This study was supported by grant RTI2018-097617-J-I00 from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacio&#769;n and Acci&#243;n 9 from Universidad de Ja&#233;n to O.H.O. Grant PGC2018-096486-B-I00 from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacio&#769;n and grant H2020-MSCA-ITN-2016-722427 from the EU Horizon 2020 program to M.T. JMG was supported by a PhD fellowship from the Spanish Ministry of Science and the Fundaci&#243;n Severo Ochoa (PRE2022-101884). Both the CNIC and CBMSO are supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, and the CNIC is supported by the ProCNIC Foundation.

All animal procedures were approved by the CNIC Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee and conformed to current legislation, including EU Directive 2010/63EU and Recommendation 2007/526/EC, as enforced by Spanish Law under Real Decreto 53/2013. For this protocol, female wild-type CD-1 mice aged 15-21 weeks were employed. Details regarding the animals, reagents, and equipment used are listed in the Table of Materials.
1. Plasmid and tool preparation
<ol>
	<li>First, prepare the electroporation mix by adding the desired plasmid DNA in ice at a final concentration of 1 &#181;g/&#181;L. Then, complete the mix by adding sucrose at 6% final concentration (dissolved in PBS), a biocompatible dye at 0.01%, and complete with PBS until a final volume of 30 &#181;L. 
	NOTE: Approximately 1-2 &#181;L of the electroporation mix is used per sample. Scale the proportions of the electroporation mix according to the number of samples in the experiment. Please remember that DNA for electroporation should be purified from bacterial culture, assuring optimal stability and minimal contaminants. For more details on the plasmids used for this study, please refer to the representative results section.</li>
	<li>Prepare Growth Medium by supplementing Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 2% Hepes buffer, and 1% penicillin/streptomycin. Keep the medium in an incubator at 37 &#176;C until use. Additionally, warm 1x PBS at 37 &#176;C, together with the growth medium.</li>
	<li>Prepare the needles by stretching a 20 &#181;m diameter glass capillary using a pipette puller with the following conditions: heat = 550; pull = 100; velocity = 250; time = 120. The final diameter after pulling should be approximately between 5-8 &#181;m.</li>
	<li>Set up the electroporator parameters to five 50 ms cycles at 40 V with intervals of 900 ms. Prepare the electrodes, mouth pipet, and blunt needle (Figure 3A). Equip the pipet with the needle to load the DNA (Figure 3A).</li>
</ol>
2. Embryo dissection and heart extraction
<ol>
	<li>Set up a cross between wild-type CD-1 mice. The next morning, select the females that exhibit a vaginal plug and note this time as embryonic day E0.5. Euthanize the animals at embryonic day E12-12.5 by cervical dislocation (following institutionally approved protocols).</li>
	<li>Carefully extract the uterus from the mouse and place it in a dry paper towel. Following this, cut the uterus using fine scissors by inserting the tip of the scissors in the mesometrial side and slowly running the edge of the blade through the whole length. Expose the deciduae and transfer them to the growth medium. For more details, please see the work by Behringer et al.20.</li>
	<li>Dissect the deciduae to extract the embryos, then place the embryos in a 60 mm Petri dish with warm growth medium. Using fine forceps, carefully cut the tail and head of the embryo so that only the trunk of the body remains. The stage of the embryos may be verified by assessing anatomical features, as described by Wong et al.21.</li>
	<li>Then, remove with caution as much tissue from the trunk of the embryo as possible without damaging the heart or the pulmonary and aorta arteries. Once the heart has been exposed, immediately place it in a new, warm growth medium and keep it in an incubator at 37 &#176;C until electroporation. 
	NOTE: Maintaining the heart&#39;s temperature is crucial for its survival. Ensure that the medium is always warm and replace it every 5-10 min. On the other hand, samples may be handled without maintaining sterility, as this will not affect the efficiency of the procedure. Please note that the growth medium contains antibiotics.</li>
</ol>
3. Heart electroporation and ex vivo culture
<ol>
	<li>Load approximately 10 &#181;L of plasmid mix (prepared in step 1.1) into the needle by carefully aspirating up with the mouth pipette.</li>
	<li>Prepare a single heart for electroporation by placing it in a clean 60 mm Petri dish with sterile 1x PBS warmed to 37 &#176;C. Place the dish under the dissecting microscope (Figure 3A).</li>
