这项研究是由美国国家科学基金会的研究生研究奖学金到达尼埃尔·R·珀欣齐克和美国国立卫生研究院资助桑德拉·韦克斯曼R.（R01HD083310）的支持。

下面的步骤是由西北大学机构审查委员会批准，并从所有婴幼儿的照顾者获得了知情同意书。我们招募被提出婴幼儿的环境中有超过50％的接触英语11，17。在所有实验婴幼儿先听取了我们的操作曝光向狐猴发声或向后讲话配乐;然后，他们参加了一个对象分类的任务。什么跨婴儿变化是（A）他们在曝光操作听到信号的类型和分类任务（无论是狐猴的叫声或向后语音）和（b）的曝光阶段的程度（在实验室或者短暂暴露或长时间曝光在家）。对于所有婴儿，分类任务发生在实验室。 1.材料<ol><li> 如何创建曝光操作<ol><li>选择8个不同的狐猴发声的样品和8个不同的反向语音的样本，每2至4秒的持续时间。在一起时，8个样品应产生每个声信号的30秒。确保狐猴和向后的语音段作为紧密匹配尽可能为持续时间（ 例如 ，〜3秒的持续时间）和用于平均频率（ 例如 ，〜300赫兹）。 <ol><li>为了获得狐猴叫声，搜索动物发声的数据库或咨询研究员谁收集的动物的叫声。 </li><li>要建立落后的声音片段，使用一台笔记本电脑和一个软件程序（ 例如 ，无畏）（1）记录的研究助理说〜婴儿定向语音和（2）时间上逆向3秒的句子（在Audacity中：效果&gt;反向）每个语音段。 </li></ol></li><li>选择一首经典器乐比4分钟长的。在这里，我们使用在C小调，作品18第4号贝多芬四重奏的前4分钟：III。Menuetto。 </li><li>使用音频编辑软件程序（ 例如 ，无畏）导入的音乐（在Audacity中：文件&gt;导入），选择一块的持续时间大约4分钟的一部分（突出显示和删除片的其余部分）。 <ol><li>通过插入（ 即 ，复制和粘贴）每种类型的8个选定段（发声狐猴或向后语音）到音乐声道创建2个不同的音轨。 </li><li>要创建“狐猴”的配乐，在相同的软件程序（ 例如 ，无畏）打开8狐猴发声的声音文件，并将其插入到与音乐文件。 <ol><li>要做到这一点，突出整个狐猴发声，导航到编辑&gt;复制，将在音乐文件中的光标，并导航到编辑&gt;粘贴。插入不定期的发声整个配乐。不要将它们放置在乐句边界。这样做两次，每次狐猴发声，inserti在一个pseudorandomized顺序纳克它们，以确保发生在一行没有2周相同的发声。总之，这产生了5分钟循环（音乐的4分钟，用狐猴发声的1分钟穿插）。 </li><li>从而使整个音带持续大约10分钟，重复该5分钟的音乐。为了这样做，突出显示整个5分钟部，导航到编辑&gt;复制，将光标放置在5分钟部的端部，并导航到编辑&gt;粘贴。 </li></ol></li><li>以产生10分钟“向后”讲话配乐，替换狐猴音带与向后语音的选择段的每个狐猴发声，使用相同的pseudorandomized顺序。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li> 如何创建分类任务 <ol><li>视觉材料：手工创建2套线图纸。在每组中，包括相同对象类别的成员9（这里，使用9个不同恐龙的附图和9张不同的鱼图纸）。使用differenŤ明亮的颜色对于给定类别内的每个图形。扫描这些图纸到计算机并保存为图像文件。需要注意的是，图纸应在测试的年龄不熟悉的物体婴儿。 </li><li>声学材料：选择一个狐猴发声和不包括在任一曝光操作（1.1.3）中的一个向后语音段。尽可能接近地匹配狐猴和向后的语音段为持续时间（ 例如 ，〜3秒的持续时间）和用于平均频率（ 例如 ，〜300赫兹）。 </li><li>程序MATLAB任务包括熟悉阶段和测试阶段;这项任务将由5英尺屏幕在婴儿面前投射到5英尺<ol><li>编程熟悉阶段，使得来自单个类别视觉范例的8（ 例如 ，8个恐龙，每一个不同的颜色）依次出现。每个示例性应显示20秒，在右侧或屏幕的左侧，以交替的方式。科瑞e 2级的不同的版本中，每个配对熟悉范例下面（“狐猴”和“向后”讲话的条件下，分别地）的声刺激中的一个。在这两种情况下，应该对每个熟悉试验中出现两次的声刺激;一旦当视觉典范出现，并再次10秒后。 <ol><li>在狐猴条件下，程序中的每个熟悉范例与一个狐猴发声同时出现。 </li><li>在反向语音状态，程序中的每个熟悉范例同时与一个后向语音段出现。 </li></ol></li><li>在测试阶段期间，从熟悉类别（ 例如 ，另一个恐龙）和来自其他类别的示例性（ 例如 ，鱼）呈现第 9典范。这两个图像的颜色应相同，并且同时呈现（一个呈现在右侧，另一个在屏幕的左侧）在沉默20秒。 </li></ol&gt; </li><li>在编程的分类任务，平衡（1），其类将在熟悉阶段，（2）在其上第一熟悉图像出现在侧面，和（3）的一侧在其上新的和熟悉测试图像将出现呈现。 </li></ol></li></ol> 2.一般程序<ol><li> 曝光阶段 <ol><li>将婴儿靠近看护人或在他们的腿上在一个安静的区域。放置一个膝上型或平板婴儿的观看范围（从1到从婴儿4英尺）之内。 </li><li>使用笔记本电脑或平板电脑呈现无论是狐猴或向后语音配乐。 </li></ol></li><li> 分类任务 <ol><li>在实验室中较暗的试验室，一个椅子上通过5英尺屏幕从5英尺4英尺座位护理人员。笔记本电脑连接在MATLAB编程为（1）屏幕中的分类的任务，将显示该分类任务以及（2）一幻灯构造函数，将项目任务到屏幕上。 </li><li>席位照顾者的腿上婴儿，朝前。 </li><li>指导护理人员以避免以任何方式影响婴儿的行为。更具体地讲，指示他们保持安静，还在整个任务的持续时间，并保持他们的婴儿为中心，用他们的中线为指导。提供有一对涂黑的眼镜护理人员，以确保它们不能看到视觉材料。 </li><li>打开投影机。 </li><li>打开录音设备来捕获整个任务婴儿的行为。 </li><li>在MATLAB按下“运行”开始分类任务：目前狐猴条件，如果婴儿暴露于狐猴的配乐，如果婴儿暴露于向后讲话原声语音落后状态。 </li></ol></li><li> 编码（仅适用于分类任务） <ol><li>代码的开始和每个婴儿乐偏移英尺，在双方的熟悉和测试阶段看起来是对的。 </li><li>排除婴儿谁（1）看熟悉的范例小于6; （2）熟悉阶段的小于40％时的样子。另外，还要排除婴儿，如果有父母干涉，实验误差或技术故障，或如果在测试其性能与平均值大于2 SD。 </li></ol></li><li> 分析 <ol><li>对于熟悉阶段，计算总的时间每个婴儿看了熟悉对象的量。 </li><li>对于测试阶段，计算每个婴儿的偏好得分：（总的寻找时间新型测试图像）/（总的寻找时间以两个测试图像）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 3.实验1：短暂暴露于狐猴发声<ol><li> 参与者 <ol><li>在6〜7个月的年龄招收14名婴儿。 </li></ol></li><li> 程序 <ol><li>邀请日Ë照顾者和婴儿成一个安静，舒适的房间。在我们的实验室，这个房间是相邻的考场。 </li><li>曝光操作：播放狐猴配乐一次，用音乐可视化工具（ 例如 iTunes）出现在屏幕上。 </li><li>分类任务：当配乐完成后，指导护理人员和婴儿带入考场。开始分类任务（狐猴条件）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 4.实验2：短暂暴露于向后语音<ol><li> 参与者 <ol><li>相同实验1。 </li></ol></li><li> 程序 <ol><li>邀请看护者和婴幼儿到一个安静，舒适的房间。 </li><li>曝光操作：播放向后语音配乐一次，出现在屏幕上的音乐可视化。 </li><li>分类任务：当配乐完成后，指导护理人员和婴儿带入考场。开始分类任务（BackwaRD语音条件）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 5.实验3：长时间暴露于狐猴发声<ol><li> 参与者 <ol><li>在4.5个月的年龄招收14名婴儿。 </li></ol></li><li> 程序 <ol><li>通过电话，邀请护理人员参加6周之久的研究。解释说，这项研究需要他们暴露自己的婴儿，在家中，在10分钟的配乐包含音乐的8分钟和狐猴发声的2分钟（ 即狐猴配乐）。解释说，这项研究持续了6周，当婴儿为4.5个月，自当婴儿6月龄结束。 </li><li>提供与此精确锥形时间表7，8，18护理人员<ol><li>第1周：播放电影配乐婴儿每天一次，每一天。 </li><li>第2周：播放电影配乐婴儿隔日一次。 </li><l我&gt; 3周：在一周播放配乐婴儿的3倍。 </li><li> 4-6周：每周播放配乐婴儿的2倍。 </li></ol></li><li>为了确保曝光操作的整个6周的曝光操作的保真度，与照顾者共享在线交互式文档（一）在整个6周时期和（b）要求他们记录每一个日期和时间的每一步概括自己的角色他们扮演的配乐，以他们的婴儿。 </li><li>通过电话或电子邮件每周发送提醒保持护理人员从事和轨道上。 </li><li>在5周，安排下一周（6周）实验室参观。指导，婴儿应该听配乐他们预定的实验室访问前2〜4天护理人员;婴儿不应该听配乐无论是在当天或他们的访问的前一天。 注：在实验室参观，没有曝光操作：婴幼儿只有在从Experimen分类任务参与T 1（狐猴条件）。 </li></ol></li></ol>

