Name: using a thermal camera to measure heat loss through bird feather coats
Uploaded: 2020-06-17T14:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 4 min 55 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using a Thermal Camera to Measure Heat Loss Through Bird Feather Coats at JoVE.com

这项研究部分由康涅狄格大学研究咨询委员会学院资助，该学院向鲁贝加大学提供大笔资助。K. 布尔吉奥在国家科学基金会NRT-IGE赠款#1545458支持M.鲁贝加。两位匿名评论者的深思熟虑的反馈大大改善了手稿。

这项工作不涉及任何活体动物的工作，因此不受动物护理审查。
1. 设置和材料（图1）
<ol><li>如果没有感兴趣的物种的扁平皮肤，请使用 Spaw 的协议29 从新鲜或冷冻标本中创建皮肤。将羽毛放入整齐、自然的位置，干燥，以便在进行测量之前获得恒定的重量。</li>
	<li>设置恒温热水浴池。 注意:这个设置相当高，所以它是最容易把热水浴在地板上。</li>
	<li>将一块透明丙烯酸玻璃（材料表）放在恒温热水浴的表面。玻璃允许热量传输到皮肤的底面，而不会弄湿标本。 注:本试验研究使用了一块丙烯酸玻璃（厚度0.125）。玻璃的厚度不会影响材料的发射率30（ 始终为 0.86），但会影响玻璃表面的绝对温度（即， 较厚的玻璃会导致较低的温度）。因此，所有测量都应使用厚度相同的丙烯酸玻璃片进行。</li>
	<li>将一块泡沫芯板（1 厚）放在丙烯酸玻璃上，在丙烯酸玻璃上放置一个圆形孔（直径 0.5）。 注:鸟的大小应引导孔的大小，因此不间断的羽毛接收热量从源头的大小。在这里，使用了一个直径为0.5的孔，因为这个大小足够大，足以实现足够的热量传输到标本，同时仍然足够小，以集中乳房羽毛带下的热量（所有鸟类除最小的鸟）。无论热开口大小如何，要为每只鸟获得可比和可复制的价值，请务必用相同大小的孔进行测量。</li>
	<li>将热像仪连接到摄像机最小对焦距离设置正上方的三脚架上。 注:这里使用FLIR SC655热像仪（680 px x 480 px 分辨率，±2 °C 或±2% 的读取精度，40 厘米的最小对焦距离）。其他摄像机的分辨率可能不同。</li>
	<li>通过将以下信息输入热像仪软件来校准摄像机:<ol>
<li>通过在泡沫上放置铝箔（朝上闪亮的一侧），在相机校准软件中将发射值设置为 1.0 来查找反射温度。拍摄热图像。铝箔表面的温度是反射温度，应与房间的环境温度相似。</li>
		<li>将发射值31 到 0.95 设置为 0.95。 注:1） 放射性是物体发射32 的相对热量，范围从 0 到 1。具有高发射值的物体会释放出大量的热量，而具有低发射值的物体会散射少量热量。此值表示羽毛的放电性。2） 此值 （0.95） 存在争议。科辛斯和鲍尔声称羽毛的放射值在0.90-0.95之间，但没有包括任何证据31。哈梅尔报告的价值为0.98，但他从冷冻标本中获得了这个值，所以它可能不准确33。尽管缺乏证据，但0.95发射率是热像文献中最常用的价值（科辛斯和鲍尔斯31证明了这一点）。</li>
		<li>确保房间的环境温度和湿度保持不变。这些值应在每次测量和更新相机校准软件之前进行测量。所有室内房间的温度和湿度都会有一定波动，因此在软件中记录这些值并更新这些值可减少测量误差。 注:这里，使用FLIR研究最大软件。此软件不会为所有图像保存数据，因此记录每个图像的所有这些值至关重要。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
</ol>2. 测量性能
<ol><li>将恒温热水浴设定为目标温度（40 °C 是大多数路人鸟类平均内部核心温度的代理）34。 注意:如果与休息核心温度较高（如蜂鸟34）或更低（如企鹅34或鼠34，35）的物种合作，则可能适合相应地调整热水浴。图3显示了热水浴的温度与丙烯酸玻璃表面温度之间的关系（例如，平底皮肤暴露在热源的实际温度）。<ol>
<li>从该协议中获得的结果（见 图5）表明，获得一系列温度的测量结果也有助于了解热性能差异。要实现此目的，请使用 30+55 °C 的 5 °C 增量遵循协议。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>在热像仪软件中，在散热的泡沫孔上画一个圆圈/椭圆。这使得在将皮肤放在泡沫上时能够可视化此区域，以确保测量平底皮肤上的正确区域。</li>
	<li>将扁平皮肤标本放在泡沫上，在孔上放置感兴趣的区域。 注:在这里，测量每只鸟的腹部区域，因为它不受身体的其他部位，如翅膀的阻碍，并位于中心位置足以不受到边缘的影响。皮肤在热孔上的位置会因实验问题而异。一般来说，建议将位置直接放置在羽毛道上，并尽可能远离皮肤边缘。放置皮肤时，请确保不要使羽毛变平或紊乱。如有必要，在放置皮肤后将其置于自然位置。</li>
	<li>等待 15 分钟，让皮肤适应热源。如果测量太早，羽毛大衣表面的温度值将太低。在这里，通过皮肤和羽毛的温度传输稳定在15分钟，所以等待超过15分钟不会产生人为的高结果。</li>
	<li>拍摄扁平皮肤的热图像。<ol>
<li>在拍摄热图像之前，将发射值设置为31 到 0.95。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>从泡沫中取出皮肤，并立即拍摄未在泡沫上平底皮肤的设置的热图像。这量化了丙烯酸玻璃表面的温度，并校准了热源区域与平底皮肤上的测量区域。<ol>
<li>在这里，使用的30 丙烯酸玻璃的放电性是0.86。在拍摄没有皮肤的照片之前，请务必在热像仪软件中记录这一点。 注:热水浴所显示的温度不一定是丙烯酸玻璃表面的温度（图3），因为它的热传导并不完美。使用玻璃的温度可以减少估计皮肤底面温度的错误，因此可以综合估计皮肤和羽毛会损失多少热量。</li>
	</ol></li>
	<li>将皮肤放回泡沫上，置于同一位置。重复步骤 2.502.6 共五次试验。<ol>
<li>要正确放置标本皮肤，请用一根指尖轻轻触摸目标测量区域的羽毛，然后取下手指并查看热图像。手指的剩余热量将在热图像上短暂可见。检查以确保采样区域位于软件中绘制的可见圆圈内，该圆圈表示热水浴中通过皮肤辐射的热量区域。如果不是，移动皮肤，直到它是。这个过程在 图2中得到了说明。 注:虽然新鲜皮肤（如果可用）可能更密切地代表活鸟皮肤的自然热性能，但这些测量使用干燥的皮肤可以在更大的标本池上产生可比的可重复结果。因此，所有测量都应使用干燥到恒定的重量的皮肤进行，或者使用标本的新鲜和干燥皮肤进行测量。</li>
	</ol></li>
</ol>3. 热图像数据收集
<ol><li>每个测量包括两个热图像:一个平底皮肤和一个丙烯酸玻璃。首先，打开丙烯酸玻璃的图像。将软件中绘制的圆圈与图像中可见的泡沫中的孔对齐。记录圆的中心温度值。 注意:有关从热图像中提取数据的更多详细信息，请参阅高级等人。<ol>
<li>确保校准具有正确值的相机。在记录温度值之前，将发射率设置为30 到 0.86，并设置环境温度和湿度以匹配实验室中的当前条件。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>打开平底皮肤的热图像。无需移动圆，即可记录圆中心的温度值。 注:由于圆圈未记录在图像中，因此必须校准圆圈的位置，并校准第 2.6 节中丙烯酸玻璃的图像。<ol>
<li>确保校准具有正确值的相机。将发射率31 到 0.95 设置，并确保在记录温度值之前，将环境温度和湿度设置为实验室中的当前条件。</li>
	</ol>
</li>
	<li>对于所有标本的所有测量，重复步骤 3.1-3.2。</li>
</ol>4. 热性能计算
<ol><li>从丙烯酸玻璃的温度中减去羽毛涂层表面的温度。此值表示羽毛涂层保留的热量。</li>
</ol>

