li>显示屏移动的小圆点，100％的运动黏结NCE以每秒10度，倾斜的角度在的运动（3中每个扇区）12个不同的方向之一。 </li><li>使用自适应楼梯阈值步骤（2度增量），以建立一个视觉判别值产生略低于100％的准确度，使得在第一误差试验达到鉴别阈值。 </li><li>延迟1后，提出了一个干扰刺激由点逆时针方向打圈。在渲染一个“正常”的速度这项议案（每秒10度）90％的试验，并在快速审判的另外10％。 </li><li>在顾不上中断情况，指导学员完成以下次要任务：回答“YES”，如果中断漩涡快。 </li></ol> 4.低级别的听觉刺激的运动<ol><li>创建跨越的频率范围的声音运动与扫描中等频率的900和1100赫兹之间随机选择的提示/探头刺激。构建声音运动扫频率处开始从中间频率和结束±0.5个八度，在从中频±0.5八度。 </li><li>现在的“向上”（从-0.5到+0.5在结束八度音）和“向下”（从+0.5和-0.5个八度结束）运动横扫刺激相等部分。 </li><li>将音量调节到65分贝SPL舒适的听力水平。 </li><li>阈值：使用自适应激爽过程来建立听觉辨别精度在85％的正确表现。 </li><li>延迟1后，提出了一个刺激的干扰由单一色调。玩的频率2 kHz的90％，试验的语气，和2.3千赫试验的另外10％的音调。 </li><li>在顾不上中断情况，指导学员完成以下次要任务：如果响应中断基调是一个更高的频率提示（2.3千赫）。 </li></ol> 5.探头刺激<ol><li>对于所有的WM任务，确保探头刺激的50％相匹配的线索。 </li><li>在与阈值鉴别电5,10,11低级运动任务，设置探头的刺激，不提示匹配的50％，从提示由参与者的阈值刺激判定电平的绝对值不同。 注意：例如，如果阈值建立一个参与者的视觉辨别水平为10度，配对视觉运动线索在45度移动与探针移动在任一45度（匹配于50％的试验）或45±10度（35或55度; 50％的审判每一个非匹配）。 </li></ol> 4.比较干扰状况<ol><li>使用统计软件，如SPSS，之前在重要的时间点，比较行为表现和神经活动，期间和之后，不同类型的干扰。 注：有几个手册在线提供一步一步的说明和截图，描述了如何使用和运行简单的国家统计l在SPSS分析。 <ol><li>由干扰状况相对性能在没有干扰的条件（ 图4）中的对比的工作存储器的精度和响应时间计算干扰对上的行为表现的中断的影响。例如，配对t检验可用于比较任意两个干扰（或基线）条件之间准确性或RT。 注：在两个特定任务的条件之间t检验比较，重复测量方差分析，建议在所有的工作记忆条件比较范式。 </li><li>对于神经影像学检查，前处理，并根据相应的pipline为模态和感兴趣的措施处理数据。 <ol><li>对于脑电图研究，脑电图的过程与数据或EEGLAB软件包的选择，使用软件的说明和建议的处理流。 </li><li>对于fMRI研究，过程与功能磁共振成像软件PAC数据选择（如AFNI，SPM，FSL等）的卡格，使用软件的指示，并建议处理流。 </li></ol></li><li>为了评估神经活动调制作为干涉的结果在工作存储器中，在被动视图统计学对比在这些条件下对神经活动的神经数据（/收听）的条件，从而控制为基本知觉处理（ 图4）。 <ol><li>计算的测量，使得正值总是表示更大的增强基线以上或低于基线更大抑制。对于P100，通过从由被动观看刺激（PV）诱发减去量化的神经活动的分散注意力的刺激（DS）的计算神经抑制（ 即 ：光伏- DS）中。减去量化的BOLD活性与由中断刺激诱 ​​发的基线被动观看刺激计算增强功能磁共振成像（IS）（ 即 ：IS - PV）。 </li></ol></li><li>在出席中断统计学比较由忽略分心与活性引起的神经调制到开始，以确定在工作记忆的自上而下注意在不同类型的干扰的分辨率的具体影响。 </li></ol></li></ol>

作者什么都没有透露。

一种新的认知范式已经显示出疗效调查通过分心和干扰工作记忆干扰。这种模式和它的几个变种，横跨感觉形式，刺激复杂程度和成像的方法延长其使用有详细。 在开始实验，预屏幕上的所有参与者，以确保适当的认知和感知能力。对于使用低级别听觉刺激实验中，施用的自适应阈值化过程来校准刺激以参与者之间等效困难的感知鉴别电平。坚持以实验变量参数预期的成像?...