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作者什么都没有透露。

在这里，我们勾勒出可用于在婴儿期及早联的声音和核心认知过程的体验角色的过程。我们的组合的实验记录了第一个证据经验起着引导婴儿到指定信号，从广泛的初始集合的可能性的中心作用，它们将利用核心概念流程，最终提供的含义的基础。他们还揭示了先天和后天之间错综复杂的接口：虽然经验起到多大的作用，如果有的话，在确定广泛的，婴儿最初链接到认知的17个?...

人类婴儿出生准备收购的语言，文化和认知工具，我们定义为一个物种，从根本上塑造了我们的发展。中央对我们的学习语言能力的人的发展的两个特点：我们altriciality和我们强大的学习策略。总之，这些功能解锁早期的可塑性，使婴儿是高度切合他们的环境投入相当大的程度。例如，尽管婴儿来到这个世界与一组感知偏好和歧视性的能力足够宽以包括面和人类和非人灵长类动物的声音，在几个月内它们缩小这些偏好为排他性人类信号1，2，3。感知变窄的过程是自适应的在两个方面：它增加相关交际信号R的信噪比12;那些将引导婴幼儿高效准确地定位其复杂的社会世界-它铺平了道路，跨越感性的方式整合信息的方式（ 例如 ，整合音容）4 -为人类语言的本质多式联运的一个基本要素。而且，由于婴儿的早期可塑性的，感性变窄可以防止或与暴露于外来的信号（ 例如 ，非天然语言，非人脸，外国音乐节拍）5，6,8反转。这说明知觉变窄体验驱动的。 然而，要掌握自己的母语，婴幼儿必须做的比调更多的面孔和其扬声器的声音。人类语言的力量是密不可分的认知9。令人难以置信的是，即使是在生命的第一年，婴儿具有B-EGUN链接语言与认知：只需听人类语言促进婴儿，以形成对象的类别能力，构建块为他们的认知10，11，12。 这并不是说，婴儿只能形成对象的类别，如果他们是听语言。相反，几十年的研究显示，在其生命的最初几个月的婴儿可以形成在没有任何声音，13中的至少一些对象的类别。但并不是所有的对象类别是同样容易对婴儿形成。稍微更困难的类别提供了有力的机会，发现如果有的话，语言可能对婴儿的分类有什么影响。要做到这一点，研究人员识别更难对象类别婴儿在没有其他辅助信息（如语言）识别，然后询问是否语言（和其他声音<html> ）婴幼儿提供任何优势，在分类。 使用这样的逻辑，语言和对象分类之间的早期联系在一个新颖性优先模式设计成适应非常小的婴儿（ 图1b）11记录。这种模式有两个阶段。在熟悉阶段，所有婴儿查看一系列不同对象（ 例如 ，恐龙）的图像与声音一起顺序地呈现。在测试阶段期间，所有婴儿在沉默查看两个新的图像：一张是现在熟悉的类别（ 例如 ，另一恐龙）的一个新成员，而另一个是一个新颖类别的（ 例如 ，鱼）的部件。婴儿在测试的寻找时间作为分类的指标。如果婴儿形成熟悉期间的类别，则在测试他们应该从熟悉图像区分小说。如果婴儿不这样做，那么在测试他们应该有机会执行“&gt; 14，15，16。 结果是惊人的。在3,4，和6个月，婴儿熟悉期间收听语言-但不是音调序列-成功地形成对象的类别11，17。出人意料的是，语言是不是发挥这种优势的认知唯一的声音：在第3和4个月，听着非人灵长类动物的发声（马达加斯加，蓝眼睛狐猴：Eulemur狐猿flavifrons）款赋予相同的认知优势，因为人的发声17。 6个月的年龄，但婴幼儿已调整这个最初广泛的人权具体发声的链接;狐猴发声不再会对婴儿分类17的效果。 但是，什么样的机制underlies婴儿增加精度联的语言和认识？在这里，我们考虑的婴儿经历的贡献。请问婴儿与人类语言（和他们的经验，听狐猴叫声缺乏）发挥作用，因为它们最初缩小特权信号（ 例如 ，人与非人灵长类动物发声）和对象分类的核心认知过程之间的联系 ，丰富的经验？当然，我们无法通过操纵婴儿接触到的语言进行测试。但是，我们可以操纵他们接触到狐猴发声。我们专注于婴幼儿在6和7个月的婴儿-婴儿谁，在没有曝光，不再联系狐猴发声和对象分类17。在实验1中，我们要求短暂暴露于狐猴的叫声是否允许他们保持这种信号和对象分类之间的联系。在实验2中，我们询问是否短暂暴露于落后的演讲 - 这始终未能支持对象范畴上的信号在化17任何年龄-也促进了对象分类。在实验3，我们把暴露的问题，以更严格的测试，考察更长时间暴露在狐猴叫声是否允许他们保留其最初宽泛的链接。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="586">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Laptop 1</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Use for presenting exposure soundtrack; preferably using iTunes Visualizer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Laptop 2</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for programming and presenting categorization task</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Laptop 3 (optional)</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for coding infant looking behavior (can also use one of the above laptops)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Coding software</td>
			<td style="width:84px;">SuperCoder</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for coding infant looking behavior</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Video recorder</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for recording infants&#39; face (looking behavior during categorization task)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Mixer</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for integrating information from the video recorder (infant looking behavior) and the visual stimuli (categorization task)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">DVD player</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for recording the input from the video recorder (infant looking behavior)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Television</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for viewing input from mixer (screen-in-screen; categorization task in corner of screen showing infant looking behavior)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Projector</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for projecting visual stimuli of categorization task on screen</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Speakers</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for presenting auditory stimuli during categorization task</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Blacked-out sunglasses</td>
			<td style="width:84px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for blocking caretaker&#39;s vision during categorization task</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Statistical analysis software</td>
			<td style="width:84px;">R</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Use for analyzing infant looking behavior</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