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R., Bowler, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Temperature Biology of Animals. , (1987).</li><li>Hammel, H. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infrared+Emissivities+of+Some+Arctic+Fauna.">Infrared Emissivities of Some Arctic Fauna.</a> Journal of Mammalogy. 37 (3), 375-378 (1956).</li><li>McNab, B. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+Analysis+of+the+Body+Temperatures+of+Birds.">An Analysis of the Body Temperatures of Birds.</a> The Condor. 68 (1), 47-55 (1966).</li><li>Crawford, E. C., Lasiewski, R. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxygen+Consumption+and+Respiratory+Evaporation+of+the+Emu+and+Rhea.">Oxygen Consumption and Respiratory Evaporation of the Emu and Rhea.</a> The Condor. 70, 333-339 (1968).</li><li>Senior, R. A., Hill, J. K., Edwards, D. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ThermStats:+An+R+Package+for+Quantifying+Surface+Thermal+Heterogeneity+in+Assessments+of+Microclimates.">ThermStats: An R Package for Quantifying Surface Thermal Heterogeneity in Assessments of Microclimates.</a> Methods in Ecology and Evolution. 10, 1606-1614 (2019).</li><li>. FLIR Systems, Inc Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.flir.com">https://www.flir.com</a> (2019)</li><li>McCafferty, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Applications+of+thermal+imaging+in+avian+science.">Applications of thermal imaging in avian science.</a> Ibis. 155 (1), 4-15 (2013).</li><li>Boonstra, R., Eadie, J. M., Krebs, C. J., Boutin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Limitations+of+Far+Infrared+Thermal+Imaging+in+Locating+Birds.">Limitations of Far Infrared Thermal Imaging in Locating Birds.</a> Journal of Field Ornithology. 66 (2), 192-198 (1955).</li><li>Rodbard, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Weight+and+Body+Temperature.">Weight and Body Temperature.</a> Science. 111 (2887), 465-466 (1950).</li></ol>

作者没有什么可透露的。

本文为可重复、标准化的鸟类平底皮肤标本热成像测量提供了协议。这种方法使得比较羽毛大衣在物种之间、物种内部、可比个体之间以及个体身体的不同位置之间的热性能，所有这些都无需破坏标本。
必要材料和设备的提供可能是这种方法的局限性。虽然热像仪正迅速变得更加容易获得和负担得起，研究级热像仪仍然花费数万美元37。然而，热像仪可用于...

