Many thanks to the developers of this paradigm, especially Wesley Clapp, Anne Berry, Jyoti Mishra, Michael Rubens, and Theodore Zanto. This work was supported by NIH grant 5R01AG0403333 (AG).

The steps below enumerate how to execute this novel cognitive paradigm designed to elucidate the neuro-behavioral aspects of external interference on delayed recognition working memory, with variations optimized for pairing with EEG or fMRI. Prior to beginning data collection, complete all necessary human-participants research approvals through the appropriate Institutional Review Board and/or human participants review committee.
1. Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Download and install experiment prese...

A novel cognitive paradigm has shown efficacy in investigating working memory interference by distractions and interruptions. This paradigm and its several variants, extending its use across sensory modalities, stimulus complexity levels, and imaging methods, are detailed.
Before beginning the experiment, pre-screen all participants to ensure appropriate cognitive and perceptual abilities. For experiments using low-level perceptual stimuli, administer an adaptive thresholding procedure to cali...

An extensive literature has demonstrated a detriment to the maintenance of information in working memory (WM) by interference from the external environment 1-9. External interference can be classified into two general types; interference by irrelevant information one intends to ignore: distraction, and interfering information which demands attention as part of another (secondary) task goal: interruption. Studies comparing these types of external interference using a within-participant design enable assessment of the neuro-behavioral impact of goal-focused top-down attention in the processing and resolution of external interference.
Recently, the Gazzaley lab designed a paradigm that facilitates comparison of &#8216;to-be-attended&#8217; interruptions and &#8216;to-be-ignored&#8217; distractions that occur in the setting of a working memory task. Emerging evidence from this paradigm suggests that these different types of external interference exert distinct effects on behavior and have distinct underlying neural mechanisms 2-5,10,11. This paradigm has revealed differences in external interference processing in normal aging 2,3,4,10,11; though aging deficits in the context of interference are not always found 5; it has also distinguished mechanisms of interference by distractors versus interruptors using high-level visual stimulation of faces and scenes 2,3,4,12, low-level visual motion of dot kinematograms 5,10,11, and low-level auditory motion of frequency sweeps 5.
External Interference and Aging
External interference induces a detrimental impact on working memory throughout the lifespan, although older adults exhibit a more negative impact than younger adults 2,3,13-18. Older adults also exhibit different patterns of neural activity compared to younger adults when attempting to resolve this interference 3,4,17,21. However, some studies do not find evidence for such age-related behavioral 5,19,20 or neural 5 differences with interference.
Interestingly, the impact of aging on resolving interference seems to differ by sensory modality, although this issue remains unresolved at present. Visual intrasensory interference has been widely shown to exhibit age-related decline (summarized in an extensive review 22). In contrast, many experiments suggest no age-related deficits during intra-sensory auditory interference 19,22-25, while other studies demonstrate significant age-related increases in auditory distractibility 19,22,26-32. In addition, the salience of interfering stimuli (congruent or incongruent between the cue and probe stimuli) 2, and stimulus complexity (high or low processing load) 5 may interact with interference processing and its differences across task goals and age.
The paradigm described here supplements the aging interference literature by probing the mechanisms of top-down attention (in the form of task goals) and resolution of external interfering stimuli. Evidence from the visual face &#38; scene version of this paradigm indicates an interaction between aging and interference type, with older adults demonstrating even greater vulnerability to attended interruptors relative to ignored distractors 3,4. Characterizing the behavioral and neural differences between these types of interference are important to understand how cognitive control abilities change with aging.
Why do older adults show exacerbated deficits in resolving to-be-attended interruptors? Are older adults impaired by excessive processing of interruptors when they are presented, or by an inability to re-activate representations of the primary goal-relevant stimuli after interruptions, or by prolonged processing of interruptors after they are no longer present or relevant 33? To address these questions, the current paradigm&#8217;s design allows for comparison of neural activity at time-points before, during, and after different types of interference. For instance, by comparing neural activity elicited by ignored distraction versus activity during attended interruptions, one can ascertain the specific impact of top-down attention on resolution of interference in working memory.
Several studies have implemented multiple variants of this interference paradigm to understand the neural correlates of the different types of external interference both at high spatial and temporal resolution using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG), respectively. This paradigm has also been used to clarify important distinctions between interference in the visual and auditory domains, as well as the impact of stimulus complexity and congruence on interference. Here, the paradigm variants are described in detail.