experience is instrumental in tuning a link between language and cognition: evidence from 6-  to 7- month-old infants' object categorization

出生时，婴儿不仅喜欢听人发声，但也已经开始发声这些链接到认知：对于婴儿年仅三个月大时，听人语言支持对象分类，一个核心的认知能力。这个早熟的链接最初是广：在第3和4个月，人类和非人类灵长类动物的发声支持分类。但到了6个月，婴儿已经缩小的链接：只有人类发声支持对象分类。在这里，我们问导游婴幼儿，因为他们调整自己最初广泛链接到一个更精确的一个，只有我们人类的发声接合。在三个研究中，我们使用了一种新的范式曝光考察经验的影响。我们的文件，只是暴露婴儿非人灵长类动物叫声使婴儿保持这种信号和分类之间的早期建立的链路。与此相反，露出婴儿到向后的语音 - 信号失败于任何年龄，以支持分类 - 没有提供这样的优势。我们的研究结果揭示早期经验的功率为婴幼儿指定信号，从最初广泛的，他们将继续链接到认知。

使用以上（ 图1）中列出的程序，我们跑了三个实验来测试曝光的效果婴儿细化某些声音和认知之间的联系。 实验1的结果表明，短暂暴露于狐猴的叫声了惊人的效果。七暴露于狐猴发声月婴儿可靠地优选的新型测试图像，M = 0.57， 标准差 = 0.09; T（13）= 3.12，P = 0.008，D = 1.73（ <stron...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Experience is Instrumental in Tuning a Link Between Language and Cognition: Evidence from 6-  to 7- Month-Old Infants' Object Categorization at JoVE.com

Experience is Instrumental in Tuning a Link Between Language and Cognition: Evidence from 6-  to 7- Month-Old Infants' Object Categorization

在3-4个月，听着人与非人灵长类动物发声增强婴幼儿的认知; 6个月，只有人类发声发挥这种认知优势。我们描述揭示的婴幼儿指定经验这听起来链接到认知和调出功能强大的整形角色曝光操作。

经验是器乐在调整语言与认知之间的联系：证据的6至7个月大的婴儿对象分类

At birth, infants not only prefer listening to human vocalizations, but also have begun to link these vocalizations to cognition: For infants as young as ...