大量的文献已经证明是不利的信息中的干扰来自外部环境1-9工作记忆（WM）的维持。外部干扰可分为两种基本类型;干扰无关信息的一个有意忽略：这需要引起注意的另一个（二级）任务目标的一部分分心，干扰和信息：中断。使用内参与者设计比较这些类型的外部干扰的研究使得能够对目标为中心的自上而下注意在加工的神经行为影响外部干扰和分辨率的评估。 最近，Gazzaley实验室设计了一个范例，有利于发生在一个工作记忆任务的设置“要被出席”中断比较和“要被忽略&#39;分心。从这个范例新出现的证据表明，这些不同类型的分机ernal干扰会对行为不同的影响，并有明显的潜在的神经机制2-5,10,11。这种模式已经显露正常老化2,3,4,10,11外部干扰处理分歧;尽管在干扰的情况下老化赤字并不总是5;它具有干扰通过干扰项与断续器使用的面孔和场景2,3,4,12，点kinematograms 5,10,11低水平视觉运动的高层次的视觉刺激，而低级别的听觉议案亦尊贵机制频率扫描5。 外部干扰和老化 外部干扰引起的工作记忆在整个生命周期，虽然老年人出比年轻的成年人2,3,13-18更多的负面影响造成了不利影响。老年人也表现出不同的神经活动模式相比，年轻的广告ULTS当试图解决这种干扰3,4,17,21。然而，一些研究没有发现证据这种年龄相关的行为5,19,20或神经5差异与干扰。 有趣的是，在解决老龄化的干扰的影响似乎感官方式不同，但这个问题仍然没有得到解决，目前。视觉intrasensory干扰已被广泛证明具有与年龄有关的下降（中总结了广泛的审查22）。与此相反，许多实验表明在帧内感官听觉干扰19,22-25没有年龄相关缺陷，而另一些研究表明显著年龄相关的增加听觉分心19,22,26-32。此外，干扰的刺激的显着性（全等或不一致的提示和探针刺激之间）2，和刺激复杂性（高或低的处理负载）5-可以与干扰相互作用处理和其在任务目标和年龄差异。 此处所描述的范例通过探测自上而下注意（在任务目标的形式）以及外部干扰刺激分辨率机制的补充的老化干扰文献。从这种模式的视觉面部及现场版本的证据表明老化和干扰型，老年人表明相对于忽略分心3,4出席断续器更大的脆弱性之间的相互作用。这些特征干扰类型之间的行为和神经的差异是很重要的理解能力，控制与衰老如何认知改变。 为什么老年人表明加剧赤字解决待出席断续器？是老年人通过受损的断续器处理过多它们出现的时候，或者没有能力重新激活的主要目标，按照有关确认交涉timuli中断之后，或者通过断续器的长时间加工后它们不再存在或相关33？为了解决这些问题，目前的模式的设计允许对神经活动的比较在时间点之前，期间和之后的不同类型的干扰。例如，通过比较由忽略分心对活动期间出席中断引起的神经活动，可以查明自上而下注意干扰的分辨率在工作存储器的具体影响。 几项研究已经实现了这个干扰范例的多个变体，以了解使用功能性磁共振成像（fMRI）和脑电图（EEG）的不同类型的外部干扰的两个在高空间和时间分辨率的神经关联，分别。这种模式也被用来澄清干扰之间的重要区别在视觉和听觉域刺激的复杂性和一致性上的干扰，以及产生的影响。这里，范例的变体进行了详细的说明。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Computer for stimulus presentation</td>
			<td>Dell</td>
			<td>Optiplex GX620</td>
			<td>hardware/software requirements will vary based on stimulus presentation software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cathody Ray Tube (CRT) monitor</td>
			<td>ViewSonic</td>
			<td>G220fb</td>
			<td>21&#34;; recommended due to its superior latency relative to that of LCD monitors in displaying visual stimuli; chair should be positioned 75 cm away</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E-Prime software</td>
			<td>Psychology Software Tools, Inc.</td>
			<td>E-Prime 2.0 Standard</td>
			<td>a different experimental presentation software can be used in place of E-Prime (e.g. Presentation (Neurobehavioral Systems), or PsychoPy (open-source); E-Prime and Presentation are compatible with Microsoft Windows, PsychoPy is compatible with Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Keyboard/response pad for Behavioral or EEG experiments</td>
			<td>Keyboard: Razer; Response Pad: Cedrus</td>
			<td>Keyboard: BlackWidow Ultimate; Response Pad: RB-830</td>
			<td>any standard computer keyboard is acceptable, though response pads may offer more precise timing (ie: Cedrus RB-830 guarantees 1 ms resolution)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Keyboard/response pad for MRI experiments</td>
			<td>Curdes</td>
			<td>Package 904</td>
			<td>ensure that keypad is MR-compatible</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headphones (for auditory behavioral experiments)</td>
			<td>Koss</td>
			<td>UR29</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EEG-compatible Headphones (for auditory EEG experiments)</td>
			<td>Etymotic</td>
			<td>ER3-50; ER3-21; ER3-14A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MRI-compatible Headphones (for auditory MR experiments)</td>
			<td>Etymotic</td>
			<td>SD-AU-EAER30</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a cognitive paradigm to investigate interference in working memory by distractions and interruptions