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	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Computer for stimulus presentation</td>
			<td>Dell</td>
			<td>Optiplex GX620</td>
			<td>hardware/software requirements will vary based on stimulus presentation software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cathody Ray Tube (CRT) monitor</td>
			<td>ViewSonic</td>
			<td>G220fb</td>
			<td>21&#34;; recommended due to its superior latency relative to that of LCD monitors in displaying visual stimuli; chair should be positioned 75 cm away</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E-Prime software</td>
			<td>Psychology Software Tools, Inc.</td>
			<td>E-Prime 2.0 Standard</td>
			<td>a different experimental presentation software can be used in place of E-Prime (e.g. Presentation (Neurobehavioral Systems), or PsychoPy (open-source); E-Prime and Presentation are compatible with Microsoft Windows, PsychoPy is compatible with Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Keyboard/response pad for Behavioral or EEG experiments</td>
			<td>Keyboard: Razer; Response Pad: Cedrus</td>
			<td>Keyboard: BlackWidow Ultimate; Response Pad: RB-830</td>
			<td>any standard computer keyboard is acceptable, though response pads may offer more precise timing (ie: Cedrus RB-830 guarantees 1 ms resolution)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Keyboard/response pad for MRI experiments</td>
			<td>Curdes</td>
			<td>Package 904</td>
			<td>ensure that keypad is MR-compatible</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headphones (for auditory behavioral experiments)</td>
			<td>Koss</td>
			<td>UR29</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EEG-compatible Headphones (for auditory EEG experiments)</td>
			<td>Etymotic</td>
			<td>ER3-50; ER3-21; ER3-14A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MRI-compatible Headphones (for auditory MR experiments)</td>
			<td>Etymotic</td>
			<td>SD-AU-EAER30</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a cognitive paradigm to investigate interference in working memory by distractions and interruptions

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that one attempts to ignore, or by interrupting information that demands attention as part of another (secondary) task goal. Both forms of external interference have been shown to detrimentally impact the ability to maintain information in working memory (WM). Emerging evidence suggests that these different types of external interference exert different effects on behavior and may be mediated by distinct neural mechanisms. Better characterizing the distinct neuro-behavioral impact of irrelevant distractions versus attended interruptions is essential for advancing an understanding of top-down attention, resolution of external interference, and how these abilities become degraded in healthy aging and in neuropsychiatric conditions. This manuscript describes a novel cognitive paradigm developed the Gazzaley lab that has now been modified into several distinct versions used to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference, by to-be-ignored distractors versus to-be-attended interruptors. Details are provided on variants of this paradigm for investigating interference in visual and auditory modalities, at multiple levels of stimulus complexity, and with experimental timing optimized for electroencephalography (EEG) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. In addition, data from younger and older adult participants obtained using this paradigm is reviewed and discussed in the context of its relationship with the broader literatures on external interference and age-related neuro-behavioral changes in resolving interference in working memory.

This interference paradigm has enabled generation of important findings regarding the distinct behavioral impact and neural mechanisms of distraction and interruption on working memory in younger and older adults (see Table 2 for summary).
Behavior. Behaviorally, in line with the existing literature, interruption consistently imparts a greater detrimental impact versus distraction on working memory performance 2-5, 10,11,12. Older adults exhibit eve...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate Interference in Working Memory by Distractions and Interruptions at JoVE.com

A Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate Interference in Working Memory by Distractions and Interruptions

A novel cognitive paradigm is developed to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference by to-be-ignored distractors versus interference by to-be-attended interruptors during a working memory task. In this manuscript, several variants of this paradigm are detailed, and data obtained with this paradigm in younger/older adult participants is reviewed.

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

13.5K visualizações.  University of New Mexico.  Um paradigma cognitivo romance é desenvolvido para elucidar correlatos comportamentais e neurais de ingerência de-ser-ignoradas distractors contra interferência por interruptores para-ser-atendidas durante uma tarefa de memória de trabalho. Neste manuscrito, várias variantes deste paradigma são detalhados, e os dados obtidos com este paradigma em participantes adultos mais jovens / mais velhos é revista. 