experience-is-instrumental-tuning-link-between-language-cognition

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Introduction to Psychology

Behavior

Unit 1

Thinking, Language And Intelligence

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

6.6K 次观看.  Northwestern University. 在3-4个月，听着人与非人灵长类动物发声增强婴幼儿的认知; 6个月，只有人类发声发挥这种认知优势。我们描述揭示的婴幼儿指定经验这听起来链接到认知和调出功能强大的整形角色曝光操作。 

视频: Experience is Instrumental in Tuning a Link Between Language and Cognition: Evidence from 6-  to 7- Month-Old Infants' Object Categorization

P50 Sensory Gating in Infants

Attentional deficits are common in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders including attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, autism, bipolar mood disorder, and schizophrenia. There has been increasing interest in the neurodevelopmental components of these attentional deficits; neurodevelopmental meaning that while the deficits become clinically prominent in childhood or adulthood, the deficits are the results of problems in brain development that begin in infancy or even prenatally. Despite this interest, there are few methods for assessing attention very early in infancy. This report focuses on one method, infant auditory P50 sensory gating.
Attention has several components. One of the earliest components of attention, termed sensory gating, allows the brain to tune out repetitive, noninformative sensory information. Auditory P50 sensory gating refers to one task designed to measure sensory gating using changes in EEG. When identical auditory stimuli are presented 500 ms apart, the evoked response (change in the EEG associated with the processing of the click) to the second stimulus is generally reduced relative to the response to the first stimulus (i.e. the response is &#34;gated&#34;). When response to the second stimulus is not reduced, this is considered a poor sensory gating, is reflective of impaired cerebral inhibition, and is correlated with attentional deficits.
Because the auditory P50 sensory gating task is passive, it is of potential utility in the study of young infants and may provide a window into the developmental time course of attentional deficits in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders. The goal of this presentation is to describe the methodology for assessing infant auditory P50 sensory gating, a methodology adapted from those used in studies of adult populations.

Methods to record auditory P50 sensory gating, a physiological marker of cerebral inhibition which reflects early stages of attention, are described.

P50感觉门控的婴幼儿

Attentional deficits are common in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders including attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, autism, bipolar mood ...

科研

行为学

The Crossmodal Congruency Task as a Means to Obtain an Objective Behavioral Measure in the Rubber Hand Illusion Paradigm

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden hand is touched. If the viewed and felt touches are given at the same time then this is sufficient to induce the compelling experience that the rubber hand is one's own hand. The RHI can be used to investigate exactly how the brain constructs distinct body representations for one's own body. Such representations are crucial for successful interactions with the external world. To obtain a subjective measure of the RHI, researchers typically ask participants to rate statements such as "I felt as if the rubber hand were my hand". Here we demonstrate how the crossmodal congruency task can be used to obtain an objective behavioral measure within this paradigm.
The variant of the crossmodal congruency task we employ involves the presentation of tactile targets and visual distractors. Targets and distractors are spatially congruent (i.e. same finger) on some trials and incongruent (i.e. different finger) on others. The difference in performance between incongruent and congruent trials - the crossmodal congruency effect (CCE) - indexes multisensory interactions. Importantly, the CCE is modulated both by viewing a hand as well as the synchrony of viewed and felt touch which are both crucial factors for the RHI.
The use of the crossmodal congruency task within the RHI paradigm has several advantages. It is a simple behavioral measure which can be repeated many times and which can be obtained during the illusion while participants view the artificial hand. Furthermore, this measure is not susceptible to observer and experimenter biases. The combination of the RHI paradigm with the crossmodal congruency task allows in particular for the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the RHI.

We demonstrate how an objective measure can be employed in the widely employed rubber hand illusion paradigm. This measure is obtained by modifying the well-established crossmodal congruency task. This task allows the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the rubber hand illusion.

一致性的任务作为一种手段来获取目标行为的措施中的橡胶手错觉范式Crossmodal

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden ...

