Name: vagus nerve stimulation as a tool to induce plasticity in pathways relevant for extinction learning
Uploaded: 2015-08-21T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Vagus Nerve Stimulation as a Tool to Induce Plasticity in Pathways Relevant for Extinction Learning at JoVE.com

This research was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health MH 086960-01A1 (Christa K. McIntyre).

All procedures described in this protocol are carried out in accordance with the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, and they were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of The University of Texas at Dallas.
1. Construction of VNS Cuffs
<ol>
	<li>Create a drilling tool by sawing off the sharp end of a 22 &#189; G needle.</li>
	<li>Run the now blunt end of the 22 &#189; G needle over a metal file several times to flatten it. Hold the needle at a 45&#186;...

We present here a protocol that is used to facilitate extinction of conditioned fear during a single session of exposure to conditioned cues19 and to modulate plasticity in the pathway between the infralimbic cortex and the basolateral amygdala that may mediate extinction learning20. A crucial step for the success of this protocol is the proper delivery of VNS during extinction training. Therefore, special care should be given to the construction of the cuff electrodes and the placement of the cuff ...

Classical fear conditioning provides a widely used animal model to study the biological basis of anxiety disorders. During fear conditioning, an aversive stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, US, e.g., a footshock) is presented in conjunction with a neutral stimulus, such as a tone and/or a context (the conditioned stimulus; CS). During fear conditioning, associations between the CS and the US are formed. Eventually the presentation of the CS alone elicits a fear response (the conditioned response; CR). In fear extinction, the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the US, causing the CR to gradually diminish1. Thus, extinction of conditioned fear is an active process in which fearful behavioral responses to neutral stimuli are attenuated when they no longer predict aversive outcomes. Extinction of conditioned responses requires consolidation of new memories that compete with learned associations. A hallmark of anxiety disorders is impaired extinction2-4. Thus, extinction of conditioned fear in animal models serves as an important paradigm both for inhibitory learning and as a model of behavior therapy for human anxiety disorders5,6.
Because there is close correspondence between fear and human anxiety, it is thought that these studies can provide insight into the biological nature of anxiety-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder and will help to develop strategies to treat them. An important goal of preclinical research is to aid extinction learning and to induce targeted plasticity in extinction circuits to consolidate extinction learning. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a minimally invasive neuroprosthetic approach that might be used to provide tight temporal and circuit-specific modulation of brain areas and synapses engaged in an ongoing task. A series of recent studies from Michael Kilgard&#39;s group at The University of Texas at Dallas have shown that pairing VNS with discrete sensory or motor stimuli (e.g., a tone or a lever pull) is highly effective in promoting cortical plasticity to treat tinnitus7, or to overcome motor deficits following stroke8-10. In addition, non-contingent VNS that occurs within a short time-window after learning similarly promotes cortical plasticity and enhances memory consolidation in rats and in humans11-13.
Considering the role of the vagus nerve in the parasympathetic pathway, it is not surprising that it could participate in modulating memories and synaptic plasticity. Highly emotional events tend to produce stronger memories than non-emotional memories. This is likely due to the influence of stress hormones on memory consolidation. Posttraining administration of the stress hormone adrenaline enhances memory consolidation in human and non-human animals, but adrenaline does not cross the blood-brain-barrier14, 15. Therefore, stress-induced adrenaline release must impact the brain indirectly to enhance memory consolidation. Strong evidence suggests that the vagus nerve may be the link between circulating adrenaline and the brain. Miyashita and Williams16 found that systemic administration of adrenaline increased vagal nerve firing, and increased levels of norepinephrine in the amygdala17. Systemic administration of adrenaline does not enhance memory consolidation when &#946;-adrenergic receptors are blocked in the amygdala18 suggesting that the vagus nerve plays a role in the pathway that turns emotionally arousing experiences into long-term memories.
Thus, pairing VNS with training has the potential to enhance the brain changes that support memory consolidation and exposure to conditioned cues in the absence of reinforcement enhances the consolidation of extinction learning in rats19,20. Here we describe the use of VNS as a tool to promote cortical plasticity and facilitate extinction of a conditioned fear response.