羽毛是鸟类的决定性特征，具有多种功能，其中最关键的是绝缘1。鸟类的平均核心温度是任何脊椎动物群中最高的，而羽毛使它们免受环境温度变化的隔热是能量平衡的重要组成部分，尤其是在寒冷的环境中。尽管羽毛很重要，但大多数关于鸟类热条件变化的文献都集中在对温度变化的代谢反应上，而不是羽毛作为绝缘体的功能，如绝缘3、4、5、6、7、8、9、10（详情请参阅Ward等人）。11，12，13。然而，羽毛本身可能因时间、个体和物种而异。
此处介绍的方法可用于仅量化羽毛大衣的整体热值。它消除活鸟的混淆因素，如行为热调节1 和不同数量的绝缘脂肪。更广泛地测量羽毛大衣的热性能是必要的，以提高对羽毛如何促进绝缘的理解，以及在整个鸟类的生命历史和年度周期中，这些物种之间和物种内部是如何变化的。
羽毛通过在皮肤和羽毛之间以及羽毛内部捕获空气来隔离鸟类，它们为热量损失创造了物理屏障。羽毛由中央羽毛轴组成，称为拉奇，投影称为 barbs14。巴布是小，二次投影的酒吧，与相邻的酒吧联锁在一起，"拉链"羽毛，并给它的结构。此外，羽绒羽毛缺乏中央拉奇，几乎没有巴布，因此在皮肤上形成松散的，绝缘的巴布质量14。羽毛大衣因物种15、16、17、18和可比个体2、19、20、21、22、23、24而异。然而，关于羽毛数量的变化、鸟类上不同种类羽毛的相对丰度或刺/栏杆数量的变化如何影响羽毛大衣的整体热性能，几乎没有定量信息。先前的研究重点是确定特定物种11、12、13的绝缘和导热的单一平均值。
众所周知，羽毛大衣因物种而异。例如，大多数鸟类的皮肤区域各不一，羽毛从这些区域生长，或不长出，分别称为斑马和紫杉。pterylae（有时称为"羽毛带"）的位置因物种而异，并具有一定的分类特征14的价值。然而，一些鸟类（即老鼠和企鹅）已经失去了这种腺病，并有一个统一分布的羽毛在整个身体14。此外，不同的物种，特别是那些居住在不同环境，有不同的比例的羽毛类型15。例如，生活在较冷气候中的鸟类比生活在温暖环境中的物种拥有更多的羽绒羽毛15和轮廓羽毛，其羽毛的羽状部分大于16。
某些类型的羽毛的微观结构也可能对25、26物种的绝缘产生影响。雷等人比较了许多中国路人麻雀轮廓羽毛的微观结构，发现栖息在较冷环境中的物种在每个轮廓羽毛中羽状棒的比例较高，球状体较长，节点密度较高，节点较大，比居住在温暖环境中的物种多。D'alba等人比较了普通羽毛（索马特里亚·莫利西玛）和灰鹅（安瑟安瑟）羽绒羽毛的微观结构，并描述了这些差异如何影响羽毛的凝聚力和羽毛捕获空气的能力。关于羽毛变化如何影响不同物种羽毛涂层整体热性能的定量比较数据有限（有关更多详细信息，请参阅泰勒和沃德等人）。11，13.
在一个物种中，羽毛大衣的热性能可能会有所不同。有些物种，如僧鹦鹉（米约普西塔莫纳丘斯）17，栖息在非常大和多样化的地理范围。这些不同环境造成的不同热应力可能会影响区域内鸟类的羽毛外衣，但目前没有关于这一主题的数据。此外，布罗吉等人比较了北半球的两个大山雀（帕鲁斯主要L.）种群。他们表明，北方人口较多的轮廓羽毛比南方人口更密集，但更短，比例更小。然而，当两种种群的鸟类在同一地点饲养时，这些差异消失了。
此外，Broggi等人将这些发现解释为对不同热条件的塑料反应，但他们没有测量这些不同羽绒大衣的绝缘值。研究结果还表明，轮廓羽毛密度比轮廓羽毛中羽毛中羽毛的比例更重要，但布罗吉等人认为，北方种群可能因缺乏足够的营养而无法产生最佳的羽毛。对这些羽绒服整体热性能的定量测量将进一步理解羽毛差异的重要性。
随着时间的推移，个别鸟类的羽毛外衣会有所不同。每年至少一次，所有的鸟都会剥落（替换所有的羽毛）19。随着一年的流逝，羽毛变得磨损2，20和少无数18，21，22，23。有些鸟每年的毛绒不止一次，每年给它们多件不同的羽毛大衣19件。米德尔顿显示，美国金雀（脊柱三叶草），每年软糖两次，有较高的羽毛数量和羽绒羽毛的比例，在他们的基本羽毛在冬季几个月比他们在夏季的替代羽毛24。羽毛大衣的这些年度差异可能使鸟类在寒冷时期被动地保存更多的热量，或在温暖的季节被动地散发更多的热量，但是没有研究能最终证明这一点。
虽然鸟类在行为上调节行为1，27，并可以适应不同的热条件3，4，5，6，7，8，9，10，26，羽毛发挥重要的作用，在热调节提供恒定的绝缘层。这里描述的方法旨在通过隔离羽毛来回答有关羽毛涂层及其在被动热调节中的作用的问题（即活鸟在不改变其行为或新陈代谢的情况下保留多少热量？虽然主动和生理热调节在生态上很重要，但了解羽毛本身如何帮助绝缘以及它们如何影响主动行为和生理温度调节的需求也很重要。
先前的研究已经建立了量化动物皮毛11、12、13、28的导热性和保温方法。这里介绍的方法是"保护热板"方法11，12，13，28的扩展。但是，此处描述的方法使用热像仪而不是热电偶测量羽毛涂层外边界的温度。防护热板方法对通过皮毛的能量流动给出了非常精确的估计，但它需要构建一个多材料热板，对热电偶和热电瓶的使用有所熟悉，并且必须切成小块的毛皮的破坏性使用。然后对这些部件进行润滑，以消除样品和热板设备之间的空气。除了少数缺乏阿普特里亚（例如企鹅）的鸟类外，从鸟皮上切出小方块对于比较而言是有问题的，因为切口的位置对实际附着在（和过度）皮肤上的羽毛数量有很大影响。这个问题因ptyerlae14的存在、大小和位置的差异而加剧。
此外，虽然博物馆标本可能是评估鸟类绝缘变化的潜在丰富资源，但一般来说，在科学收藏中，切割和润滑皮肤标本的许可是无法实现的。此外，从野外采集的用于保护热板测量的标本随后不能用作博物馆标本。这里介绍的方法不同于保护热板方法，因为它可以与整个干燥的鸟皮一起使用，无需 1） 要求销毁标本，2） 润滑皮肤底面。它使用热像仪，这是越来越实惠（虽然仍然相对昂贵），精确，并用于活鸟测量热关系。
这种方法不会像保护热板方法那样直接测量通过皮肤和羽毛的能量流（因此热电导率或绝缘值）。相反，它使用热像仪测量羽毛大衣外边界的温度。由此产生的值表示通过皮肤、羽毛和空气被动地损失的热量的综合测量（与下面的热源相比）。标本作为扁平皮肤准备，并使用上述技术测量，可以存储在收藏品中，并无限期地为未来的研究提供价值。这种方法提供了一种标准化、可比性和相对简单的方法来测量任何平皮标本中的羽绒外衣热性能，这在特定的相互比较和内部比较中特别有用。