目标导向行为往往从外部环境损害由干扰，无论是在撑开由不相关的信息，一个试图忽略，或者通过中断，要求关注作为另一个（二次）任务目标的一部分信息的形式。这两种形式的外部干扰的已被证明产生不利影响，保持在工作记忆（WM）信息的能力。新出现的证据表明，这些不同类型的外部干扰施加于行为不同的效果，并且可以通过不同的神经机制来介导的。更好的表征无关分心与出席中断了鲜明的神经行为的影响是推进自上而下的关注，外部干扰的分辨率的理解至关重要，这些能力如何成为健康的老龄化和神经退化条件。这份手稿描述了一种新的认知范式开发的Gazzaley实验室有现在被修改成用来阐明干扰的行为和神经相关，由要被忽略干扰项与待出席断续器几个不同的版本。提供细节上的这种范式的变种调查干扰视觉和听觉的方式，多层次的复杂性刺激，并与实验定时脑电图（EEG）优化或功能性磁共振成像（fMRI）的研究。另外，使用这种模式进行审查，并在其上​​的外部干涉，并且在工作存储器解决干扰年龄相关的神经的行为改变的更广泛的文献关系的上下文中讨论获得从年轻和年长的成人参与者数据。

这种干扰模式，使一代就在年轻和年长的成年人（ 见表2摘要）工作记忆的不同行为影响和分散注意力的神经机制和中断的重要发现。 行为。行为上，与现有的文献线，中断始终赋予对工作记忆的表现2-5，10,11,12较大的不利影响与干扰。老年人干扰赤字相对更大表现出年轻的成年人，尤其是在使用复杂的视觉刺激物（面孔和场景）2,3,4</sup...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate Interference in Working Memory by Distractions and Interruptions at JoVE.com

A Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate Interference in Working Memory by Distractions and Interruptions

一种新的认知范式开发过程中工作记忆任务阐明干扰行为和神经相关被要被忽略的干扰项与干扰待出席断续器。在这份手稿，这种模式的几个变种有详细的，与这种模式在年轻/年长成人参与者所获得的数据进行审查。

认知范式调查干扰工作记忆的干扰和中断

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that ...

a-cognitive-paradigm-to-investigate-interference-working-memory

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

13.5K 次观看.  University of New Mexico. 一种新的认知范式开发过程中工作记忆任务阐明干扰行为和神经相关被要被忽略的干扰项与干扰待出席断续器。在这份手稿，这种模式的几个变种有详细的，与这种模式在年轻/年长成人参与者所获得的数据进行审查。 

视频: A Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate Interference in Working Memory by Distractions and Interruptions

The Crossmodal Congruency Task as a Means to Obtain an Objective Behavioral Measure in the Rubber Hand Illusion Paradigm

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden hand is touched. If the viewed and felt touches are given at the same time then this is sufficient to induce the compelling experience that the rubber hand is one's own hand. The RHI can be used to investigate exactly how the brain constructs distinct body representations for one's own body. Such representations are crucial for successful interactions with the external world. To obtain a subjective measure of the RHI, researchers typically ask participants to rate statements such as "I felt as if the rubber hand were my hand". Here we demonstrate how the crossmodal congruency task can be used to obtain an objective behavioral measure within this paradigm.
The variant of the crossmodal congruency task we employ involves the presentation of tactile targets and visual distractors. Targets and distractors are spatially congruent (i.e. same finger) on some trials and incongruent (i.e. different finger) on others. The difference in performance between incongruent and congruent trials - the crossmodal congruency effect (CCE) - indexes multisensory interactions. Importantly, the CCE is modulated both by viewing a hand as well as the synchrony of viewed and felt touch which are both crucial factors for the RHI.
The use of the crossmodal congruency task within the RHI paradigm has several advantages. It is a simple behavioral measure which can be repeated many times and which can be obtained during the illusion while participants view the artificial hand. Furthermore, this measure is not susceptible to observer and experimenter biases. The combination of the RHI paradigm with the crossmodal congruency task allows in particular for the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the RHI.