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			<td>Magnetic Fixator Retraction System</td>
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			<td>Cuffs</td>
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			<td>Tubing</td>
			<td>Braintree Scientific Inc</td>
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			<td>Platinum Iridium Wire</td>
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			<td>Gold Pins</td>
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			<td>Suture Thread</td>
			<td>Henry Schein</td>
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			<td>22 G Needles</td>
			<td>Fisher&#160;</td>
			<td>14-815-525</td>
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			<td>Paper Tape</td>
			<td>Fisher&#160;</td>
			<td>03-411-602</td>
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			<td>Solder</td>
			<td>Home Deopt</td>
			<td>327793</td>
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			<td>Flux&#160;</td>
			<td>Home Deopt</td>
			<td>300142</td>
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			<td>Scalpel Blade, 10 or 15</td>
			<td>Stoelting</td>
			<td>52173-10</td>
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			<td>Silastic Laboratory Tubing .51 mm ID x .94 mm OD</td>
			<td>Fisher&#160;</td>
			<td>508-002</td>
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			<td></td>
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			<td>Headcaps</td>
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			<td></td>
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			<td>Connector Pieces (male)</td>
			<td>Omnetics Connector Corporation</td>
			<td>A25001-004</td>
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			<td>Headcap pieces (female)</td>
			<td>Omnetics Connector Corporation</td>
			<td>A24001-004</td>
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			<td>Teets Dental Acrylic, Liquid and Powder</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>525000, 526000</td>
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			<td>26 Gauge Solid Copper Wire</td>
			<td>Staples</td>
			<td>1016882 &#160;</td>
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			<td>Surgery</td>
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			<td>Bone Screws</td>
			<td>Stoelting+CB33:C61</td>
			<td>51457</td>
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			<td>Scalpel Blades, 10 or 15</td>
			<td>Stoelting</td>
			<td>52173-10</td>
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			<td>1 ml syringes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
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			<td>22 G Needles</td>
			<td>Fisher&#160;</td>
			<td>14-815-525</td>
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			<td>27 G Needles</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14-826-48</td>
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			<td>2&#34; x 2&#34; Gauze</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>22-362-178</td>
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			<td>Swabs</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>19-120-472</td>
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			<td>Puppy Pads</td>
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			<td>Kim Wipes</td>
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			<td colspan="2">Chamber and Behavioral Setting&#160;</td>
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			<td>Husky Metal Front Base Cabinet (30WX19DX34H)</td>
			<td>Home Depot</td>
			<td>100607961</td>
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			<td>Quiet Barrier&#173; HD Soundproofing Material (Sheet) (PSA)</td>
			<td>soundproofcow.com</td>
			<td>10203041</td>
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			<td>Convoluted Acoustic Foam Panel</td>
			<td>soundproofcow.com</td>
			<td>10432400</td>
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			<td>Isolated Pulse Stimulator Model 2100</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>720000</td>
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			<td>Digital Camera - Logitech Webcam C210</td>
			<td>Logitech</td>
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			<td>MatLab</td>
			<td>Mathworks.com</td>
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			<td>Sinometer 10MHz Single Channel Oscilloscope</td>
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			<td>OxyLED T-01 DIY Stick-on Anywhere 4-LED Touch Tap Light</td>
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			<td>5k ohm potentiomter</td>
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			<td>B00CTWDHIO</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Extech 407730 40-to-130-Decibel Digital Sound Level Meter</td>
			<td>Extech Instruments</td>
			<td>B000EWY67W</td>
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		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DSCK-C Dual Output, scrambled shocker</td>
			<td>Kinder Scientific Co</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

vagus nerve stimulation as a tool to induce plasticity in pathways relevant for extinction learning

