这项研究是由美国国家科学基金会的研究生研究奖学金到达尼埃尔·R·珀欣齐克和美国国立卫生研究院资助桑德拉·韦克斯曼R.（R01HD083310）的支持。

下面的步骤是由西北大学机构审查委员会批准，并从所有婴幼儿的照顾者获得了知情同意书。我们招募被提出婴幼儿的环境中有超过50％的接触英语11，17。在所有实验婴幼儿先听取了我们的操作曝光向狐猴发声或向后讲话配乐;然后，他们参加了一个对象分类的任务。什么跨婴儿变化是（A）他们在曝光操作听到信号的类型和分类任务（无论是狐猴的叫声或向后语音）和（b）的曝光阶段的程度（在实验室或者短暂暴露或长时间曝光在家）。对于所有婴儿，分类任务发生在实验室。 1.材料<ol><li> 如何创建曝光操作<ol><li>选择8个不同的狐猴发声的样品和8个不同的反向语音的样本，每2至4秒的持续时间。在一起时，8个样品应产生每个声信号的30秒。确保狐猴和向后的语音段作为紧密匹配尽可能为持续时间（ 例如 ，〜3秒的持续时间）和用于平均频率（ 例如 ，〜300赫兹）。 <ol><li>为了获得狐猴叫声，搜索动物发声的数据库或咨询研究员谁收集的动物的叫声。 </li><li>要建立落后的声音片段，使用一台笔记本电脑和一个软件程序（ 例如 ，无畏）（1）记录的研究助理说〜婴儿定向语音和（2）时间上逆向3秒的句子（在Audacity中:效果&gt;反向）每个语音段。 </li></ol></li><li>选择一首经典器乐比4分钟长的。在这里，我们使用在C小调，作品18第4号贝多芬四重奏的前4分钟:III。Menuetto。 </li><li>使用音频编辑软件程序（ 例如 ，无畏）导入的音乐（在Audacity中:文件&gt;导入），选择一块的持续时间大约4分钟的一部分（突出显示和删除片的其余部分）。 <ol><li>通过插入（ 即 ，复制和粘贴）每种类型的8个选定段（发声狐猴或向后语音）到音乐声道创建2个不同的音轨。 </li><li>要创建"狐猴"的配乐，在相同的软件程序（ 例如 ，无畏）打开8狐猴发声的声音文件，并将其插入到与音乐文件。 <ol><li>要做到这一点，突出整个狐猴发声，导航到编辑&gt;复制，将在音乐文件中的光标，并导航到编辑&gt;粘贴。插入不定期的发声整个配乐。不要将它们放置在乐句边界。这样做两次，每次狐猴发声，inserti在一个pseudorandomized顺序纳克它们，以确保发生在一行没有2周相同的发声。总之，这产生了5分钟循环（音乐的4分钟，用狐猴发声的1分钟穿插）。 </li><li>从而使整个音带持续大约10分钟，重复该5分钟的音乐。为了这样做，突出显示整个5分钟部，导航到编辑&gt;复制，将光标放置在5分钟部的端部，并导航到编辑&gt;粘贴。 </li></ol></li><li>以产生10分钟"向后"讲话配乐，替换狐猴音带与向后语音的选择段的每个狐猴发声，使用相同的pseudorandomized顺序。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li> 如何创建分类任务 <ol><li>视觉材料:手工创建2套线图纸。在每组中，包括相同对象类别的成员9（这里，使用9个不同恐龙的附图和9张不同的鱼图纸）。使用differenŤ明亮的颜色对于给定类别内的每个图形。扫描这些图纸到计算机并保存为图像文件。需要注意的是，图纸应在测试的年龄不熟悉的物体婴儿。 </li><li>声学材料:选择一个狐猴发声和不包括在任一曝光操作（1.1.3）中的一个向后语音段。尽可能接近地匹配狐猴和向后的语音段为持续时间（ 例如 ，〜3秒的持续时间）和用于平均频率（ 例如 ，〜300赫兹）。 </li><li>程序MATLAB任务包括熟悉阶段和测试阶段;这项任务将由5英尺屏幕在婴儿面前投射到5英尺<ol><li>编程熟悉阶段，使得来自单个类别视觉范例的8（ 例如 ，8个恐龙，每一个不同的颜色）依次出现。每个示例性应显示20秒，在右侧或屏幕的左侧，以交替的方式。科瑞e 2级的不同的版本中，每个配对熟悉范例下面（"狐猴"和"向后"讲话的条件下，分别地）的声刺激中的一个。在这两种情况下，应该对每个熟悉试验中出现两次的声刺激;一旦当视觉典范出现，并再次10秒后。 <ol><li>在狐猴条件下，程序中的每个熟悉范例与一个狐猴发声同时出现。 </li><li>在反向语音状态，程序中的每个熟悉范例同时与一个后向语音段出现。 </li></ol></li><li>在测试阶段期间，从熟悉类别（ 例如 ，另一个恐龙）和来自其他类别的示例性（ 例如 ，鱼）呈现第 9典范。这两个图像的颜色应相同，并且同时呈现（一个呈现在右侧，另一个在屏幕的左侧）在沉默20秒。 </li></ol&gt; </li><li>在编程的分类任务，平衡（1），其类将在熟悉阶段，（2）在其上第一熟悉图像出现在侧面，和（3）的一侧在其上新的和熟悉测试图像将出现呈现。 </li></ol></li></ol> 2.一般程序<ol><li> 曝光阶段 <ol><li>将婴儿靠近看护人或在他们的腿上在一个安静的区域。放置一个膝上型或平板婴儿的观看范围（从1到从婴儿4英尺）之内。 </li><li>使用笔记本电脑或平板电脑呈现无论是狐猴或向后语音配乐。 </li></ol></li><li> 分类任务 <ol><li>在实验室中较暗的试验室，一个椅子上通过5英尺屏幕从5英尺4英尺座位护理人员。笔记本电脑连接在MATLAB编程为（1）屏幕中的分类的任务，将显示该分类任务以及（2）一幻灯构造函数，将项目任务到屏幕上。 </li><li>席位照顾者的腿上婴儿，朝前。 </li><li>指导护理人员以避免以任何方式影响婴儿的行为。更具体地讲，指示他们保持安静，还在整个任务的持续时间，并保持他们的婴儿为中心，用他们的中线为指导。提供有一对涂黑的眼镜护理人员，以确保它们不能看到视觉材料。 </li><li>打开投影机。 </li><li>打开录音设备来捕获整个任务婴儿的行为。 </li><li>在MATLAB按下"运行"开始分类任务:目前狐猴条件，如果婴儿暴露于狐猴的配乐，如果婴儿暴露于向后讲话原声语音落后状态。 </li></ol></li><li> 编码（仅适用于分类任务） <ol><li>代码的开始和每个婴儿乐偏移英尺，在双方的熟悉和测试阶段看起来是对的。 </li><li>排除婴儿谁（1）看熟悉的范例小于6; （2）熟悉阶段的小于40％时的样子。另外，还要排除婴儿，如果有父母干涉，实验误差或技术故障，或如果在测试其性能与平均值大于2 SD。 </li></ol></li><li> 分析 <ol><li>对于熟悉阶段，计算总的时间每个婴儿看了熟悉对象的量。 </li><li>对于测试阶段，计算每个婴儿的偏好得分:（总的寻找时间新型测试图像）/（总的寻找时间以两个测试图像）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 3.实验1:短暂暴露于狐猴发声<ol><li> 参与者 <ol><li>在6〜7个月的年龄招收14名婴儿。 </li></ol></li><li> 程序 <ol><li>邀请日Ë照顾者和婴儿成一个安静，舒适的房间。在我们的实验室，这个房间是相邻的考场。 </li><li>曝光操作:播放狐猴配乐一次，用音乐可视化工具（ 例如 iTunes）出现在屏幕上。 </li><li>分类任务:当配乐完成后，指导护理人员和婴儿带入考场。开始分类任务（狐猴条件）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 4.实验2:短暂暴露于向后语音<ol><li> 参与者 <ol><li>相同实验1。 </li></ol></li><li> 程序 <ol><li>邀请看护者和婴幼儿到一个安静，舒适的房间。 </li><li>曝光操作:播放向后语音配乐一次，出现在屏幕上的音乐可视化。 </li><li>分类任务:当配乐完成后，指导护理人员和婴儿带入考场。开始分类任务（BackwaRD语音条件）。 </li></ol></li></ol> 5.实验3:长时间暴露于狐猴发声<ol><li> 参与者 <ol><li>在4.5个月的年龄招收14名婴儿。 </li></ol></li><li> 程序 <ol><li>通过电话，邀请护理人员参加6周之久的研究。解释说，这项研究需要他们暴露自己的婴儿，在家中，在10分钟的配乐包含音乐的8分钟和狐猴发声的2分钟（ 即狐猴配乐）。解释说，这项研究持续了6周，当婴儿为4.5个月，自当婴儿6月龄结束。 </li><li>提供与此精确锥形时间表7，8，18护理人员<ol><li>第1周:播放电影配乐婴儿每天一次，每一天。 </li><li>第2周:播放电影配乐婴儿隔日一次。 </li><l我&gt; 3周:在一周播放配乐婴儿的3倍。 </li><li> 4-6周:每周播放配乐婴儿的2倍。 </li></ol></li><li>为了确保曝光操作的整个6周的曝光操作的保真度，与照顾者共享在线交互式文档（一）在整个6周时期和（b）要求他们记录每一个日期和时间的每一步概括自己的角色他们扮演的配乐，以他们的婴儿。 </li><li>通过电话或电子邮件每周发送提醒保持护理人员从事和轨道上。 </li><li>在5周，安排下一周（6周）实验室参观。指导，婴儿应该听配乐他们预定的实验室访问前2〜4天护理人员;婴儿不应该听配乐无论是在当天或他们的访问的前一天。 注:在实验室参观，没有曝光操作:婴幼儿只有在从Experimen分类任务参与T 1（狐猴条件）。 </li></ol></li></ol>