<table><tbody><tr><td>Aluminum Foil</td><td>Reynolds Wrap</td><td>109000831</td><td>30 square ft.; this exact model need not be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Foam Core Board</td><td>Foamular</td><td>20WE</td><td>1 in. x 4 ft. x 8 ft; this exact model need no be used.</td></tr><tr><td>General Purpose Water Bath</td><td>PolyScience</td><td>WB02</td><td>Ambiet +5 &amp;deg;C to 100 &amp;deg;C; &amp;plusmn;.01 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>PDF Data logger</td><td>Elitech</td><td>RC-51H</td><td>Built in temperature and humidity sensor</td></tr><tr><td>Plexiglass</td><td>AdirOffice</td><td>1212-3-C</td><td>Acrylic glass; 12 in. x 12 in. x 1/8 in.; this exact model need not be used.</td></tr><tr><td>Thermal Image Analysis Software</td><td>FLIR</td><td>ResearchIR Max v4.40.7.26 (64-bit)</td><td>Allows collection of precise, quantitative thermal data</td></tr><tr><td>Thermal Imaging Camera</td><td>FLIR</td><td>SC655</td><td>680x480-pixel resolution, &amp;plusmn;2 &amp;deg;C or &amp;plusmn;2% accuracy, 40 cm minimum focusing distance</td></tr><tr><td>Tripod</td><td>The Audubon Shop</td><td>The Birder Tripod with Manfrotto 700RC2 Rapid Release Head</td><td>65&quot; maximum height; this exact model need not be used.</td></tr></tbody></table>