Extinction describes the process of attenuating behavioral responses to neutral stimuli when they no longer provide the reinforcement that has been maintaining the behavior. There is close correspondence between fear and human anxiety, and therefore studies of extinction learning might provide insight into the biological nature of anxiety-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, and they might help to develop strategies to treat them. Preclinical research aims to aid extinction learning and to induce targeted plasticity in extinction circuits to consolidate the newly formed memory. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a powerful approach that provides tight temporal and circuit-specific release of neurotransmitters, resulting in modulation of neuronal networks engaged in an ongoing task. VNS enhances memory consolidation in both rats and humans, and pairing VNS with exposure to conditioned cues enhances the consolidation of extinction learning in rats. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for the preparation of custom-made parts and the surgical procedures required for VNS in rats. Using this protocol we show how VNS can facilitate the extinction of conditioned fear responses in an auditory fear conditioning task. In addition, we provide evidence that VNS modulates synaptic plasticity in the pathway between the infralimbic (IL) medial prefrontal cortex and the basolateral complex of the amygdala (BLA), which is involved in the expression and modulation of extinction memory.

This section illustrates examples of results that can be obtained by using VNS in combination with extinction learning to reduce the expression of the conditioned fear response in rats. For Days 1 and 2 (Auditory Fear Conditioning), rats were trained on an auditory fear conditioning task in which footshocks were paired with a tone. On Day 3 (Pre Treatment Test), tones were presented in the absence of footshocks to measure freezing levels and infer conditioned fear response acquisition. On Day 4 (Treatment) rats received ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Vagus Nerve Stimulation as a Tool to Induce Plasticity in Pathways Relevant for Extinction Learning at JoVE.com

Vagus Nerve Stimulation as a Tool to Induce Plasticity in Pathways Relevant for Extinction Learning

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) has emerged as a tool to induce targeted synaptic plasticity in the forebrain to modify a range of behaviors. This protocol describes how to implement VNS to facilitate the consolidation of fear extinction memory.

Extinction describes the process of attenuating behavioral responses to neutral stimuli when they no longer provide the reinforcement that has been ...

vagus-nerve-stimulation-as-tool-to-induce-plasticity-pathways

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

The Crossmodal Congruency Task as a Means to Obtain an Objective Behavioral Measure in the Rubber Hand Illusion Paradigm

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden hand is touched. If the viewed and felt touches are given at the same time then this is sufficient to induce the compelling experience that the rubber hand is one's own hand. The RHI can be used to investigate exactly how the brain constructs distinct body representations for one's own body. Such representations are crucial for successful interactions with the external world. To obtain a subjective measure of the RHI, researchers typically ask participants to rate statements such as "I felt as if the rubber hand were my hand". Here we demonstrate how the crossmodal congruency task can be used to obtain an objective behavioral measure within this paradigm.
The variant of the crossmodal congruency task we employ involves the presentation of tactile targets and visual distractors. Targets and distractors are spatially congruent (i.e. same finger) on some trials and incongruent (i.e. different finger) on others. The difference in performance between incongruent and congruent trials - the crossmodal congruency effect (CCE) - indexes multisensory interactions. Importantly, the CCE is modulated both by viewing a hand as well as the synchrony of viewed and felt touch which are both crucial factors for the RHI.
The use of the crossmodal congruency task within the RHI paradigm has several advantages. It is a simple behavioral measure which can be repeated many times and which can be obtained during the illusion while participants view the artificial hand. Furthermore, this measure is not susceptible to observer and experimenter biases. The combination of the RHI paradigm with the crossmodal congruency task allows in particular for the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the RHI.

We demonstrate how an objective measure can be employed in the widely employed rubber hand illusion paradigm. This measure is obtained by modifying the well-established crossmodal congruency task. This task allows the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the rubber hand illusion.

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden ...

Protocol for Studying Extinction of Conditioned Fear in Naturally Cycling Female Rats

Extinction of conditioned fear has been extensively studied in male rodents. Recently, there have been an increasing number of studies indicating that neural mechanisms for certain behavioral tasks and response behaviors are different in females and males. Using females in research studies can represent a challenge because of the variation of gonadal hormones during their estrous cycle. This protocol describes well-established procedures that are useful in investigating the role of estrogen in fear extinction memory consolidation in female rats. Phase of the estrous cycle and exogenous estrogen administration prior to extinction training can influence extinction recall 24 hr later. The vaginal swabbing technique for estrous phase identification described here aids the examination and manipulation of naturally cycling gonadal hormones. The use of this basic rodent model may further delineate the mechanisms by which estrogen can modulate fear extinction memory in females.