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作者什么都没有透露。

在这里，我们勾勒出可用于在婴儿期及早联的声音和核心认知过程的体验角色的过程。我们的组合的实验记录了第一个证据经验起着引导婴儿到指定信号，从广泛的初始集合的可能性的中心作用，它们将利用核心概念流程，最终提供的含义的基础。他们还揭示了先天和后天之间错综复杂的接口:虽然经验起到多大的作用，如果有的话，在确定广泛的，婴儿最初链接到认知的17个信?...

人类婴儿出生准备收购的语言，文化和认知工具，我们定义为一个物种，从根本上塑造了我们的发展。中央对我们的学习语言能力的人的发展的两个特点:我们altriciality和我们强大的学习策略。总之，这些功能解锁早期的可塑性，使婴儿是高度切合他们的环境投入相当大的程度。例如，尽管婴儿来到这个世界与一组感知偏好和歧视性的能力足够宽以包括面和人类和非人灵长类动物的声音，在几个月内它们缩小这些偏好为排他性人类信号1，2，3。感知变窄的过程是自适应的在两个方面:它增加相关交际信号R的信噪比12;那些将引导婴幼儿高效准确地定位其复杂的社会世界-它铺平了道路，跨越感性的方式整合信息的方式（ 例如 ，整合音容）4 -为人类语言的本质多式联运的一个基本要素。而且，由于婴儿的早期可塑性的，感性变窄可以防止或与暴露于外来的信号（ 例如 ，非天然语言，非人脸，外国音乐节拍）5，6,8反转。这说明知觉变窄体验驱动的。 然而，要掌握自己的母语，婴幼儿必须做的比调更多的面孔和其扬声器的声音。人类语言的力量是密不可分的认知9。令人难以置信的是，即使是在生命的第一年，婴儿具有B-EGUN链接语言与认知:只需听人类语言促进婴儿，以形成对象的类别能力，构建块为他们的认知10，11，12。 这并不是说，婴儿只能形成对象的类别，如果他们是听语言。相反，几十年的研究显示，在其生命的最初几个月的婴儿可以形成在没有任何声音，13中的至少一些对象的类别。但并不是所有的对象类别是同样容易对婴儿形成。稍微更困难的类别提供了有力的机会，发现如果有的话，语言可能对婴儿的分类有什么影响。要做到这一点，研究人员识别更难对象类别婴儿在没有其他辅助信息（如语言）识别，然后询问是否语言（和其他声音<html> ）婴幼儿提供任何优势，在分类。 使用这样的逻辑，语言和对象分类之间的早期联系在一个新颖性优先模式设计成适应非常小的婴儿（ 图1b）11记录。这种模式有两个阶段。在熟悉阶段，所有婴儿查看一系列不同对象（ 例如 ，恐龙）的图像与声音一起顺序地呈现。在测试阶段期间，所有婴儿在沉默查看两个新的图像:一张是现在熟悉的类别（ 例如 ，另一恐龙）的一个新成员，而另一个是一个新颖类别的（ 例如 ，鱼）的部件。婴儿在测试的寻找时间作为分类的指标。如果婴儿形成熟悉期间的类别，则在测试他们应该从熟悉图像区分小说。如果婴儿不这样做，那么在测试他们应该有机会执行"&gt; 14，15，16。 结果是惊人的。在3,4，和6个月，婴儿熟悉期间收听语言-但不是音调序列-成功地形成对象的类别11，17。出人意料的是，语言是不是发挥这种优势的认知唯一的声音:在第3和4个月，听着非人灵长类动物的发声（马达加斯加，蓝眼睛狐猴:Eulemur狐猿flavifrons）款赋予相同的认知优势，因为人的发声17。 6个月的年龄，但婴幼儿已调整这个最初广泛的人权具体发声的链接;狐猴发声不再会对婴儿分类17的效果。 但是，什么样的机制underlies婴儿增加精度联的语言和认识？在这里，我们考虑的婴儿经历的贡献。请问婴儿与人类语言（和他们的经验，听狐猴叫声缺乏）发挥作用，因为它们最初缩小特权信号（ 例如 ，人与非人灵长类动物发声）和对象分类的核心认知过程之间的联系 ，丰富的经验？当然，我们无法通过操纵婴儿接触到的语言进行测试。但是，我们可以操纵他们接触到狐猴发声。我们专注于婴幼儿在6和7个月的婴儿-婴儿谁，在没有曝光，不再联系狐猴发声和对象分类17。在实验1中，我们要求短暂暴露于狐猴的叫声是否允许他们保持这种信号和对象分类之间的联系。在实验2中，我们询问是否短暂暴露于落后的演讲 - 这始终未能支持对象范畴上的信号在化17任何年龄-也促进了对象分类。在实验3，我们把暴露的问题，以更严格的测试，考察更长时间暴露在狐猴叫声是否允许他们保留其最初宽泛的链接。