Transferring Cognitive Tasks Between Brain Imaging Modalities: Implications for Task Design and Results Interpretation in fMRI Studies

As cognitive neuroscience methods develop, established experimental tasks are used with emerging brain imaging modalities. Here transferring a paradigm (the visual oddball task) with a long history of behavioral and electroencephalography (EEG) experiments to a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment is considered. The aims of this paper are to briefly describe fMRI and when its use is appropriate in cognitive neuroscience; illustrate how task design can influence the results of an fMRI experiment, particularly when that task is borrowed from another imaging modality; explain the practical aspects of performing an fMRI experiment. It is demonstrated that manipulating the task demands in the visual oddball task results in different patterns of blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) activation. The nature of the fMRI BOLD measure means that many brain regions are found to be active in a particular task. Determining the functions of these areas of activation is very much dependent on task design and analysis. The complex nature of many fMRI tasks means that the details of the task and its requirements need careful consideration when interpreting data. The data show that this is particularly important in those tasks relying on a motor response as well as cognitive elements and that covert and overt responses should be considered where possible. Furthermore, the data show that transferring an EEG paradigm to an fMRI experiment needs careful consideration and it cannot be assumed that the same paradigm will work equally well across imaging modalities. It is therefore recommended that the design of an fMRI study is pilot tested behaviorally to establish the effects of interest and then pilot tested in the fMRI environment to ensure appropriate design, implementation and analysis for the effects of interest.

Transferring a paradigm with a history of use in EEG experiments to an fMRI experiment is considered. It is demonstrated that manipulating the task demands in the visual oddball task resulted in different patterns of BOLD activation and illustrated how task design is crucial in fMRI experiments.

传输认知任务的脑成像方法：对任务的设计和结果判读的功能磁共振成像研究

As cognitive neuroscience methods develop, established experimental tasks are used with emerging brain imaging modalities. Here transferring a paradigm ...

Modulating Cognition Using Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation of the Cerebellum

Numerous studies have emerged recently that demonstrate the possibility of modulating, and in some cases enhancing, cognitive processes by exciting brain regions involved in working memory and attention using transcranial electrical brain stimulation. Some researchers now believe the cerebellum supports cognition, possibly via a remote neuromodulatory effect on the prefrontal cortex. This paper describes a procedure for investigating a role for the cerebellum in cognition using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and a selection of information-processing tasks of varying task difficulty, which have previously been shown to involve working memory, attention and cerebellar functioning. One task is called the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT) and the other a novel variant of this task called the Paced Auditory Serial Subtraction Task (PASST). A verb generation task and its two controls (noun and verb reading) were also investigated. All five tasks were performed by three separate groups of participants, before and after the modulation of cortico-cerebellar connectivity using anodal, cathodal or sham tDCS over the right cerebellar cortex. The procedure demonstrates how performance (accuracy, verbal response latency and variability) could be selectively improved after cathodal stimulation, but only during tasks that the participants rated as difficult, and not easy. Performance was unchanged by anodal or sham stimulation. These findings demonstrate a role for the cerebellum in cognition, whereby activity in the left prefrontal cortex is likely dis-inhibited by cathodal tDCS over the right cerebellar cortex. Transcranial brain stimulation is growing in popularity in various labs and clinics. However, the after-effects of tDCS are inconsistent between individuals and not always polarity-specific, and may even be task- or load-specific, all of which requires further study. Future efforts might also be guided towards neuro-enhancement in cerebellar patients presenting with cognitive impairment once a better understanding of brain stimulation mechanisms has emerged.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the cerebellum exerts a remote effect on the prefrontal cortex, which can modulate cognition and performance. This was demonstrated using two information-processing tasks of varying complexity, whereby only cathodal tDCS improved performance when the task was difficult, but not easy.

调节认知使用小脑经颅直流电刺激

Numerous studies have emerged recently that demonstrate the possibility of modulating, and in some cases enhancing, cognitive processes by exciting brain ...

The Modified Hole Board - Measuring Behavior, Cognition and Social Interaction in Mice and Rats

This protocol describes the modified hole board (mHB), which combines features from a traditional hole board and open field and is designed to measure multiple dimensions of unconditioned behavior in small laboratory mammals (e.g., mice, rats, tree shrews and small primates). This paradigm is a valuable alternative for the use of a behavioral test battery, since a broad behavioral spectrum of an animal&#8217;s behavioral profile can be investigated in one single test.
The apparatus consists of a box, representing the &#8216;protected&#8217; area, separated from a group compartment. A board, on which small cylinders are staggered in three lines, is placed in the center of the box, representing the &#8216;unprotected&#8217; area of the set-up. The cognitive abilities of the animals can be measured by baiting some cylinders on the board and measuring the working and reference memory. Other unconditioned behavior, such as activity-related-, anxiety-related- and social behavior, can be observed using this paradigm. Behavioral flexibility and the ability to habituate to a novel environment can additionally be observed by subjecting the animals to multiple trials in the mHB, revealing insight into the animals&#8217; adaptive capacities.
Due to testing order effects in a behavioral test battery, na&#239;ve animals should be used for each individual experiment. By testing multiple behavioral dimensions in a single paradigm and thereby circumventing this issue, the number of experimental animals used is reduced. Furthermore, by avoiding social isolation during testing and without the need to food deprive the animals, the mHB represents a behavioral test system, inducing if any, very low amount of stress.