	<li>Prepare the electrodes by adjusting the distance between the positive and negative poles to approximately 4 mm (Figure 3B). 
	NOTE: 4 mm is the aperture distance in which E12.5 mouse hearts fit in the electrodes used in this work. Please consider changing this distance based on different sample sizes or electrode specifications.</li>
	<li>Gently puncture the most superficial layer of the heart with the needle in the mouth pipet. Carefully pipet 1-2 &#181;L of the plasmid mix and remove the needle. Multiple injections may be performed to ensure optimal penetration, as well as to expand the number of electroporated cells.</li>
	<li>Hold the electrodes in place so that the heart is located in between both poles (Figure 3C). Then, electroporate the heart with the conditions specified above. 
	NOTE: To ensure maximum electroporation efficiency, it is possible to switch the polarity of the electrodes and give another pulse.</li>
	<li>Transfer the electroporated heart to a new 12-well plate containing 1 mL of growth medium and place it at 37 &#176;C, 5% CO2.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 3.1 to 3.6&#160;until all the samples in the experiment are electroporated. Finally, incubate all the hearts in an incubator at 37 &#176;C, 5% CO2, for 24&#160;h or until analysis. 
	NOTE: In our hands, hearts could be left in culture for up to 48 h without apparent signs of deterioration (Supplementary Movie 1; Supplementary Movie 2; Supplementary Figure 1).</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66754/66754fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Electroporation setup. (A) Setup used for electroporation. Red arrows indicate the electroporator, electrodes, and Petri dish where hearts are electroporated. (A&#39;) Close detail of the electroporation needle as highlighted in (A) by the white rectangle. (B) Detail of the adjusted distance of the electrodes used in E12.5 hearts. (C) Schematic representation of the electroporation. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66754/66754fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
4. Cell sorting and immunohistochemistry analysis
<ol>
	<li>For the cell sorting analysis of the samples, prepare a digestion medium to dissociate the tissue by mixing together 400 &#181;L of liberase (5 mg/ml), 300 &#181;L of dispase (0.1 g/mL), 4 &#181;L of CaCl2(0.4 &#181;M), 50 &#181;L of MgCl2(5 &#181;M) and complete until 10 mL of DMEM. Keep on ice until use. Each heart needs approximately 1 mL of Digestion Medium. Adjust the volumes according to the number of samples. 
	NOTE: For immunohistochemistry, directly fix the hearts in 1.5 mL of 4% PFA for 2 h at RT or overnight at 4 &#176;C. The next day, wash the hearts 3x with PBS and proceed to downstream histological and immunostaining procedures. For a detailed immunohistochemistry protocol, refer to Morris et al.22.</li>
	<li>Transfer each heart in culture to a new tube containing 1 mL of ice-cold digestion medium.</li>
	<li>To facilitate dissociation, chop the tissue by gently applying pleasure with a syringe 3-4 times and incubate immediately in a hot plate at 37 &#176;C, 600 rpm for 45 min.</li>
	<li>Filter the digestion mix through a 70 &#181;m cell strainer into a new tube and let it empty by gravity flow. Then, rescue the pass-through volume and filter it again using a 40 &#181;m cell strainer into a new 50 mL tube.</li>
	<li>Add 500 &#181;L of fetal bovine serum (FBS) and complete up to 30 mL using cold DMEM.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the mix at 240 x g for 10 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Discard the supernatant and place the 50 mL tube upside down on a paper towel to dry completely. 
	NOTE: This is a convenient point to pause the experiment by freezing the cell pellet. If so, resuspend the cells with 10% DMSO in FBS and store at -80 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>For cell sorting, resuspend the cells in 300 &#181;L of sorting buffer (1% FBS, 1% penicillin/streptomycin in PBS) and add 0.3 &#181;L of DAPI (1000x). Perform cell sorting.</li>
</ol>

Electroporation-Based Transgenesis of Cardiac Cells in Mouse Hearts

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The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Overall, the methodology described here offers a robust framework for expressing transgenic constructs in the developing epicardium (Figure 4B), as demonstrated by Meis1 overexpression (Figure 4C). With the appropriate constructs, this protocol can be used to transiently assess the impact of either gain-of-function (GOF) or loss-of-function (LOF) of a specific gene. LOF can be implemented into the technique by transfecting a plasmid targeting a candidate gene th...