<table><tbody><tr><td>Laptop 1</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for presenting exposure soundtrack; preferably using iTunes Visualizer</td></tr><tr><td>Laptop 2</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for programming and presenting categorization task</td></tr><tr><td>Laptop 3 (optional)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for coding infant looking behavior (can also use one of the above laptops)</td></tr><tr><td>Coding software</td><td>SuperCoder</td><td></td><td>Use for coding infant looking behavior</td></tr><tr><td>Video recorder</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for recording infants&#039; face (looking behavior during categorization task)</td></tr><tr><td>Mixer</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for integrating information from the video recorder (infant looking behavior) and the visual stimuli (categorization task)&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>DVD player</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for recording the input from the video recorder (infant looking behavior)</td></tr><tr><td>Television</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for viewing input from mixer (screen-in-screen; categorization task in corner of screen showing infant looking behavior)&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Projector</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for projecting visual stimuli of categorization task on screen</td></tr><tr><td>Speakers</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for presenting auditory stimuli during categorization task</td></tr><tr><td>Blacked-out sunglasses</td><td></td><td></td><td>Use for blocking caretaker&#039;s vision during categorization task</td></tr><tr><td>Statistical analysis software</td><td>R</td><td></td><td>Use for analyzing infant looking behavior</td></tr></tbody></table>

experience is instrumental in tuning a link between language and cognition: evidence from 6-  to 7- month-old infants' object categorization

出生时，婴儿不仅喜欢听人发声，但也已经开始发声这些链接到认知:对于婴儿年仅三个月大时，听人语言支持对象分类，一个核心的认知能力。这个早熟的链接最初是广:在第3和4个月，人类和非人类灵长类动物的发声支持分类。但到了6个月，婴儿已经缩小的链接:只有人类发声支持对象分类。在这里，我们问导游婴幼儿，因为他们调整自己最初广泛链接到一个更精确的一个，只有我们人类的发声接合。在三个研究中，我们使用了一种新的范式曝光考察经验的影响。我们的文件，只是暴露婴儿非人灵长类动物叫声使婴儿保持这种信号和分类之间的早期建立的链路。与此相反，露出婴儿到向后的语音 - 信号失败于任何年龄，以支持分类 - 没有提供这样的优势。我们的研究结果揭示早期经验的功率为婴幼儿指定信号，从最初广泛的，他们将继续链接到认知。

使用以上（ 图1）中列出的程序，我们跑了三个实验来测试曝光的效果婴儿细化某些声音和认知之间的联系。 实验1的结果表明，短暂暴露于狐猴的叫声了惊人的效果。七暴露于狐猴发声月婴儿可靠地优选的新型测试图像，M = 0.57， 标准差 = 0.09; T（13）= 3.12，P = 0.008，D = 1.73（ <stron...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Experience is Instrumental in Tuning a Link Between Language and Cognition: Evidence from 6-  to 7- Month-Old Infants' Object Categorization at JoVE.com

Experience is Instrumental in Tuning a Link Between Language and Cognition: Evidence from 6-  to 7- Month-Old Infants' Object Categorization

在3-4个月，听着人与非人灵长类动物发声增强婴幼儿的认知; 6个月，只有人类发声发挥这种认知优势。我们描述揭示的婴幼儿指定经验这听起来链接到认知和调出功能强大的整形角色曝光操作。

