Diese Arbeit wurde vom National Institutes of Health gewährt RO1GM-33205 und MH-067284 zu LC Griffith und durch eine Brandeis University Sommer Undergraduate Research Stipendium NJ Hornstein unterstützt. In Woods Hole, MA: Erste Experimente für diese Technik wurden am Marine Biological Laboratory im Rahmen des 2008 Neural Systems and Behavior Sommerkurs (R25 MH059472 NIMH Zuschuss) durchgeführt.

Teil 1: Tierpflege und genetische Kreuze <ol><li> Pflegen Sie UAS-ChR2 und OK371-GAL4 fliegen in getrennten Flaschen mit Standard-fly media 8. </li><li> Sammeln Jungfrauen OK371-GAL4 fliegen Linien und Männchen UAS-ChR2 Linien. </li><li> Legen Sie beide Männchen und Weibchen in einem Fläschchen mit Standard-fly-Medien mit 1 mM all-trans-Retinal (ATR) gemischt. ATR Nahrung sollte vorher zu schmelzen regelmäßig fliegen Medien in der Mikrowelle für ca. 1 Minute erfolgen. Sobald geschmolzen, damit für etwa 30 Sekunden bis 1 Minute abkühlen lassen und dann mit 100 ul 100 mM ATR in 100% EtOH für je 10 ml fly Medien. Legen Fläschchen auf dem Eis, dann in einem dunklen Raum lagern bei 4 ° C. </li><li> Lassen Sie fliegt paaren und Eier legen in einem dunklen Raum bei 22-25 ° C. </li><li> Warten Sie 3-4 Tage bis zum 3. Larvenstadium sichtbar sind; an diesem Punkt, der erwachsenen Fliegen zu entsorgen. </li></ol> Teil 2: Rig Setup <ol><li> Fügen Sie alle 10x Binokular Okular (in unserem Fall, von Carl Zeiss Inc., www.zeiss.com, Thornwood, NY), um blaue LED-Lichtquelle mit Kühlkörper (Thor Labs, www.thorlabs.com, Newton, NJ ). Attach to Magnetfuß mit post und klemmen. Abdeckung Kühlkörper mit einem elektrisch geerdeten Abschirmung gegen elektrisches Rauschen von der Lichtquelle erzeugte reduzieren. </li><li> Legen Sie Magnetfuß mit Lichtquelle auf Lufttisch der Elektrophysiologie rig. </li><li> Connect Lichtquelle an den Steuerkreis und verbinden Regelkreis auf externe Spannungsquelle (Powerlab 4 / 30, ADInstruments, www.adinstruments.com, Colorado Springs, CO). </li><li> Geben Sie 1-5 V Impulse an den Steuerkreis, um blaues Licht zu aktivieren. </li><li> Passen Magnetfuß und Lichtquelle, bis blauen Lichtstrahl auf einer Fläche von Larven Dissektion besetzt werden konzentriert. </li></ol> Teil 3: Dissection <ol><li> Stecken Sie sechs 0,1 mm Insektennadeln in den Boden eines Sylgard gesäumten Gericht. </li><li> Entfernen Sie einen 3 rd Larvenstadium aus der Nahrung Medien aufnehmen und in eine plastische Petri-Schale. </li><li> Spülen Larven mit Kochsalzlösung auf Nahrung zu entfernen. </li><li> Legen Larven in Sezieren Gericht in der Nähe des gezogen Stifte und fügen Kochsalzlösung ½ Ebene. </li><li> Orient die Larven, so dass Sie zwei silberne Röhren (Tracheen), die entlang des Tieres dorsalen Oberfläche sehen können. </li><li> Legen Sie eine grosse Nadel direkt in den Schwanz zwischen die Trachealtuben. Halten Sie die Larven ab und legen Sie eine zweite große Nadel in den Kopf, sicher zu sein, um den Körper ausstrecken Längsrichtung. </li><li> Machen Sie einen kleinen Schnitt in der Nähe des Schwanzes, und weiterhin ist die Länge des Körpers. Stellen Sie sicher, dass die Spitzen der Schere so sind, wie nicht versehentlich geschnitten ventralen Nerven und / oder Körper Wand Muskeln erhöht. </li><li> Legen Sie vier Pins an den vier Ecken des Tieres ist jetzt