using a thermal camera to measure heat loss through bird feather coats

羽毛对鸟类的绝缘至关重要，因此对热调节的成本也至关重要。关于各种生态环境下鸟类热调节的能量成本，有丰富的文献。然而，很少有研究将羽毛单独描述为热调节。先前的几项研究已经建立了测量动物毛皮绝缘值的方法，但它们需要破坏性的取样方法，这对鸟类来说是个问题，因为鸟类的羽毛在皮肤上分布不均匀。需要更多信息，包括1）羽毛对热调节的贡献在物种之间和物种内部的变化，2）羽毛大衣在空间和时间上的变化。这里报道的是一种使用干燥的全皮肤标本快速直接测量羽毛大衣和皮肤的热性能的方法，无需破坏皮肤标本。这种方法分离和测量羽毛涂层的热梯度的方式，测量热损失和代谢成本的活鸟，使用行为和生理策略来热调节，不能。该方法采用热像仪，可快速收集定量热数据，通过皮肤测量来自稳定来源的热损失。此协议可以很容易地应用于各种研究问题，适用于任何鸟类分类，并且不需要破坏皮肤标本。最后，它将通过简化和加速收集定量数据，进一步理解被动热调节在鸟类中的重要性。

图 4 和 图5中介绍了在6个温度下测量的5个物种中每个物种中一个个体的代表性结果。这些结果表明，皮肤位置的微小变化可能导致高达 1.7 °C 的读数变化。 图 4 显示了对调查员的培训如何提高测量的可重复性。例如，同一个单个家麻雀（路人家居）被一个缺乏经验的调查员在一个目标温度下测量了五次（?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using a Thermal Camera to Measure Heat Loss Through Bird Feather Coats at JoVE.com

Using a Thermal Camera to Measure Heat Loss Through Bird Feather Coats

该协议描述了通过平底鸟类标本使用热像仪和热水浴进行热传播的量化。该方法允许使用干平皮标本获取有关羽毛大衣跨物种热性能的定量比较数据。

使用热像仪测量通过鸟羽毛大衣的热损失

Feathers are essential to insulation, and therefore to the cost of thermoregulation,&#160;in birds. There is robust literature on the energetic cost of ...

using-a-thermal-camera-to-measure-heat-loss-through-bird-feather-coats

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

3.4K 次观看.  University of Connecticut. 该协议描述了通过平底鸟类标本使用热像仪和热水浴进行热传播的量化。该方法允许使用干平皮标本获取有关羽毛大衣跨物种热性能的定量比较数据。

视频: Using a Thermal Camera to Measure Heat Loss Through Bird Feather Coats

Measuring Spatially- and Directionally-varying Light Scattering from Biological Material

Light interacts with an organism's integument on a variety of spatial scales. For example in an iridescent bird: nano-scale structures produce color; the milli-scale structure of barbs and barbules largely determines the directional pattern of reflected light; and through the macro-scale spatial structure of overlapping, curved feathers, these directional effects create the visual texture. Milli-scale and macro-scale effects determine where on the organism's body, and from what viewpoints and under what illumination, the iridescent colors are seen. Thus, the highly directional flash of brilliant color from the iridescent throat of a hummingbird is inadequately explained by its nano-scale structure alone and questions remain. From a given observation point, which milli-scale elements of the feather are oriented to reflect strongly? Do some species produce broader "windows" for observation of iridescence than others? These and similar questions may be asked about any organisms that have evolved a particular surface appearance for signaling, camouflage, or other reasons.
In order to study the directional patterns of light scattering from feathers, and their relationship to the bird's milli-scale morphology, we developed a protocol for measuring light scattered from biological materials using many high-resolution photographs taken with varying illumination and viewing directions. Since we measure scattered light as a function of direction, we can observe the characteristic features in the directional distribution of light scattered from that particular feather, and because barbs and barbules are resolved in our images, we can clearly attribute the directional features to these different milli-scale structures. Keeping the specimen intact preserves the gross-scale scattering behavior seen in nature. The method described here presents a generalized protocol for analyzing spatially- and directionally-varying light scattering from complex biological materials at multiple structural scales.

We present a non-destructive method for sampling spatial variation in the direction of light scattered from structurally complex materials. By keeping the material intact, we preserve gross-scale scattering behavior, while concurrently capturing fine-scale directional contributions with high-resolution imaging. Results are visualized in software at biologically-relevant positions and scales.

从生物材料空间定向变化的光散射测量

Light interacts with an organism's integument on a variety of spatial scales. For example in an iridescent bird: nano-scale structures produce color; the ...

科研

工程学

A Rapid Laser Probing Method Facilitates the Non-invasive and Contact-free Determination of Leaf Thermal Properties

Plants can produce valuable substances such as secondary metabolites and recombinant proteins. The purification of the latter from plant biomass can be streamlined by heat treatment (blanching). A blanching apparatus can be designed more precisely if the thermal properties of the leaves are known in detail, i.e., the specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity. The measurement of these properties is time consuming and labor intensive, and usually requires invasive methods that contact the sample directly. This can reduce the product yield and may be incompatible with containment requirements, e.g., in the context of good manufacturing practice. To address these issues, a non-invasive, contact-free method was developed that determines the specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity of an intact plant leaf in about one minute. The method involves the application of a short laser pulse of defined length and intensity to a small area of the leaf sample, causing a temperature increase that is measured using a near infrared sensor. The temperature increase is combined with known leaf properties (thickness and density) to determine the specific heat capacity. The thermal conductivity is then calculated based on the profile of the subsequent temperature decline, taking thermal radiation and convective heat transfer into account. The associated calculations and critical aspects of sample handling are discussed.