The heart is the first organ formed during embryonic development. This process involves the spatiotemporal coordination of various populations of progenitor cells from distinct areas of the embryo. All this occurs while the developing heart continues to beat and function, emphasizing the remarkable coordination required for its formation1,2,3. Given the crucial role of the heart, tight regulation at the cellular and molecular levels is essential for its proper formation4,5. Identifying the mechanisms that control heart development has been of great interest, as they are crucial for unraveling congenital heart disorders, which impact a substantial number of patients worldwide6. Furthermore, comprehending heart development is pivotal in deciphering cardiac regeneration, as postnatal mammalian hearts retain a regenerative capacity that is lost or hindered in adulthood7,8. Consequently, dissecting molecular regulators of heart development is imperative to advance research efforts on congenital heart disease and cardiac regeneration.
In pursuit of this objective, there has been a growing focus on investigating the role of the epicardium in cardiac development and regeneration9. The epicardium is a thin layer of mesothelial tissue that comprises the outermost layer of the mammalian heart (Figure 1). Recent studies have shown the importance of the epicardium during cardiac injury, revealing that this tissue is able to send proliferation signals to cardiomyocytes in the affected area to mitigate the damage10,11. Despite the importance of the epicardium, conducting further molecular investigations has been challenged by its immense heterogeneity. Single-cell RNAseq experiments have revealed the epicardium&#39;s heterogeneity, housing multiple cell subpopulations with distinct transcriptomic signatures12,13,14,15,16. Thus, a strategy to screen potential regulators of cardiac development should accommodate the diversity of epicardial progenitor cells.
In this sense, the mouse model&#39;s amenability to genetic modification has facilitated the identification of numerous genes crucial for heart development, allowing the generation of mutant lines with gain-of-function (GOF) or loss-of-function (LOF) of specific genes. However, these approaches imply a considerable investment of time and experimental resources; therefore, they are impractical when assessing the roles of a large number of candidate genes. Besides, developmental genes often exert pleiotropic functions in different tissues or are required for early embryonic development, hampering the interpretation of their contribution to development in a specific process. While it is possible to target gene function at specific structures or developmental time points, this usually requires the use of more complex genetic constructions, which can be difficult to generate or are generally unavailable.
To overcome these limitations, we present a methodology to electroporate mouse embryonic hearts for transient transgenesis (Figure 2). Paired with ex vivo culture and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), this strategy demonstrates its capabilities through transient GOF of Meis1, a well-characterized gene implicated in heart development and regeneration17,18,19. In this article, other potential applications of this methodology are also explored, and its advantages and limitations are discussed, as well as compared to existing protocols for transiently modulating gene expression. We believe the framework and visual examples presented will enhance the understanding of epicardium biology during development and disease.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66754/66754fig01v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Mouse embryonic heart layers. Schematic diagram of a coronal view of an E13-14 mouse embryonic heart. The three main cellular layers of the heart are represented in yellow (endocardium), red (myocardium), and blue (epicardium). The pericardium is represented in a brown line. The four chambers of the heart are abbreviated as LV, left ventricle; RV, right ventricle; LA, left atrium; RA, right atrium. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66754/66754fig01largev2.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66754/66754fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Schematic overview of the heart electroporation protocol. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66754/66754fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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			<td>#55 Forceps</td>
			<td>Dumont&#160;</td>
			<td>11295-51</td>
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			<td>12-well Clear Flat Bottom Multiwell Cell Culture Plate</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
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			<td>35 mm vise table&#160;</td>
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			<td>40 &#181;m Cell Strainer</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>08-771-1</td>
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			<td>50 mL tubes</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>352070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>70 &#181;m Cell Strainer</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>CLS431751</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-GFP Policlonal Antibody</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>A10262</td>
			<td>1:1000 dilution used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Myosin 4 (MF20) Monoclonal Antibody</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>14-6503-82</td>
			<td>1:500 dilution used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD1 Wild Type mice</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Provided by Animalary Unit (CNIC)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cleaved Caspase-3 (Asp175) Antibody</td>
			<td>Cell Signalling Technologies</td>
			<td>9661</td>
			<td>1:400 dilution used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI</td>
			<td>Cell Signalling Technologies</td>
			<td>4083</td>
			<td>1:1000 dilution used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dispase/collagenase</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10269638001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Distilled water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM - Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>10313021</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>10438-026</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heracell 150i CO2 Incubator</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>51032720</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leica Stereoscopic Microscope S8AP0</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>11524102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liberase</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>5401119001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette Puller Model P-97</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>SU-P-97</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pCAG expression plasmid</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>#89689</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-streptomycin</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>15070-063</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes 35 &#215; 10 mm</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>351008</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes 60 &#215; 15 mm</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>353002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol Red</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>P3532</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette tips</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Reused from old laboratory equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rat Serum culture embryo, male rats SPRAGUE DAWLEY RjHan SD</td>
			<td>Janvier Labs</td>
			<td>9979</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant anti-Wilms Tumor Protein 1 (WT1) Antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab89901</td>
			<td>1:300 dilution used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Square Wave Electroporator CUY21SC</td>
			<td>Nepa Gene</td>
			<td>CUY664-10X15</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile PBS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Provided and autoclaved by technical unit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose&#160;</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>84100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tweezer electrodes with variable gap</td>
			<td>Nepa Gene</td>
			<td>CUY650P5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