Gonadal hormones such as estrogen modulate memory formation in a number of experimental paradigms including fear extinction memory. This protocol describes a set of methods for investigating the influence of gonadal hormones specifically during extinction in naturally cycling females, including estrous cycle monitoring and exogenous estrogen administration.

Extinction of conditioned fear has been extensively studied in male rodents. Recently, there have been an increasing number of studies indicating that ...

Quantifying Learning in Young Infants: Tracking Leg Actions During a Discovery-learning Task

Task-specific actions emerge from spontaneous movement during infancy. It has been proposed that task-specific actions emerge through a discovery-learning process. Here a method is described in which 3-4 month old infants learn a task by discovery and their leg movements are captured to quantify the learning process. This discovery-learning task uses an infant activated mobile that rotates and plays music based on specified leg action of infants. Supine infants activate the mobile by moving their feet vertically across a virtual threshold. This paradigm is unique in that as infants independently discover that their leg actions activate the mobile, the infants&#8217; leg movements are tracked using a motion capture system allowing for the quantification of the learning process. Specifically, learning is quantified in terms of the duration of mobile activation, the position variance of the end effectors (feet) that activate the mobile, changes in hip-knee coordination patterns, and changes in hip and knee muscle torque. This information describes infant exploration and exploitation at the interplay of person and environmental constraints that support task-specific action. Subsequent research using this method can investigate how specific impairments of different populations of infants at risk for movement disorders influence the discovery-learning process for task-specific action.

A method is described in which 3-4 month old infants learn a task by discovery and their leg movements are captured to quantify the learning process.

Task-specific actions emerge from spontaneous movement during infancy. It has been proposed that task-specific actions emerge through a discovery-learning ...

A Treatment Package without Escape Extinction to Address Food Selectivity

Feeding difficulties and feeding disorders are a commonly occurring problem for young children, particularly children with developmental delays including autism. Behavior analytic interventions for the treatment of feeding difficulties oftentimes include escape extinction as a primary component of treatment. The use of escape extinction, while effective, may be problematic as it is also associated with the emergence of challenging behavior (e.g., extinction burst). Such challenging behavior may be an acceptable side effect in treatment cases where feeding problems are severe and chronic (e.g., failure to thrive). However, in more acute cases (e.g., selective eating), the negative side effect may be unwarranted and undesired. More recent research on the behavioral treatment of food selectivity has begun to evaluate treatments for feeding difficulties that do not include escape extinction (e.g., demand fading, behavioral momentum), with some success. However, research to date reveals individual differences in responsiveness to such treatments and no clear preferable treatment has emerged. This manuscript describes a multi-component treatment package that includes shaping, sequential presentation and simultaneous presentation, for the treatment of food selectivity in four young children with developmental delays. This treatment package extends the literature on the behavioral treatment for food selectivity and offers a multi-component treatment protocol that may be clinically applicable across a range of treatment scenarios and settings.

Feeding difficulties are a common problem for children with developmental disorders, including autism, and behavioral interventions often include escape extinction. Recent research has begun to evaluate treatments that do not include escape extinction. This manuscript describes a multicomponent treatment package that does not use escape extinction to treat feeding difficulties.

Feeding difficulties and feeding disorders are a commonly occurring problem for young children, particularly children with developmental delays including ...

Combined Shuttle-Box Training with Electrophysiological Cortex Recording and Stimulation as a Tool to Study Perception and Learning

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is a well-established method in behavioral neuroscience and experimental setups were traditionally custom-made; the necessary equipment is now available by several commercial companies. This protocol provides a detailed description of a two-way shuttle-box avoidance learning paradigm in rodents (here Mongolian gerbils; Meriones unguiculatus) in combination with site-specific electrical intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and simultaneous chronical electrophysiological in vivo recordings. The detailed protocol is applicable to study multiple aspects of learning behavior and perception in different rodent species.
Site-specific ICMS of auditory cortical circuits as conditioned stimuli here is used as a tool to test the perceptual relevance of specific afferent, efferent and intracortical connections. Distinct activation patterns can be evoked by using different stimulation electrode arrays for local, layer-dependent ICMS or distant ICMS sites. Utilizing behavioral signal detection analysis it can be determined which stimulation strategy is most effective for eliciting a behaviorally detectable and salient signal. Further, parallel multichannel-recordings using different electrode designs (surface electrodes, depth electrodes, etc.) allow for investigating neuronal observables over the time course of such learning processes. It will be discussed how changes of the behavioral design can increase the cognitive complexity (e.g. detection, discrimination, reversal learning).