This protocol describes the modified hole board, which is a behavioral test set-up that comprises the characteristics of an open field and a traditional hole board. This set-up enables the differential analysis of unconditioned behavior of small laboratory mammals as well as the analysis of cognitive abilities.

修改后的孔板 - 测量行为，认知和社会互动小鼠和大鼠

This protocol describes the modified hole board (mHB), which combines features from a traditional hole board and open field and is designed to measure ...

A Mouse Model of Subchronic and Mild Social Defeat Stress for Understanding Stress-induced Behavioral and Physiological Deficits

Stressful life events often increase the incidence of depression in humans. To study the mechanisms of depression, the development of animal models of depression is essential. Because there are several types of depression, various animal models are needed for a deeper understanding of the disorder. Previously, a mouse model of subchronic and mild social defeat stress (sCSDS) using a modified chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) paradigm was established. In the paradigm, to reduce physical injuries from aggressors, the duration of physical contact between the aggressor and a subordinate was reduced compared to in the original CSDS paradigm. sCSDS mice showed increased body weight gain, food intake, and water intake during the stress period, and their social behaviors were suppressed after the stress period. In terms of the face validity of the stress-induced overeating and overdrinking following the increased body weight gain, the sCSDS mice may show some features related to atypical depression in humans. Thus, a mouse model of sCSDS may be useful for studying the pathogenic mechanisms underlying depression. This protocol will help establish the sCSDS mouse model, especially for studying the mechanisms underlying stress-induced weight gain and polydipsia- and hyperphagia-like symptoms.

Here, methods for developing a mouse model of subchronic and mild social defeat stress are described and used to investigate the pathogenic features of depression including hyperphagia- and polydipsia-like symptoms following increased body weight.

亚慢性和温和的社会失败应激的小鼠模型理解应激诱导行为和生理赤字

Stressful life events often increase the incidence of depression in humans. To study the mechanisms of depression, the development of animal models of ...

The (Spatial) Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

The memory game paradigm is a behavioral procedure to explore the relationship between language, spatial memory, and object knowledge. Using two different versions of the paradigm, spatial language use and memory for object location are tested under different, experimentally manipulated conditions. This allows us to tease apart proposed models explaining the influence of object knowledge on spatial language (e.g., spatial demonstratives), and spatial memory, as well as understanding the parameters that affect demonstrative choice and spatial memory more broadly. Key to the development of the method was the need to collect data on language use (e.g., spatial demonstratives: &#34;this/that&#34;) and spatial memory data under strictly controlled conditions, while retaining a degree of ecological validity. The language version (section 3.1) of the memory game tests how conditions affect language use. Participants refer verbally to objects placed at different locations (e.g., using spatial demonstratives: &#34;this/that red circle&#34;). Different parameters can be experimentally manipulated: the distance from the participant, the position of a conspecific, and for example whether the participant owns, knows, or sees the object while referring to it. The same parameters can be manipulated in the memory version of the memory game (section 3.2). This version tests the effects of the different conditions on object-location memory. Following object placement, participants get 10 seconds to memorize the object&#39;s location. After the object and location cues are removed, participants verbally direct the experimenter to move a stick to indicate where the object was. The difference between the memorized and the actual location shows the direction and strength of the memory error, allowing comparisons between the influences of the respective parameters.

The Spatial Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

We present a protocol to explore the relationship between spatial language production, spatial memory, and object knowledge. The procedure allows experimental manipulation of, and control over, conditions of object knowledge, language at instruction, and physical location, thus teasing apart cognitive and linguistic models describing interactions between these variables.

(空间) 记忆游戏: 测试空间语言、对象知识和空间认知的关系

The memory game paradigm is a behavioral procedure to explore the relationship between language, spatial memory, and object knowledge. Using two different ...