经验是器乐在调整语言与认知之间的联系:证据的6至7个月大的婴儿对象分类

At birth, infants not only prefer listening to human vocalizations, but also have begun to link these vocalizations to cognition: For infants as young as ...

experience-is-instrumental-tuning-link-between-language-cognition

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Introduction to Psychology

Behavior

Unit 1

Thinking, Language And Intelligence

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

6.6K 次观看.  Northwestern University. 在3-4个月，听着人与非人灵长类动物发声增强婴幼儿的认知; 6个月，只有人类发声发挥这种认知优势。我们描述揭示的婴幼儿指定经验这听起来链接到认知和调出功能强大的整形角色曝光操作。 

视频: Experience is Instrumental in Tuning a Link Between Language and Cognition: Evidence from 6-  to 7- Month-Old Infants' Object Categorization

Infant Auditory Processing and Event-related Brain Oscillations

Rapid auditory processing and acoustic change detection abilities play a critical role in allowing human infants to efficiently process the fine spectral and temporal changes that are characteristic of human language. These abilities lay the foundation for effective language acquisition; allowing infants to hone in on the sounds of their native language. Invasive procedures in animals and scalp-recorded potentials from human adults suggest that simultaneous, rhythmic activity (oscillations) between and within brain regions are fundamental to sensory development; determining the resolution with which incoming stimuli are parsed. At this time, little is known about oscillatory dynamics in human infant development. However, animal neurophysiology and adult EEG data provide the basis for a strong hypothesis that rapid auditory processing in infants is mediated by oscillatory synchrony in discrete frequency bands. In order to investigate this, 128-channel, high-density EEG responses of 4-month old infants to frequency change in tone pairs, presented in two rate conditions (Rapid: 70 msec ISI and Control: 300 msec ISI) were examined. To determine the frequency band and magnitude of activity, auditory evoked response averages were first co-registered with age-appropriate brain templates. Next, the principal components of the response were identified and localized using a two-dipole model of brain activity. Single-trial analysis of oscillatory power showed a robust index of frequency change processing in bursts of Theta band (3 - 8 Hz) activity in both right and left auditory cortices, with left activation more prominent in the Rapid condition. These methods have produced data that are not only some of the first reported evoked oscillations analyses in infants, but are also, importantly, the product of a well-established method of recording and analyzing clean, meticulously collected, infant EEG and ERPs. In this article, we describe our method for infant EEG net application, recording, dynamic brain response analysis, and representative results.

High-density electroencephalography (dEEG) is being used increasingly to study brain development and plasticity in the early years of life. Here we present an application of sophisticated analysis techniques that builds on traditional EEG recording to understand the oscillatory dynamics of rapid auditory processing in the infant brain.

婴儿听觉处理和事件相关的脑振荡

Rapid auditory processing and acoustic change detection abilities play a critical role in allowing human infants to efficiently process the fine spectral ...

科研

行为学

Examining Recall Memory in Infancy and Early Childhood Using the Elicited Imitation Paradigm

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is commonly assessed using verbal report paradigms in adults, studying the development of this ability in preverbal infants and children proved challenging. Over the past 30 years, researchers have developed a non-verbal means of assessing recall memory known as the elicited or deferred imitation paradigm. In one variant of the procedure, participants are presented with novel three-dimensional stimuli for a brief baseline period before a researcher demonstrates a series of actions that culminate in an end- or goal-state. The participant is allowed to imitate the demonstrated actions immediately, after a delay, or both. Recall performance is then compared to baseline or to performance on novel control sequences presented at the same session; memory can be assessed for the individual target actions and the order in which they were completed. This procedure is an accepted analogue to the verbal report techniques used with adults, and it has served to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. In addition, the elicited or deferred imitation procedure has been modified and adapted to answer questions relevant to other aspects of cognitive functioning. The broad utility and application of imitation paradigms is discussed, along with limitations of the approach and directions for future research.

The elicited imitation procedure was established to examine the development of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. This procedure has been widely used to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood.

使用仿引起范式检查召回内存在婴幼儿时期

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is ...