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is well-established in behavioral neuroscience. This protocol describes how shuttle-box learning in rodents can be combined with site-specific electrical intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and simultaneous chronical in vivo recordings as a tool to study multiple aspects of learning and perception.

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is a well-established method in behavioral neuroscience and experimental setups were traditionally custom-made; the ...

Using a Split-belt Treadmill to Evaluate Generalization of Human Locomotor Adaptation

Understanding the mechanisms underlying locomotor learning helps researchers and clinicians optimize gait retraining as part of motor rehabilitation. However, studying human locomotor learning can be challenging. During infancy and childhood, the neuromuscular system is quite immature, and it is unlikely that locomotor learning during early stages of development is governed by the same mechanisms as in adulthood. By the time humans reach maturity, they are so proficient at walking that it is difficult to come up with a sufficiently novel task to study de novo locomotor learning. The split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that can drive each leg at a different speed, enables the study of both short- (i.e., immediate) and long-term (i.e., over minutes-days; a form of motor learning) gait modifications in response to a novel change in the walking environment. Individuals can easily be screened for previous exposure to the split-belt treadmill, thus ensuring that all experimental participants have no (or equivalent) prior experience. This paper describes a typical split-belt treadmill adaptation protocol that incorporates testing methods to quantify locomotor learning and generalization of this learning to other walking contexts. A discussion of important considerations for designing split-belt treadmill experiments follows, including factors like treadmill belt speeds, rest breaks, and distractors. Additionally, potential but understudied confounding variables (e.g., arm movements, prior experience) are considered in the discussion.

We describe a protocol for investigating human locomotor adaptation using the split-belt treadmill, which has two belts that can drive each leg at a different speed. We specifically focus on a paradigm designed to test the generalization of adapted locomotor patterns to different walking contexts (e.g., gait speeds, walking environments).

Understanding the mechanisms underlying locomotor learning helps researchers and clinicians optimize gait retraining as part of motor rehabilitation. ...

Using a Virtual Store As a Research Tool to Investigate Consumer In-store Behavior

People&#39;s responses to products and/or choice environments are crucial to understanding in-store consumer behaviors. Currently, there are various approaches (e.g., surveys or laboratory settings) to study in-store behaviors, but the external validity of these is limited by their poor capability to resemble realistic choice environments. In addition, building a real store to meet experimental conditions while controlling for undesirable effects is costly and highly difficult. A virtual store developed by virtual reality techniques potentially transcends these limitations by offering the simulation of a 3D virtual store environment in a realistic, flexible, and cost-efficient way. In particular, a virtual store interactively allows consumers (participants) to experience and interact with objects in a tightly controlled yet realistic setting. This paper presents the key elements of using a desktop virtual store to study in-store consumer behavior. Descriptions of the protocol steps to: 1) build the experimental store, 2) prepare the data management program, 3) run the virtual store experiment, and 4) organize and export data from the data management program are presented. The virtual store enables participants to navigate through the store, choose a product from alternatives, and select or return products. Moreover, consumer-related shopping behaviors (e.g., shopping time, walking speed, and number and type of products examined and bought) can also be collected. The protocol is illustrated with an example of a store layout experiment showing that shelf length and shelf orientation influence shopping- and movement-related behaviors. This demonstrates that the use of a virtual store facilitates the study of consumer responses. The virtual store can be especially helpful when examining factors that are costly or difficult to change in real life (e.g., overall store layout), products that are not presently available in the market, and routinized behaviors in familiar environments.