an efficient transgenesis approach for gene delivery in the mouse embryonic heart

The mammalian heart is a complex organ formed during development via highly diverse populations of progenitor cells. The origin, timing of recruitment, and fate of these progenitors are vital for the proper development of this organ. The molecular mechanisms that govern the morphogenesis of the heart are essential for understanding the pathogenesis of congenital heart diseases and embryonic cardiac regeneration. Classical approaches to investigate these mechanisms employed the generation of transgenic mice to assess the function of specific genes during cardiac development. However, mouse transgenesis is a complex, time-consuming process that often cannot be performed to assess the role of specific genes during heart development. To address this, we have developed a protocol for efficient electroporation and culture of mouse embryonic hearts, enabling transient transgenesis to rapidly assess the effect of gain- or loss-of-function of genes involved in cardiac development. Using this methodology, we successfully overexpressed Meis1 in the embryonic heart, with a preference for epicardial cell transfection, demonstrating the capabilities of the technique.

To demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique in performing gain-of-function (GOF) experiments for relevant heart developmental regulators, a construct was electroporated overexpressing the Meis1 transcription factor. To achieve this, RNA was extracted from E9.5 embryos, and reverse transcription was performed to obtain complementary DNA (cDNA). Using the cDNA as a template, the Meis1 coding sequence was cloned (Supplementary Table 1) into a pCAG expression plasmid (hereafter referr...

Author Spotlight: Cardiac Cell Transgenesis for Rapid Gene Screening

This protocol presents a detailed methodological framework for electroporation-based transgenesis of cardiac cells in developing mouse hearts. The video assets provided here will facilitate learning of this versatile technique.

An Efficient Transgenesis Approach for Gene Delivery in the Mouse Embryonic Heart

The mammalian heart is a complex organ formed during development via highly diverse populations of progenitor cells. The origin, timing of recruitment, ...

We aim to establish a new methodology that facilitates the overexpression or downregulation of a certain gene to understand heart development. Mouse transgenesis is a great investment of time and effort. Assessing genes one by one is not realistic because of this and also because of the high complexity of the genome.Hence, there is a need for a rapid method of screening. We have presented a tool available to any researcher to analyze the gain or loss of function of a candidate gene during heart development. The main advantage of our protocol is that it's much quicker and less expensive than mouse transgenesis.Perhaps it could be used to assess different genes of interest before commencing a transgenesis experiment.