Creating Objects and Object Categories for Studying Perception and Perceptual Learning

In order to quantitatively study object perception, be it perception by biological systems or by machines, one needs to create objects and object categories with precisely definable, preferably naturalistic, properties1. Furthermore, for studies on perceptual learning, it is useful to create novel objects and object categories (or object classes) with such properties2.
Many innovative and useful methods currently exist for creating novel objects and object categories3-6 (also see refs. 7,8). However, generally speaking, the existing methods have three broad types of shortcomings.
First, shape variations are generally imposed by the experimenter5,9,10, and may therefore be different from the variability in natural categories, and optimized for a particular recognition algorithm. It would be desirable to have the variations arise independently of the externally imposed constraints.
Second, the existing methods have difficulty capturing the shape complexity of natural objects11-13. If the goal is to study natural object perception, it is desirable for objects and object categories to be naturalistic, so as to avoid possible confounds and special cases.
Third, it is generally hard to quantitatively measure the available information in the stimuli created by conventional methods. It would be desirable to create objects and object categories where the available information can be precisely measured and, where necessary, systematically manipulated (or 'tuned'). This allows one to formulate the underlying object recognition tasks in quantitative terms.
Here we describe a set of algorithms, or methods, that meet all three of the above criteria. Virtual morphogenesis (VM) creates novel, naturalistic virtual 3-D objects called 'digital embryos' by simulating the biological process of embryogenesis14. Virtual phylogenesis (VP) creates novel, naturalistic object categories by simulating the evolutionary process of natural selection9,12,13. Objects and object categories created by these simulations can be further manipulated by various morphing methods to generate systematic variations of shape characteristics15,16. The VP and morphing methods can also be applied, in principle, to novel virtual objects other than digital embryos, or to virtual versions of real-world objects9,13. Virtual objects created in this fashion can be rendered as visual images using a conventional graphical toolkit, with desired manipulations of surface texture, illumination, size, viewpoint and background. The virtual objects can also be 'printed' as haptic objects using a conventional 3-D prototyper.
We also describe some implementations of these computational algorithms to help illustrate the potential utility of the algorithms. It is important to distinguish the algorithms from their implementations. The implementations are demonstrations offered solely as a 'proof of principle' of the underlying algorithms. It is important to note that, in general, an implementation of a computational algorithm often has limitations that the algorithm itself does not have.
Together, these methods represent a set of powerful and flexible tools for studying object recognition and perceptual learning by biological and computational systems alike. With appropriate extensions, these methods may also prove useful in the study of morphogenesis and phylogenesis.

We describe a novel methodology for creating naturalistic 3-D objects and object categories with precisely defined feature variations. We use simulations of the biological processes of morphogenesis and phylogenesis to create novel, naturalistic virtual 3-D objects and object categories that can then be rendered as visual images or haptic objects.

创建对象和对象类别学习的认知与知觉学习

In order to quantitatively study object perception, be it perception by biological systems or by machines, one needs to create objects and object ...

神经科学

Defining the Role Of Language in Infants' Object Categorization with Eye-tracking Paradigms

Assessing infant category learning is a challenging but vital aspect of studying infant cognition. By employing a familiarization-test paradigm, we straightforwardly measure infants&#8217; success in learning a novel category while relying only on their looking behavior. Moreover, the paradigm can directly measure the impact of different auditory signals on the infant categorization across a range of ages. For instance, we assessed how 2-year-olds learn categories in a variety of labeling environments: in our task, 2-year-olds successfully learned categories when all exemplars were labeled&#160;or the first two exemplars were labeled, but they failed to categorize when no exemplars were labeled or only the final two exemplars were labeled. To determine infants&#8217; success in such tasks, researchers can examine both the overall preference displayed by infants in each condition and infants&#8217; pattern of looking over the course of the test phase, using an eye-tracker to provide fine-grained time-course data. Thus, we present a powerful paradigm for identifying the role of language, or any auditory signal, in infants&#8217; object category learning.

Here we present a protocol for familiarization-test paradigms which provide a direct test of infant categorization and help to define the role of language in early category learning.

用眼动跟踪范式界定语言在婴儿对象分类中的作用

Assessing infant category learning is a challenging but vital aspect of studying infant cognition. By employing a familiarization-test paradigm, we ...

Exploring Infant Sensitivity to Visual Language using Eye Tracking and the Preferential Looking Paradigm

We discuss the use of the preferential looking paradigm in eye tracking studies in order to study how infants develop, understand, and attend to the world around them. Eye tracking is a safe and non-invasive way to collect gaze data from infants, and the preferential looking paradigm is simple to design and only requires the infant to be attending to the screen. By simultaneously showing two visual stimuli that differ in one dimension, we can assess whether infants show different looking behavior for either stimulus, thus demonstrating sensitivity to that difference. The challenges in such experimental approaches are that experiments must be kept brief (no more than 10 min) and be carefully controlled such that the two stimuli differ in only one way. The interpretation of null results must also be carefully considered. In this paper, we illustrate a successful example of an infant eye tracking study with a preferential looking paradigm to discover that 6-month-olds are sensitive to linguistic cues in a signed language despite having no prior exposure to signed language, suggesting that infants possess intrinsic or innate sensitivities to these cues.