A method was developed to determine the specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity of leaf tissue by non-invasive, contact-free near infrared laser probing, which requires less than 1 min per sample.

一种快速探测激光方法有利于叶热性能的非侵入性和无接触测定

Plants can produce valuable substances such as secondary metabolites and recombinant proteins. The purification of the latter from plant biomass can be ...

生物化学

Quantitative Visualization and Detection of Skin Cancer Using Dynamic Thermal Imaging

In 2010 approximately 68,720 melanomas will be diagnosed in the US alone, with around 8,650 resulting in death 1. To date, the only effective treatment for melanoma remains surgical excision, therefore, the key to extended survival is early detection 2,3. Considering the large numbers of patients diagnosed every year and the limitations in accessing specialized care quickly, the development of objective in vivo diagnostic instruments to aid the diagnosis is essential. New techniques to detect skin cancer, especially non-invasive diagnostic tools, are being explored in numerous laboratories. Along with the surgical methods, techniques such as digital photography, dermoscopy, multispectral imaging systems (MelaFind), laser-based systems (confocal scanning laser microscopy, laser doppler perfusion imaging, optical coherence tomography), ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, are being tested. Each technique offers unique advantages and disadvantages, many of which pose a compromise between effectiveness and accuracy versus ease of use and cost considerations. Details about these techniques and comparisons are available in the literature 4.
Infrared (IR) imaging was shown to be a useful method to diagnose the signs of certain diseases by measuring the local skin temperature. There is a large body of evidence showing that disease or deviation from normal functioning are accompanied by changes of the temperature of the body, which again affect the temperature of the skin 5,6. Accurate data about the temperature of the human body and skin can provide a wealth of information on the processes responsible for heat generation and thermoregulation, in particular the deviation from normal conditions, often caused by disease. However, IR imaging has not been widely recognized in medicine due to the premature use of the technology 7,8 several decades ago, when temperature measurement accuracy and the spatial resolution were inadequate and sophisticated image processing tools were unavailable. This situation changed dramatically in the late 1990s-2000s. Advances in IR instrumentation, implementation of digital image processing algorithms and dynamic IR imaging, which enables scientists to analyze not only the spatial, but also the temporal thermal behavior of the skin 9, allowed breakthroughs in the field.
In our research, we explore the feasibility of IR imaging, combined with theoretical and experimental studies, as a cost effective, non-invasive, in vivo optical measurement technique for tumor detection, with emphasis on the screening and early detection of melanoma 10-13. In this study, we show data obtained in a patient study in which patients that possess a pigmented lesion with a clinical indication for biopsy are selected for imaging. We compared the difference in thermal responses between healthy and malignant tissue and compared our data with biopsy results. We concluded that the increased metabolic activity of the melanoma lesion can be detected by dynamic infrared imaging.

We demonstrated that malignant pigmented lesions with increased metabolic activity generate quantifiable amounts of heat and the measurement of the transient thermal response of the skin to a cooling excitation allows quantitative identification of melanoma and other skin cancers (vs. non-proliferative nevi) at an early stage of the disease.

定量可视化和皮肤癌症使用动态热成像检测

In 2010 approximately 68,720 melanomas will be diagnosed in the US alone, with around 8,650 resulting in death 1. To date, the only effective treatment ...

医学

High-resolution Thermal Micro-imaging Using Europium Chelate Luminescent Coatings

Micro-electronic devices often undergo significant self-heating when biased to their typical operating conditions. This paper describes a convenient optical micro-imaging technique which can be used to map and quantify such behavior. Europium thenoyltrifluoroacetonate (EuTFC) has a 612 nm luminescence line whose activation efficiency drops strongly with increasing temperature, due to T-dependent interactions between the Eu3+ ion and the organic chelating compound. This material may be readily coated on to a sample surface by thermal sublimation in vacuum. When the coating is excited with ultraviolet light (337 nm) an optical micro-image of the 612 nm luminescent response can be converted directly into a map of the sample surface temperature. This technique offers spatial resolution limited only by the microscope optics (about 1 micron) and time resolution limited by the speed of the camera employed. It offers the additional advantages of only requiring comparatively simple and non-specialized equipment, and giving a quantitative probe of sample temperature.

Europium thenoyltrifluoroacetonate (EuTFC) has an optical luminescence line at 612 nm, whose activation efficiency decreases strongly with temperature. If a sample coated with a thin film of this material is micro-imaged, the 612 nm luminescent response intensity may be converted into a direct map of sample surface temperature.

高分辨率热显微成像采用铕螯合物的荧光涂料

Micro-electronic devices often undergo significant self-heating when biased to their typical operating conditions. This paper describes a convenient ...