A High-performance Liquid Chromatography Measurement of Kynurenine and Kynurenic Acid: Relating Biochemistry to Cognition and Sleep in Rats

The kynurenine pathway (KP) of tryptophan degradation has been implicated in psychiatric disorders. Specifically, the astrocyte-derived metabolite kynurenic acid (KYNA), an antagonist at both N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and &#945;7 nicotinic acetylcholine (&#945;7nACh) receptors, has been implicated in cognitive processes in health and disease. As KYNA levels are elevated in the brains of patients with schizophrenia, a malfunction at the glutamatergic and cholinergic receptors is believed to be causally related to cognitive dysfunction, a core domain of the psychopathology of the illness. KYNA may play a pathophysiologically significant role in individuals with schizophrenia. It is possible to elevate endogenous KYNA in the rodent brain by treating animals with the direct bioprecursor kynurenine, and preclinical studies in rats have demonstrated that acute elevations in KYNA may impact their learning and memory processes. The current protocol describes this experimental approach in detail and combines a) a biochemical analysis of blood kynurenine levels and brain KYNA formation (using high-performance liquid chromatography), b) behavioral testing to probe the hippocampal-dependent contextual memory (passive avoidance paradigm), and c) an assessment of sleep-wake behavior [telemetric recordings combining electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG) signals] in rats. Taken together, a relationship between elevated KYNA, sleep, and cognition is studied, and this protocol describes in detail an experimental approach to understanding function outcomes of kynurenine elevation and KYNA formation in vivo in rats. Results obtained through variations of this protocol will test the hypothesis that the KP and KYNA serve pivotal roles in modulating sleep and cognition in health and disease states.

Alterations in the kynurenine pathway (KP) neuroactive metabolites are implicated in psychiatric illnesses. Investigating the functional outcomes of an altered kynurenine pathway metabolism in vivo in rodents may help elucidate novel therapeutic approaches. The current protocol combines biochemical and behavioral approaches to investigate the impact of an acute kynurenine challenge in rats.

高效液相色谱法测定犬尿氨和 Kynurenic 酸: 对大鼠认知和睡眠的相关生物化学研究

The kynurenine pathway (KP) of tryptophan degradation has been implicated in psychiatric disorders. Specifically, the astrocyte-derived metabolite ...

Decomposing the Variance in Reading Comprehension to Reveal the Unique and Common Effects of Language and Decoding

The Simple View of Reading is a popular model of reading that claims that reading is the product of decoding and language, with each component uniquely predicting reading comprehension. Although researchers have argued whether the sum rather than the product of the components is the better predictor, no researchers have partitioned the variance explained to examine the extent to which the components share variance in predicting reading. To decompose the variance, we subtract the R2 for the language-only model from the full model to obtain the unique R2 for decoding. Second, we subtract the R2 for the decoding-only model from the full model to obtain the unique R2 for language. Third, to obtain the common variance explained by language and decoding, we subtract the sum of the two unique R2 from the R2 for the full model. The method is demonstrated in a regression approach with data from students in grades 1 (n = 372), 6 (n = 309), and 10 (n = 122) using an observed measure of language (receptive vocabulary), decoding (timed word reading), and reading comprehension (standardized test). Results reveal a relatively large amount of variance in reading comprehension explained in grade 1 by the common variance in decoding and language. By grade 10, however, it is the unique effect of language and the common effect of language and decoding that explained the majority of variance in reading comprehension. Results are discussed in the context of an expanded version of the Simple View of Reading that considers unique and shared effects of language and decoding in predicting reading comprehension.

Here we present a protocol for decomposing the variance in reading comprehension into the unique and common effects of language and decoding.

分解阅读理解中的方差, 揭示语言与译码的独特性和共性效应

The Simple View of Reading is a popular model of reading that claims that reading is the product of decoding and language, with each component uniquely ...

Novel Object Recognition and Object Location Behavioral Testing in Mice on a Budget

Ethologically relevant behavioral testing is a critical component of any study that uses mouse models to study the cognitive effects of various physiological or pathological changes. The object location task (OLT) and the novel object recognition task (NORT) are two effective behavioral tasks commonly used to reveal the function and relative health of specific brain regions involved in memory. While both of these tests exploit the inherent preference of mice for the novelty to reveal memory for previously encountered objects, the OLT primarily evaluates spatial learning, which relies heavily on hippocampal activity. The NORT, in contrast, evaluates non-spatial learning of object identity, which relies on multiple brain regions. Both tasks require an open-field-testing arena, objects with equivalent intrinsic value to mice, appropriate environmental cues, and video recording equipment and the software. Commercially available systems, while convenient, can be costly. This manuscript details a simple, cost-effective method for building the arenas and setting up the equipment necessary to perform the OLT and NORT. Furthermore, the manuscript describes an efficient testing protocol that incorporates both OLT and NORT and provides typical methods for data acquisition and analysis, as well as representative results. Successful completion of these tests can provide valuable insight into the memory function of various mouse model systems and appraise the underlying neural regions that support these functions.

Here we provide a protocol which includes comprehensive instructions for the economical establishment of murine object location and novel object recognition behavioral testing, including the design, cost, and construction of required equipment as well as execution of behavioral testing, data collection, and analysis.