Eye tracking studies using a preferential looking paradigm can be used to study infants&#39;&#160;emerging understanding of, and attention to, their external visual world.

利用眼动追踪和偏好外观范式探索婴儿对视觉语言的敏感度

We discuss the use of the preferential looking paradigm in eye tracking studies in order to study how infants develop, understand, and attend to the world ...

Habituation: Studying Infants Before They Can Talk

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles, Judith Danovitch, and Cara Cashon&#8212;University of Louisville
Infants are one of the purest sources of information about human thinking and learning, because they&#8217;ve had very few life experiences. Thus, researchers are interested in gathering data from infants, but as participants in experimental research, they are a challenging group to study. Unlike older children and adults, young infants are unable to reliably speak, understand speech, or even move and control their own bodies. Eating, sleeping, and looking around are the only activities babies can perform reliably. Given these limitations, researchers have developed clever techniques for exploring infants&#8217; thoughts. One of the most popular methods makes use of a characteristic of attention called habituation.
Like adults, infants prefer to pay attention to new and interesting things. If they are left in the same environment, over time they become accustomed to their surroundings and pay less attention to them. This process is called habituation. However, the moment something new happens, infants are waiting and ready to pay attention again. This reengagement of attention following habituation is referred to as dishabituation. Scientists can use these characteristic changes in attention as a tool for studying the thinking and learning of young infants. This method involves initially presenting stimuli to infants until they are habituated, and then presenting them with different kinds of stimuli to see if they dishabituate, i.e., notice a change. By carefully choosing the stimuli shown to the infants, researchers can learn a great deal about how infants think and learn.
This experiment demonstrates how habituation can be used to study infant shape discrimination.

习惯: 学习婴儿才可以谈

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles, Judith Danovitch, and Cara Cashon&#8212;University of Louisville
Infants are one of the purest sources of ...

教育

JoVE Science Education

心理学

发展心理学

Mutual Exclusivity: How Children Learn the Meanings of Words

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
Humans are different from other animals in many ways, but perhaps the most important differentiating factor is their ability to use language. Other animals can communicate and even understand and use language in limited ways, but trying to teach human language to a chimp or a dog takes a great deal of time and effort. In contrast, young humans acquire their native language easily, and they learn linguistic rules without explicit instruction, which is an accomplishment that even the smartest animals cannot match.&#160;
One advantage young humans have over animals is that the human brain is especially adapted to learn new words. With only a few exposures, young children can learn new words and remember them. Perhaps more impressively, children can use what they already know to guide their future learning. For example, children treat objects as if they have only one label. So, if a child has learned the word hammer, they won&#8217;t assume an unfamiliar tool has the same name. This is the principle of mutual exclusivity.1-2
This video demonstrates children&#8217;s ability to use mutual exclusivity to match words to objects in their environment.

互斥: 儿童如何学习的单词的意思

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
Humans are different from other animals in many ways, but ...

Categories and Inductive Inferences

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
It might be possible for the human brain to keep track of each individual person, place, or thing encountered, but that would be a very inefficient use of time and cognitive resources. Instead, humans develop categories. Categories are mental representations of real things that can be used for a variety of purposes. For example, individuals can use the perceptual features of animals to place them into a given category. So, upon seeing a furry, four-legged, tail-wagging, barking animal, a person can determine that it is a dog. This is one of many examples where people use perceptual similarity to fit new experiences into their existing mental representations.
However, category membership is much more than skin deep, especially for representations of animals. Frank Keil demonstrated this by using a simple, yet powerful technique that focused on the differences between natural kinds and artifacts. Natural kinds include animals and other living things, while artifacts consist largely of nonliving things, such as tables or gold bricks. In his study, Keil told children stories about natural kinds and artifacts that underwent transformations causing them to cross categorical boundaries. For example, he described a step-by-step process by which a raccoon was transformed into a creature that resembled a skunk in every way. At the end of the story, the raccoon was black with a white stripe, and it had implanted glands that made it smell like a skunk, too. He asked the children to determine whether the resulting animal was a raccoon or a skunk. He used a similar method to describe the transformation of a tire-an artifact-into a shoe. Children&#39;s responses revealed interesting developmental changes into how people think about artifacts and natural kinds.
This video demonstrates Frank Keil&#39;s transformation study.1

How Children Categorize Objects and Make Inductive Inferences

类别和归纳推理

Source: Laboratories of Nicholaus Noles and Judith Danovitch&#8212;University of Louisville
It might be possible for the human brain to keep track of each ...