Measurements of Local Instantaneous Convective Heat Transfer in a Pipe - Single and Two-phase Flow

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer coefficient as a function of the liquid flow rate in a transparent pipe. With certain amendments, the approach is extended to gas-liquid flows, with a particular emphasis on the effect of a single elongated (Taylor) air bubble on heat transfer enhancement. A non-invasive thermography technique is applied to measure the instantaneous temperature of a thin metal foil heated electrically. The foil is glued to cover a narrow slot cut in the pipe. The thermal inertia of the foil is small enough to detect the variation in the instantaneous foil temperature. The test section can be moved along the pipe and is long enough to cover a considerable part of the growing thermal boundary layer.
At the beginning of each experimental run, a steady state with a constant water flow rate and heat flux to the foil is attained and serves as the reference. The Taylor bubble is then injected into the pipe. The heat transfer coefficient variations due to the passage of a Taylor bubble propagating in a vertical pipe is measured as function of the distance of the measuring point from the bottom of the moving Taylor bubble. Thus, the results represent the local heat transfer coefficients. Multiple independent runs preformed under identical conditions allow accumulating sufficient data to calculate reliable ensemble-averaged results on the transient convective heat transfer. In order to perform this in a frame of reference moving with the bubble, the location of the bubble along the pipe has to be known at all times. Detailed description of measurements of the length and of the translational velocity of the Taylor bubbles by optical probes is presented.

This manuscript describes methods aimed at measuring the local instantaneous convective heat transfer coefficients in a single or two-phase pipe flow. A simple optical method to determine the length and the propagation velocity of an elongated (Taylor) air bubble moving at a constant velocity is also presented.

管道单、两相流局部瞬时对流换热的测量

This manuscript provides step by step description of the manufacturing process of a test section designed to measure the local instantaneous heat transfer ...

In Situ Surface Temperature Measurement in a Conveyor Belt Furnace via Inline Infrared Thermography

Measuring the surface temperature of objects that are processed in conveyor belt furnaces is an important tool in process control and quality assurance. Currently, the surface temperature of objects processed in conveyor belt furnaces is typically measured via thermocouples. However, infrared (IR) thermography presents multiple advantages compared to thermocouple measurements, as it is a contactless, real-time, and spatially resolved method. Here, as a representative proof-of-concept example, an inline thermography system is successfully installed into an IR lamp powered solar firing furnace, which is used for the contact firing process of industrial Si solar cells. This protocol describes how to install an IR camera into a conveyor belt furnace, conduct a customer correction of a factory calibrated IR camera, and perform the evaluation of spatial surface temperature distribution on a target object.

This protocol describes how to install an infrared camera into a conveyor belt furnace, conduct a customer correction of a factory calibrated IR camera, and evaluate the spatial surface temperature distribution of an object of interest. The example objects are industrial silicon solar cells.

通过内联红外热成像在输送带炉中的原点表面温度测量

Measuring the surface temperature of objects that are processed in conveyor belt furnaces is an important tool in process control and quality assurance. ...

Thermal Imaging to Study Stress Non-invasively in Unrestrained Birds

Stress, a central concept in biology, describes a suite of emergency responses to challenges. Among other responses, stress leads to a change in blood flow that results in a net influx of blood to key organs and an increase in core temperature. This stress-induced hyperthermia is used to assess stress. However, measuring core temperature is invasive. As blood flow is redirected to the core, the periphery of the body can cool. This paper describes a protocol where peripheral body temperature is measured non-invasively in wild blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) using infrared thermography. In the field we created a set-up bringing the birds to an ideal position in front of the camera by using a baited box. The camera takes a short thermal video recording of the undisturbed bird before applying a mild stressor (closing the box and therefore capturing the bird), and the bird&#8217;s response to being trapped is recorded. The bare skin of the eye-region is the warmest area in the image. This allows an automated extraction of the maximum eye-region temperature from each image frame, followed by further steps of manual data filtering removing the most common sources of errors (motion blur, blinking). This protocol provides a time series of eye-region temperature with a fine temporal resolution that allows us to study the dynamics of the stress response non-invasively. Further work needs to demonstrate the usefulness of the method to assess stress, for instance to investigate whether eye-region temperature response is proportional to the strength of the stressor. If this can be confirmed, it will provide a valuable alternative method of stress assessment in animals and will be useful to a wide range of researchers from ecologists, conservation biologists, physiologists to animal welfare researchers.

There is a need for a non-invasive assessment of stress. This paper describes a simple protocol using thermal imaging to detect a significant response in eye-region temperature in wild blue tits to a mild acute stressor.

热成像学习压力非侵入性的无拘无束的小鸟

Stress, a central concept in biology, describes a suite of emergency responses to challenges. Among other responses, stress leads to a change in blood ...