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434 Views.  Severo Ochoa Center for Molecular Biology (CBMSO). We aim to establish a new methodology that facilitates the overexpression or downregulation of a certain gene to understand heart development. Mouse transgenesis is a great investment of time and effort. Assessing genes one by one is not realistic because of this and also because of the high complexity of the genome.Hence, there is a need for a rapid method of screening. We have presented a tool available to any researcher to analyze the gain or loss of function of a candidate gene dur...

Video: Author Spotlight: Cardiac Cell Transgenesis for Rapid Gene Screening

Efficient Gene Transfer in Chick Retinas for Primary Cell Culture Studies: An Ex-ovo Electroporation Approach

The cone photoreceptor-enriched cultures derived from embryonic chick retinas have become an indispensable tool for researchers around the world studying the biology of retinal neurons, particularly photoreceptors. The applications of this system go beyond basic research, as they can easily be adapted to high throughput technologies for drug development. However, genetic manipulation of retinal photoreceptors in these cultures has proven to be very challenging, posing an important limitation to the usefulness of the system. We have recently developed and validated an ex&#160;ovo plasmid electroporation technique that increases the rate of transfection of retinal cells in these cultures by five-fold compared to other currently available protocols1. In this method embryonic chick eyes are enucleated at stage 27, the RPE is removed, and the retinal cup is placed in a plasmid-containing solution and electroporated using easily constructed custom-made electrodes. The retinas are then dissociated and cultured using standard procedures. This technique can be applied to overexpression studies as well as to the downregulation of gene expression, for example via the use of plasmid-driven RNAi technology, commonly achieving transgene expression in 25% of the photoreceptor population. The video format of the present publication will make this technology easily accessible to researchers in the field, enabling the study of gene function in primary retinal cultures. We have also included detailed explanations of the critical steps of this procedure for a successful outcome and reproducibility.

Efficient Gene Transfer in Chick Retinas for Primary Cell Culture Studies: An Ex-ovo Electroporation Approach

Embryonic chick retinal cell cultures constitute valuable tools for the study of photoreceptor biology. We have developed an efficient gene transfer technique based on ex&#160;ovo plasmid electroporation of the retinas prior to culture. This technique considerably increases transfection efficiencies over currently available protocols, making genetic manipulation feasible for this system.

The cone photoreceptor-enriched cultures derived from embryonic chick retinas have become an indispensable tool for researchers around the world studying ...

Large-scale Zebrafish Embryonic Heart Dissection for Transcriptional Analysis

The zebrafish embryonic heart is composed of only a few hundred cells, representing only a small fraction of the entire embryo. Therefore, to prevent the cardiac transcriptome from being masked by the global embryonic transcriptome, it is necessary to collect sufficient numbers of hearts for further analyses. Furthermore, as zebrafish cardiac development proceeds rapidly, heart collection and RNA extraction methods need to be quick in order to ensure homogeneity of the samples. Here, we present a rapid manual dissection protocol for collecting functional/beating hearts from zebrafish embryos. This is an essential prerequisite for subsequent cardiac-specific RNA extraction to determine cardiac-specific gene expression levels by transcriptome analyses, such as quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The method is based on differential adhesive properties of the zebrafish embryonic heart compared with other tissues; this allows for the rapid physical separation of cardiac from extracardiac tissue by a combination of fluidic shear force disruption, stepwise filtration and manual collection of transgenic fluorescently labeled hearts.

To analyse cardiac gene expression profiles during zebrafish heart development, total RNA has to be extracted from isolated hearts. Here, we present a protocol for collecting functional/beating hearts by rapid manual dissection from zebrafish embryos to obtain cardiac-specific mRNA.

The zebrafish embryonic heart is composed of only a few hundred cells, representing only a small fraction of the entire embryo. Therefore, to prevent the ...