We demonstrate how an objective measure can be employed in the widely employed rubber hand illusion paradigm. This measure is obtained by modifying the well-established crossmodal congruency task. This task allows the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the rubber hand illusion.

一致性的任务作为一种手段来获取目标行为的措施中的橡胶手错觉范式Crossmodal

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden ...

科研

行为学

Use of an Eight-arm Radial Water Maze to Assess Working and Reference Memory Following Neonatal Brain Injury

Working and reference memory are commonly assessed using the land based radial arm maze.&#160;However, this paradigm requires pretraining, food deprivation, and may introduce scent cue confounds. The eight-arm radial water maze is designed to evaluate reference and working memory performance simultaneously by requiring subjects to use extra-maze cues to locate escape platforms and remedies the limitations observed in land based radial arm maze designs. Specifically, subjects are required to avoid the arms previously used for escape during each testing day (working memory) as well as avoid the fixed arms, which never contain escape platforms (reference memory). Re-entries into arms that have already been used for escape during a testing session (and thus the escape platform has been removed) and re-entries into reference memory arms are indicative of working memory deficits. Alternatively, first entries into reference memory arms are indicative of reference memory deficits. We used this maze to compare performance of rats with neonatal brain injury and sham controls following induction of hypoxia-ischemia and show significant deficits in both working and reference memory after eleven days of testing. This protocol could be easily modified to examine many other models of learning impairment.

The eight-arm radial water maze is designed to evaluate reference and working memory performance simultaneously by requiring subjects to use extra-maze cues to locate escape platforms and remedies the limitations observed in land based radial arm maze designs.

Working and reference memory are commonly assessed using the land based radial arm maze.&#160;However, this paradigm requires pretraining, food ...

Irrelevant Stimuli and Action Control: Analyzing the Influence of Ignored Stimuli via the Distractor-Response Binding Paradigm

Selection tasks in which simple stimuli (e.g. letters) are presented and a target stimulus has to be selected against one or more distractor stimuli are frequently used in the research on human action control. One important question in these settings is how distractor stimuli, competing with the target stimulus for a response, influence actions. The distractor-response binding paradigm can be used to investigate this influence. It is particular useful to separately analyze response retrieval and distractor inhibition effects. Computer-based experiments are used to collect the data (reaction times and error rates). In a number of sequentially presented pairs of stimulus arrays (prime-probe design), participants respond to targets while ignoring distractor stimuli. Importantly, the factors response relation in the arrays of each pair (repetition vs. change) and distractor relation (repetition vs. change) are varied orthogonally. The repetition of the same distractor then has a different effect depending on response relation (repetition vs. change) between arrays. This result pattern can be explained by response retrieval due to distractor repetition. In addition, distractor inhibition effects are indicated by a general advantage due to distractor repetition. The described paradigm has proven useful to determine relevant parameters for response retrieval effects on human action.

The distractor-response binding paradigm is described. It can be used to shed light on the influence irrelevant stimuli, competing with targets for a response, can have on human action. Both response retrieval effects and distractor inhibition effects can be analyzed within the paradigm.

不相干的刺激和动作控制：通过分心 - 响应绑定范式忽略刺激的影响分析

Selection tasks in which simple stimuli (e.g. letters) are presented and a target stimulus has to be selected against one or more distractor stimuli are ...

Uncovering Beat Deafness: Detecting Rhythm Disorders with Synchronized Finger Tapping and Perceptual Timing Tasks

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here with the goal of uncovering rhythm disorders, such as beat deafness. Beat deafness is characterized by poor performance in perceiving durations in auditory rhythmic patterns or poor synchronization of movement with auditory rhythms (e.g., with musical beats). These tasks include the synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of simple and complex auditory stimuli and the detection of rhythmic irregularities (anisochrony detection task) embedded in the same stimuli. These tests, which are easy to administer, include an assessment of both perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities under different conditions (e.g., beat rates and types of auditory material) and are based on the same auditory stimuli, ranging from a simple metronome to a complex musical excerpt. The analysis of synchronized tapping data is performed with circular statistics, which provide reliable measures of synchronization accuracy (e.g., the difference between the timing of the taps and the timing of the pacing stimuli) and consistency. Circular statistics on tapping data are particularly well-suited for detecting individual differences in the general population. Synchronized tapping and anisochrony detection are sensitive measures for identifying profiles of rhythm disorders and have been used with success to uncover cases of poor synchronization with spared perceptual timing. This systematic assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing can be extended to populations of patients with brain damage, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson&#8217;s disease), and developmental disorders (e.g., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder).