This paper describes the use of a desktop virtual store to create virtual shopping environments to investigate in-store consumer behavior. A description of the protocol to build and run experiments, example results from an experiment concerning store layout, and important considerations when conducting virtual store experiments are presented.

People&#39;s responses to products and/or choice environments are crucial to understanding in-store consumer behaviors. Currently, there are various ...

Large Volume, Behaviorally-relevant Illumination for Optogenetics in Non-human Primates

This protocol describes a large-volume illuminator, which was developed for optogenetic manipulations in the non-human primate brain. The illuminator is a modified plastic optical fiber with etched tip, such that the light emitting surface area is &#62; 100x that of a conventional fiber. In addition to describing the construction of the large-volume illuminator, this protocol details the quality-control calibration used to ensure even light distribution. Further, this protocol describes techniques for inserting and removing the large volume illuminator. Both superficial and deep structures may be illuminated. This large volume illuminator does not need to be physically coupled to an electrode, and because the illuminator is made of plastic, not glass, it will simply bend in circumstances when traditional optical fibers would shatter. Because this illuminator delivers light over behaviorally-relevant tissue volumes (&#8776; 10 mm3) with no greater penetration damage than a conventional optical fiber, it facilitates behavioral studies using optogenetics in non-human primates.

A protocol to build a tissue penetrating illuminator for delivering light over large volumes with minimal diameter is presented.

This protocol describes a large-volume illuminator, which was developed for optogenetic manipulations in the non-human primate brain. The illuminator is a ...

Applying an eMASS Customization Program as a Research Tool to Evaluate Consumer Benefits

As many scholars and practitioners study personalization and relationship marketing, it is important to provide personalization such as mass customization through marketing technology. The purpose of this study is to examine how to conduct consumer research using an online survey and analysis of data. This study examines consumers&#39;&#160;perceived benefits while customizing a product as well as emotional product attachment, attitudes toward a customization program, and loyalty intentions in the context of online retailing. In addition, this study investigates how consumer responses are different based on individual characteristics such as fashion innovativeness. An online survey company in South Korea recruited 290 female apparel shoppers who purchased apparel online. To enhance external validity, this study used an existing retail website with a well-established mass customization program. After completing the customization program, participants complete the online questionnaire. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and latent mean analyses (LMAs) are then performed for analyses. This study stresses the importance of testing measurement invariance for mean comparisons. Before the SEM and LMA, this study follows the hierarchy of invariance tests (configural invariance test, metric invariance test, and scalar invariance test), which are not considered by traditional approaches such as ANOVA. These statistical analyses provide applicability of the invariance test procedures and LMA to consumer behaviors. The conclusions of mean differences have integrity and validity because they are guided by a sophisticated statistical procedure to ensure measurement invariance.

Presented here is a protocol to examine consumer responses toward mass customization in the context of online retailing. The protocol details the online survey procedure and how to analyze data using structural equation modeling and group differences using latent mean analyses.

As many scholars and practitioners study personalization and relationship marketing, it is important to provide personalization such as mass customization ...

A Methodology for Capturing Joint Visual Attention Using Mobile Eye-Trackers

With the advent of new technological advances, it is possible to study social interactions at a microlevel with unprecedented accuracy. High frequency sensors, such as eye-trackers, electrodermal activity wristbands, EEG bands, and motion sensors provide observations at the millisecond level. This level of precision allows researchers to collect large datasets on social interactions. In this paper, I discuss how multiple eye-trackers can capture a fundamental construct in social interactions, joint visual attention (JVA). JVA has been studied by developmental psychologists to understand how children acquire language, learning scientists to understand how small groups of learners work together, and social scientists to understand interactions in small teams. This paper describes a methodology for capturing JVA in colocated settings using mobile eye-trackers. It presents some empirical results and discusses implications of capturing microobservations to understand social interactions.

Using multimodal sensors is a promising way to understand the role of social interactions in educational settings. This paper describes a methodology for capturing joint visual attention from colocated dyads using mobile eye-trackers.

With the advent of new technological advances, it is possible to study social interactions at a microlevel with unprecedented accuracy. High frequency ...