Culture of Embryonic Mouse Cochlear Explants and Gene Transfer by Electroporation

Auditory hair cells located within the mouse organ of Corti detect and transmit sound information to the central nervous system. The mechanosensory hair cells are aligned in one row of inner hair cells and three rows of outer hair cells that extend along the basal to apical axis of the cochlea. The explant culture technique described here provides an efficient method to isolate and maintain cochlear explants from the embryonic mouse inner ear. Also, the morphology and molecular characteristics of sensory hair cells and nonsensory supporting cells within the cochlear explant cultures resemble those observed in vivo and can be studied within its intrinsic cellular environment. The cochlear explants can serve as important experimental tools for the identification and characterization of molecular and genetic pathways that are involved in cellular specification and patterning. Although transgenic mouse models provide an effective approach for gene expression studies, a considerable number of mouse mutants die during embryonic development thereby hindering the analysis and interpretation of developmental phenotypes. The organ of Corti from mutant mice that die before birth can be cultured so that their in vitro development and responses to different factors can be analyzed. Additionally, we describe a technique for electroporating embryonic cochlear explants ex vivo which can be used to downregulate or overexpress specific gene(s) and analyze their potential endogenous function and test whether specific gene product is necessary or sufficient in a given context to influence mammalian cochlear development1-8.

We present a method that describes isolation and culture of cochlear explants from embryonic mouse inner ear. We also demonstrate a method for gene transfer into cochlear explants via square-wave electroporation. The in vitro explant culture coupled with gene transfer technique enables researchers to study the effects of altering gene expression during development.

Auditory hair cells located within the mouse organ of Corti detect and transmit sound information to the central nervous system. The mechanosensory hair ...

An Optogenetic Approach for Assessing Formation of Neuronal Connections in a Co-culture System

Here we describe a protocol to generate a co-culture consisting of 2 different neuronal populations. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are reprogrammed from human fibroblasts using episomal vectors. Colonies of iPSCs can be observed 30 days after initiation of fibroblast reprogramming. Pluripotent colonies are manually picked and grown in neural induction medium to permit differentiation into neural progenitor cells (NPCs). iPSCs rapidly convert into neuroepithelial cells within 1 week and retain the capability to self-renew when maintained at a high culture density. Primary mouse NPCs are differentiated into astrocytes by exposure to a serum-containing medium for 7 days and form a monolayer upon which embryonic day 18 (E18) rat cortical neurons (transfected with channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2)) are added. Human NPCs tagged with the fluorescent protein, tandem dimer Tomato (tdTomato), are then seeded onto the astrocyte/cortical neuron culture the following day and allowed to differentiate for 28 to 35 days. We demonstrate that this system forms synaptic connections between iPSC-derived neurons and cortical neurons, evident from an increase in the frequency of synaptic currents upon photostimulation of the cortical neurons. This co-culture system provides a novel platform for evaluating the ability of iPSC-derived neurons to create synaptic connections with other neuronal populations.

A protocol to generate a co-culture system consisting of neurons derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), primary cortical neurons and astrocytes is described. This co-culture system allows detection of the formation of synaptic contacts and circuits between new, iPSC-derived neurons and pre-existing cortical neurons expressing channelrhodopsin-2.

Here we describe a protocol to generate a co-culture consisting of 2 different neuronal populations. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are ...

Analysis of Cardiomyocyte Development using Immunofluorescence in Embryonic Mouse Heart

During heart development, the generation of myocardial-specific structural and functional units including sarcomeres, contractile myofibrils, intercalated discs, and costameres requires the coordinated assembly of multiple components in time and space. Disruption in assembly of these components leads to developmental heart defects. Immunofluorescent staining techniques are used commonly in cultured cardiomyocytes to probe myofibril maturation, but this ex vivo approach is limited by the extent to which myocytes will fully differentiate in culture, lack of normal in vivo mechanical inputs, and absence of endocardial cues. Application of immunofluorescence techniques to the study of developing mouse heart is desirable but more technically challenging, and methods often lack sufficient sensitivity and resolution to visualize sarcomeres in the early stages of heart development. Here, we describe a robust and reproducible method to co-immunostain multiple proteins or to co-visualize a fluorescent protein with immunofluorescent staining in the embryonic mouse heart and use this method to analyze developing myofibrils, intercalated discs, and costameres. This method can be further applied to assess cardiomyocyte structural changes caused by mutations that lead to developmental heart defects.