Behavioral tasks that allow for the assessment of perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) are presented. Synchronization of finger tapping to the beat of an auditory stimuli and detecting rhythmic irregularities provides a means of uncovering rhythm disorders.

揭开节拍耳聋：检测节律紊乱与同步手指敲击和感知定时任务

A set of behavioral tasks for assessing perceptual and sensorimotor timing abilities in the general population (i.e., non-musicians) is presented here ...

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic &#946;-Blocker

The basic design used in our human fear-conditioning studies on disrupting reconsolidation includes testing over different phases across three consecutive days. On day 1 - the fear acquisition phase, healthy participants are exposed to a series of picture presentations. One picture stimulus (CS1+) is repeatedly paired with an aversive electric stimulus (US), resulting in the acquisition of a fear association, whereas another picture stimulus (CS2-) is never followed by an US. On day 2 - the memory reactivation phase, the participants are re-exposed to the conditioned stimulus without the US (CS1-), which typically triggers a conditioned fear response. After the memory reactivation we administer an oral dose of 40 mg of propranolol HCl, a &#946;-adrenergic receptor antagonist that indirectly targets the protein synthesis required for reconsolidation by inhibiting the noradrenaline-stimulated CREB phosphorylation. On day 3 - the test phase, the participants are again exposed to the unreinforced conditioned stimuli (CS1- and CS2-) in order to measure the fear-reducing effect of the manipulation. This retention test is followed by an extinction procedure and the presentation of situational triggers to test for the return of fear. Potentiation of the eye blink startle reflex is measured as an index for conditioned fear responding. Declarative knowledge of the fear association is measured through online US expectancy ratings during each CS presentation. In contrast to extinction learning, disrupting reconsolidation targets the original fear memory thereby preventing the return of fear. Although the clinical applications are still in their infancy, disrupting reconsolidation of fear memory seems to be a promising new technique with the prospect to persistently dampen the expression of fear memory in patients suffering from anxiety disorders and other psychiatric disorders.

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic &amp;#946;-Blocker

Disrupting reconsolidation is a promising approach to dampen the behavioral expression of fear memory in patients with anxiety disorders or posttraumatic stress disorder. In a series of human fear conditioning studies we showed that disrupting reconsolidation by the noradrenergic &#946;-blocker propranolol is very effective in erasing conditioned fear responding.

由去甲肾上腺素能β受体阻滞剂破坏恐惧记忆在人类再固结

The basic design used in our human fear-conditioning studies on disrupting reconsolidation includes testing over different phases across three consecutive ...

Examining Recall Memory in Infancy and Early Childhood Using the Elicited Imitation Paradigm

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is commonly assessed using verbal report paradigms in adults, studying the development of this ability in preverbal infants and children proved challenging. Over the past 30 years, researchers have developed a non-verbal means of assessing recall memory known as the elicited or deferred imitation paradigm. In one variant of the procedure, participants are presented with novel three-dimensional stimuli for a brief baseline period before a researcher demonstrates a series of actions that culminate in an end- or goal-state. The participant is allowed to imitate the demonstrated actions immediately, after a delay, or both. Recall performance is then compared to baseline or to performance on novel control sequences presented at the same session; memory can be assessed for the individual target actions and the order in which they were completed. This procedure is an accepted analogue to the verbal report techniques used with adults, and it has served to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. In addition, the elicited or deferred imitation procedure has been modified and adapted to answer questions relevant to other aspects of cognitive functioning. The broad utility and application of imitation paradigms is discussed, along with limitations of the approach and directions for future research.

The elicited imitation procedure was established to examine the development of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. This procedure has been widely used to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood.

使用仿引起范式检查召回内存在婴幼儿时期

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is ...