神经科学

Infrared Thermography for the Detection of Changes in Brown Adipose Tissue Activity

Measuring brown adipose tissue (BAT) activity by positron emission tomography computed tomography (PET-CT) via the accumulation of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) after a meal or in obese or diabetic patients fails as the method of choice. The main reason is that 18F-FDG competes with the postprandial high glucose plasma concentration for the same glucose transporter on the membrane of BAT cells. In addition, BAT uses fatty acids as a source of energy as well, which is not visible with PET-CT and could be changed along with glucose concentration in obese and diabetic patients. Therefore, to estimate the physiological importance of BAT in animals and humans, a new infrared thermography method used in recent publications is applied.
After overnight fasting, BAT activity was measured by infrared thermography before and after a meal in human volunteers and&#160;female wild-type mice. The camera software calculates the object&#39;s temperature using distance from the object, skin emissivity, reflected room temperature, air temperature, and relative humidity. In mice, the shaved area above the BAT was a region of interest for which average and maximal temperatures were measured. The phase of the estrous cycle in female mice was determined after an experiment by vaginal smears stained with cresyl violet (0.1%) stain solution. In healthy volunteers, two skin areas of the neck were selected: the supraclavicular area (above the collarbone, where BAT cells are present) and the interclavicular area (between the collarbones, where there is no BAT tissue detected). BAT activity is determined by the subtraction of those two values. Also, the average and maximal temperatures of skin areas could be determined in animals and human participants.
Changes in BAT activity after a meal measured by infrared thermography, a non-invasive and more sensitive method, were shown to be sex, age, and phase of the estrous cycle dependent in laboratory animals. As part of diet-induced thermogenesis, BAT activation in humans was also proven to be sex, age, and body mass index dependent. Further determining the pathophysiological changes in BAT activity after a meal will be of great importance for participants with high glucose plasma concentrations (obesity and diabetes mellitus type 2), as well as in different laboratory animals (knock-out mice). This method is also a variable tool for determining possible activating drugs that could rejuvenate BAT activity.

Here, we present a protocol for measuring brown adipose tissue activity after a meal in humans and laboratory animals.

红外热成像用于检测棕色脂肪组织活性的变化

Measuring brown adipose tissue (BAT) activity by positron emission tomography computed tomography (PET-CT) via the accumulation of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose ...

Using a Combination of Indirect Calorimetry, Infrared Thermography, and Blood Glucose Levels to Measure Brown Adipose Tissue Thermogenesis in Humans

In mammals, brown adipose tissue (BAT) is activated rapidly in response to cold in order to maintain body temperature. Although BAT has been studied greatly in small animals, it is difficult to measure the activity of BAT in humans. Therefore, little is known about the heat-generating capacity and physiological significance of BAT in humans, including the degree to which components of the diet can activate BAT. This is due to the limitations in the currently most used method to assess the activation of BAT-radiolabeled glucose (fluorodeoxyglucose or 18FDG) measured by positron emission tomography-computerized tomography (PET-CT).
This method is usually performed in fasted subjects, as feeding induces glucose uptake by the muscles, which can mask the glucose uptake into the BAT. This paper describes a detailed protocol for quantifying total-body human energy expenditure and substrate utilization from BAT thermogenesis by combining indirect calorimetry, infrared thermography, and blood glucose monitoring in carbohydrate-loaded adult males. To characterize the physiological significance of BAT, measures of the impact of BAT activity on human health are critical. We demonstrate a protocol to achieve this by combining carbohydrate loading and indirect calorimetry with measurements of supraclavicular changes in temperature. This novel approach will help to understand the physiology and pharmacology of BAT thermogenesis in humans.

Here, we present a protocol to quantify the physiological significance of the impact of brown adipose tissue (BAT) activity on human metabolism. This is achieved by combining carbohydrate loading and indirect calorimetry with measurements of supraclavicular changes in temperature. This novel approach can help develop a pharmacological target for BAT thermogenesis in humans.

使用间接量热法、红外热成像和血糖水平的组合来测量人类棕色脂肪组织的产热

In mammals, brown adipose tissue (BAT) is activated rapidly in response to cold in order to maintain body temperature. Although BAT has been studied ...

High-Throughput Assays of Critical Thermal Limits in Insects

Upper and lower thermal limits of plants and animals are important predictors of their performance, survival, and geographic distributions, and are essential for predicting responses to climate change. This work describes two high-throughput protocols for measuring insect thermal limits: one for assessing critical thermal minima (CTmin), and the other for assessing heat knock down time (KDT) in response to a static heat stressor. In the CTmin assay, individuals are placed in an acrylic-jacketed column, subjected to a decreasing temperature ramp, and counted as they fall from their perches using an infrared sensor. In the heat KDT assay, individuals are contained in a 96 well plate, placed in an incubator set to a stressful, hot temperature, and video recorded to determine the time at which they can no longer remain upright and move. These protocols offer advantages over commonly used techniques. Both assays are low cost and can be completed relatively quickly (~2 h). The CTmin assay reduces experimenter error and can measure a large number of individuals at once. The heat KDT protocol generates a video record of each assay and thus removes experimenter bias and the need to continuously monitor individuals in real time.

Thermal limits can predict the environments organisms tolerate, which is valuable information in the face of rapid climate change. Described here are high-throughput protocols to assess critical thermal minima and heat knockdown time in insects. Both protocols maximize the throughput and minimize the cost of the assays.

昆虫关键热极限的高通量测定

Upper and lower thermal limits of plants and animals are important predictors of their performance, survival, and geographic distributions, and are ...