Mutations that lead to congenital heart defects benefit from in vivo investigation of cardiac structure during development, but high-resolution structural studies in the mouse embryonic heart are technically challenging. Here we present a robust immunofluorescence and image analysis method to assess cardiomyocyte-specific structures in the developing mouse heart.

During heart development, the generation of myocardial-specific structural and functional units including sarcomeres, contractile myofibrils, intercalated ...

Collection of Serum- and Feeder-free Mouse Embryonic Stem Cell-conditioned Medium for a Cell-free Approach

The capacity of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to generate various cell types has opened new avenues in the field of regenerative medicine. However, despite their benefits, the tumorigenic potential of ESCs and iPSCs has long been a barrier for clinical applications. Interestingly, it has been shown that ESCs produce several soluble factors that can promote tissue regeneration and delay cellular aging, suggesting that ESCs and iPSCs can also be utilized as a cell-free intervention method. Therefore, the method for harvesting mouse embryonic stem cell (mESC)-conditioned medium (mESC-CM) with minimal contamination of serum components (fetal bovine serum, FBS) and feeder cells (mouse embryonic fibroblasts, MEFs) has been highly demanded. Here, the present study demonstrates an optimized method for the collection of mESC-CM under serum- and feeder-free conditions and for the characterization of mESC-CM using senescence-associated multiple readouts. This protocol will provide a method to collect pure mESC-specific secretory factors without serum and feeder contamination.

This protocol provides a method for the collection of mouse embryonic stem cell (mESC)-conditioned medium (mESC-CM) derived from serum (fetal bovine serum, FBS)- and feeder (mouse embryonic fibroblasts, MEFs)-free conditions for a cell-free approach. It may be applicable for the treatment of aging and aging-associated diseases.

The capacity of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to generate various cell types has opened new avenues in the field ...

Nanoparticle-mediated siRNA Gene-silencing in Adult Zebrafish Heart

Mammals have a very limited capacity to regenerate the heart after myocardial infarction. On the other hand, the adult zebrafish regenerates its heart after apex resection or cryoinjury, making it an important model organism for heart regeneration study. However, the lack of loss-of-function methods for adult organs has restricted insights into the mechanisms underlying heart regeneration. RNA interference via different delivery systems is a powerful tool for silencing genes in mammalian cells and model organisms. We have previously reported that siRNA-encapsulated nanoparticles successfully enter cells and result in a remarkable gene-specific knockdown in the regenerating adult zebrafish heart. Here, we present a simple, rapid, and efficient protocol for the dendrimer-mediated siRNA delivery and gene-silencing in the regenerating adult zebrafish heart. This method provides an alternative approach for determining gene functions in adult organs in zebrafish and can be extended to other model organisms as well.

It remains a major challenge to develop conditional gene-knockout or effective gene-knockdown in adult zebrafish organs. Here we report a protocol for performing nanoparticle-mediated siRNA gene-silencing in adult zebrafish heart, thus providing a new loss-of-function method for studying adult organs in zebrafish and other model organisms.

Mammals have a very limited capacity to regenerate the heart after myocardial infarction. On the other hand, the adult zebrafish regenerates its heart ...

Microinjection-based System for In Vivo Implantation of Embryonic Cardiomyocytes in the Avian Embryo

Interpreting the relative impact of cell autonomous patterning versus extrinsic microenvironmental influence on cell lineage determination represents a general challenge in developmental biology research. In the embryonic heart, this can be particularly difficult as regional differences in the expression of transcriptional regulators, paracrine/juxtacrine signaling cues, and hemodynamic force are all known to influence cardiomyocyte maturation. A simplified method to alter a developing cardiomyocyte's molecular and biomechanical microenvironment would, therefore, serve as a powerful technique to examine how local conditions influence cell fate and function. To address this, we have optimized a method to physically transplant juvenile cardiomyocytes into ectopic locations in the heart or the surrounding embryonic tissue. This allows us to examine how microenvironmental conditions influence cardiomyocyte fate transitions at single cell resolution within the intact embryo. Here, we describe a protocol in which embryonic myocytes can be isolated from a variety of cardiac sub-domains, dissociated, fluorescently labeled, and microinjected into host embryos with high precision. Cells can then be directly analyzed in situ using a variety of imaging and histological techniques. This protocol is a powerful alternative to traditional grafting experiments that can be prohibitively difficult in a moving tissue such as the heart. The general outline of this method can also be adapted to a variety of donor tissues and host environments, and its ease of use, low cost, and speed make it a potentially useful application for a variety of developmental studies.