Creating Virtual-hand and Virtual-face Illusions to Investigate Self-representation

Studies investigating how people represent themselves and their own body often use variants of &#34;ownership illusions&#34;, such as the traditional rubber-hand illusion or the more recently discovered enfacement illusion. However, these examples require rather artificial experimental setups, in which the artificial effector needs to be stroked in synchrony with the participants&#39; real hand or face&#8212;a situation in which participants have no control over the stroking or the movements of their real or artificial effector. Here, we describe a technique to establish ownership illusions in a setup that is more realistic, more intuitive, and of presumably higher ecological validity. It allows creating the virtual-hand illusion by having participants control the movements of a virtual hand presented on a screen or in virtual space in front of them. If the virtual hand moves in synchrony with the participants&#39; own real hand, they tend to perceive the virtual hand as part of their own body. The technique also creates the virtual-face illusion by having participants control the movements of a virtual face in front of them, again with the effect that they tend to perceive the face as their own if it moves in synchrony with their real face. Studying the circumstances that illusions of this sort can be created, increased, or reduced provides important information about how people create and maintain representations of themselves.

Here, we describe virtual-hand and virtual-face illusion paradigms that can be used to study body-related self-perception/-representation. They have already been used in various studies to demonstrate that, under specific conditions, a virtual hand or face can be incorporated into one&#39;s body representation, suggesting that body representations are rather flexible.

创建虚拟手和虚拟面对面幻想调查自我表现

Studies investigating how people represent themselves and their own body often use variants of &#34;ownership illusions&#34;, such as the traditional ...

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

The Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task is a false memory paradigm in which subjects are presented with lists of semantically related words (e.g., nurse, hospital, etc.) at encoding. After a delay, subjects are asked to recall or recognize these words. In the recognition memory version of the task, subjects are asked whether they remember previously presented words, as well as related (but never presented) critical lure words (&#39;doctor&#39;). Typically, the critical word is recognized with high probability and confidence. This false memory effect has been robustly demonstrated across short (e.g., immediate, 20 min) and long (e.g., 1, 7, 60 d) delays between encoding and memory testing. A strength of using this task to study false memory is its simplicity and short duration. If encoding and retrieval components of the task occur in the same session, the entire task can take as little as 2 - 30 min. However, although the DRM task is widely considered a &#39;false memory&#39; paradigm, some researchers consider DRM illusions to be based on the activation of semantic memory networks in the brain, and argue that such semantic gist-based false memory errors may actually be useful in some scenarios (e.g., remembering the forest for the trees; remembering that a word list was about &#34;doctors&#34;, even though the actual word &#34;doctor&#34; was never presented for study). Remembering the gist of experience (instead of or along with individual details) is arguably an adaptive process and this task has provided a great deal of knowledge about the constructive, adaptive nature of memory. Therefore, researchers should use caution when discussing the overall reach and implications of their experiments when using this task to study &#39;false memory&#39;, as DRM memory errors may not adequately reflect false memories in the real world, such as false memory in eyewitness testimony, or false memories of sexual abuse.

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott DRM Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

Here we present the Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task, a tool to study false memories in the laboratory. Subjects study lists of semantically related words (e.g.,&#160;nurse, sick, etc.), and later falsely remember an unstudied word (doctor) that represents the gist, or theme, of the word list.

该德泽 - 洛蒂格 - 麦克德莫特（DRM）任务：一个简单的认知范式来研究实验室错误记忆

The Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task is a false memory paradigm in which subjects are presented with lists of semantically related words ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &amp;#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

评估儿童工作记忆：儿童综合评估电池 - 工作记忆（CABC-WM）

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

Reducing State Anxiety Using Working Memory Maintenance

The purpose of this protocol is to explain how to examine the relationship between working memory processes and anxiety by combining the Sternberg Working Memory (WM) and the threat of shock paradigms. In the Sternberg WM paradigm, subjects are required to maintain a series of letters in the WM for a brief interval and respond by identifying whether the position of a given letter in the series matches a numerical prompt. In the threat of shock paradigm, subjects are exposed to alternating blocks where they are either at risk of receiving unpredictable presentations of a mild electric shock or are safe from the shock. Anxiety is probed throughout the safe and threat blocks using the acoustic startle reflex, which is potentiated under threat (Anxiety-Potentiated Startle (APS)). By conducting the Sternberg WM paradigm during the threat of shock and probing the startle response during either the WM maintenance interval or the intertrial interval, it is possible to determine the effect of WM maintenance on APS.

This protocol demonstrates how to measure anxiety-potentiated startle during the Sternberg Working Memory paradigm.

使用工作记忆维护降低状态焦虑

The purpose of this protocol is to explain how to examine the relationship between working memory processes and anxiety by combining the Sternberg Working ...