Language Development

Children master language quickly and with relative ease, supported by both biological predisposition and reinforcement. B. F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement, while Noam Chomsky (1965) argued that language acquisition mechanisms are biologically determined.
The critical period for language acquisition suggests that the ability to acquire language is at its peak early in life. As people age, this proficiency decreases. Language development begins very early, even before birth. Newborns show a preference for their mother&#39;s voice and can discriminate between their mother&#39;s language and other languages. Babies are attuned to the languages around them and prefer synchronized audio-visual language stimuli.
Initially, babies can differentiate among the sounds of all human languages. However, by around one year old, they can only discriminate among the phonemes used in their environment. After the first few months, babies enter the babbling stage, producing repeated single syllables. This babbling is not necessarily communicative and can occur when babies are alone. Babies exposed to sign language will also babble with their hands.
Children typically utter their first word between 1 year and 18 months, entering the &#34;one-word&#34; stage where single words carry larger meanings. Early vocabulary is often limited to familiar objects or events, primarily nouns. As children&#39;s vocabulary grows, they begin to form simple sentences and rapidly acquire new words. They also demonstrate an understanding of language rules, sometimes making mistakes through overgeneralization, such as saying &#34;gooses&#34; instead of &#34;geese.&#34;
Children&#39;s language development follows a consistent pattern across different cultures and backgrounds, suggesting a biological predisposition for language acquisition. Here&#39;s an overview of the developmental stages:
<ol style="list-style-type: circle;">
	<li>0-3 months: Babies engage in reflexive communication, responding to stimuli without intentionality.</li>
	<li>3-8 months: Reflexive communication continues, with an emerging interest in others and their interactions.</li>
	<li>8-13 months: Intentional communication and sociability develop as babies begin to understand that sounds can have meaning and purpose.</li>
	<li>12-18 months: The first words are typically spoken. These early words are often simple and related to familiar objects or people.</li>
	<li>18-24 months: Children start to form simple sentences of two words, combining basic concepts like &#34;want cookie&#34; or &#34;big truck.&#34;</li>
	<li>2-3 years: Sentences become more complex, consisting of three or more words. Vocabulary rapidly expands during this stage.</li>
	<li>3-5 years: Children are capable of forming complex sentences and engaging in conversations. Their language use becomes more sophisticated, and they have a better grasp of grammar and syntax.</li>
</ol>
This progression from reflexive sounds to complex sentences illustrates the remarkable ability of children to acquire language, guided by both biological predispositions and environmental interactions.

语言发展

Children master language quickly, aided by biological predisposition and reinforcement.
Skinner proposed language learning through reinforcement, while ...

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

The Nativist Approach

The nativist approach to infant cognitive development proposes that infants are born with inherent knowledge structures that allow them to interpret the world almost immediately. This perspective contrasts with earlier developmental theories, such as those proposed by Jean Piaget, which emphasized a more gradual acquisition of cognitive abilities through interaction with the environment. One key concept in this approach is object permanence &#8212; the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view. Nativist research has revealed that infants as young as three to four months demonstrate an expectation that objects are substantial, meaning they resist interference from other objects and persist in time and space. This finding challenges Piaget&#39;s assertion that object permanence emerges only between five to eight months of environmental interaction.
The nativist framework is exemplified by Elizabeth Spelke&#39;s core knowledge theory, which argues that infants possess domain-specific systems of knowledge at birth. Spelke&#39;s research identifies four primary domains: object representation, spatial navigation, numerical sense, and language. Each domain contains specialized, evolutionarily adapted cognitive processes that prepare infants for survival and interaction with their surroundings. For instance, infants demonstrate an intuitive grasp of spatial relationships, an elementary sense of numbers, and sensitivity to the properties of physical objects. According to core knowledge theory, this predisposed knowledge base allows infants to interpret basic environmental cues and lays the groundwork for complex learning and cognitive development.
The core knowledge theory is heavily influenced by evolutionary psychology, suggesting that cognitive structures evolved to equip humans with survival-relevant skills from an early age. The prewiring of knowledge domains like object permanence and spatial awareness serves to optimize infants&#39; ability to navigate their environment, interact with others, and process information relevant to survival.
However, the nativist approach has received criticism for potentially overlooking the role of social and environmental influences in cognitive development. Critics argue that while innate structures may guide infants&#39; interactions with their surroundings, external factors &#8212; particularly social interactions &#8212; play a significant role in shaping and enhancing early cognition.

The Nativist approach to infant cognitive development suggests that infants are born with significant knowledge and understanding of the world.
For ...