In this method, embryonic cardiac tissues are surgically microdissected, dissociated, fluorescently labeled, and implanted into host embryonic tissues. This provides a platform for studying the individual or tissue level developmental organization under ectopic hemodynamic conditions, and/or altered paracrine/juxtacrine environments.

Interpreting the relative impact of cell autonomous patterning versus extrinsic microenvironmental influence on cell lineage determination represents a ...

Laser Capture Microdissection of Mouse Embryonic Cartilage and Bone for Gene Expression Analysis

Laser capture microdissection (LCM) is a powerful tool to isolate specific cell types or regions of interest from heterogeneous tissues. The cellular and molecular complexity of skeletal elements increases with development. Tissue heterogeneity, such as at the interface of cartilaginous and osseous elements with each other or with surrounding tissues, is one obstacle to the study of developing cartilage and bone. Our protocol provides a rapid method of tissue processing and isolation of cartilage and bone that yields high quality RNA for gene expression analysis. Fresh frozen tissues of mouse embryos are sectioned and brief cresyl violet staining is used to visualize cartilage and bone with colors distinct from surrounding tissues. Slides are then rapidly dehydrated, and cartilage and bone are isolated subsequently by LCM. The minimization of exposure to aqueous solutions during this process maintains RNA integrity. Mouse Meckel&rsquo;s cartilage and mandibular bone at E16.5 were successfully collected and gene expression analysis showed differential expression of marker genes for osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and chondrocytes. High quality RNA was also isolated from a range of tissues and embryonic ages. This protocol details sample preparation for LCM including cryoembedding, sectioning, staining and dehydrating fresh frozen tissues, and precise isolation of cartilage and bone by LCM resulting in high quality RNA for transcriptomic analysis.

This protocol describes laser capture microdissection for the isolation of cartilage and bone from fresh frozen sections of the mouse embryo. Cartilage and bone can be rapidly visualized by cresyl violet staining and collected precisely to yield high quality RNA for transcriptomic analysis.

Laser capture microdissection (LCM) is a powerful tool to isolate specific cell types or regions of interest from heterogeneous tissues. The cellular and ...

CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Highly Efficient Gene Targeting in Embryonic Stem Cells for Developing Gene-Manipulated Mouse Models

The CRISPR/Cas9 system has made it possible to develop genetically modified mice by direct genome editing using fertilized zygotes. However, although the efficiency in developing gene-knockout mice by inducing small indel mutation would be sufficient enough, the efficiency of embryo genome editing for making large-size DNA knock-in (KI) is still low. Therefore, in contrast to the direct KI method in embryos, gene targeting using embryonic stem cells (ESCs) followed by embryo injection to develop chimera mice still has several advantages (e.g., high throughput targeting in vitro, multi-allele manipulation, and Cre and flox gene manipulation can be carried out in a short period). In addition, strains with difficult-to-handle embryos in vitro, such as BALB/c, can also be used for ESC targeting. This protocol describes the optimized method for large-size DNA (several kb) KI in ESCs by applying CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing followed by chimera mice production to develop gene-manipulated mouse models.

Here we present a protocol for developing genetically modified mouse models using embryonic stem cells, especially for large DNA knock-in (KI). This protocol is tuned up using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, resulting in significantly improved KI efficiency compared with the conventional homologous recombination-mediated linearized DNA targeting method.

The CRISPR/Cas9 system has made it possible to develop genetically modified mice by direct genome editing using fertilized zygotes. However, although the ...