offen Mittelteil. Setzen Sie diese in das Sezieren Gericht so Filet des Tieres. Pin Zubereitung vermittelt. </li><li> Mit einer Pinzette und Schere, entfernen Sie das Tier guts, der Luftröhre und Fettkörper. </li><li> Spülen Sie die Vorbereitung mit Kochsalzlösung. </li><li> Suchen Sie den Frontallappen (wie in Abb. A aus gesehen) und Bauchganglion des prep. </li><li> Mit Mikro-Schere, schneiden Sie vorsichtig durch die Bauchganglion direkt hinter dem Frontallappen. </li></ol> Teil 4: Muscle Aufnahme und blaues Licht Stimulation <ol><li> Ziehen Sie eine 10-20 μω Elektrode mittels eines elektronischen Elektrode Puller (Sutter Instruments). </li><li> Füllen Sie die Elektrode gezogen mit 3 M KCl. </li><li> Gefüllte Elektrode in Elektrodenhalter und Manöver Elektrodenspitze mit einem Mikromanipulator in der Nähe Larven prep unter Binokular auf Elektrophysiologie rig. </li><li> Identifizieren Muscle 6 (M6) in jede Einrichtung Wandsegment (Abb. A). </li><li> Vorsichtig Elektrode in M6 und achten Sie auf eine schnelle Hyperpolarisation. Muscle Ruhe Membranpotentiale sollte irgendwo zwischen -30 mV bis -70 mV. </li><li> Passen blaues Licht, so dass seziert prep in Lichtstrahl zentriert ist. </li><li> Geben 20-100 ms Spannungsimpulse an den Steuerkreis. Schrittweise zu erhöhen versorgt an den Steuerkreis. Achten Sie auf exzitatorische Kreuzung Potenziale in der Muskelzelle (Abbildung 1B). </li></ol> Repräsentative Ergebnisse: Abbildung 1A zeigt eine schematische Darstellung der Aufnahme-Setup und filetiert Vorbereitung. Abbildung 1B zeigt typische EJP durch kurze Lichtpulse hervorgerufen. EJP Amplitude dargestellt wird Amplitude von zwei motorischen Neuronen bekannt, sowohl innervieren M6 summiert. Geringere Lichtintensitäten nur ein Motor-Einheit (Daten nicht gezeigt) aktiviert. <img src="/files/ftp_upload/1133/figure1.png" alt="Abbildung 1" width="600" height="373" /> Abbildung 1: A) Allgemeines Schema eines intrazellulären Aufnahme rig und mit blauen LED. Brain (Br) wird entfernt, um rhythmische Aktivität im ventralen Ganglion (VG) zu hemmen. ChR2 ist in Motoneuronen mit der GAL4-UAS-System ausgedrückt. B) Intrazelluläre Aufnahme von einem M6 Muskel. 40 ms blaue Lichtblitze (bei ​​127 mW / mm 2) zuverlässig wecken große synaptischen Potentiale (Sternchen) in M6.

<ol>
	<li>Keshishian, H., Broadie, K., Chiba, A., Bate, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Drosophila+neuromuscular+junction:+a+model+system+for+studying+synaptic+development+and+function.">The Drosophila neuromuscular junction: a model system for studying synaptic development and function.</a> Annu Rev Neurosci. 19, 545 (1996).</li><li>Collins, C. A., DiAntonio, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+development:+insights+from+Drosophila.">Synaptic development: insights from Drosophila.</a> Curr Opin Neurobiol. 17 (1), 35 (2007).</li><li>Lagow, R. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modification+of+a+hydrophobic+layer+by+a+point+mutation+in+syntaxin+1A+regulates+the+rate+of+synaptic+vesicle+fusion.">Modification of a hydrophobic layer by a point mutation in syntaxin 1A regulates the rate of synaptic vesicle fusion.</a> PLoS Biol. 5 (4), e72 (2007).</li><li>Nagel, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Light+activation+of+channelrhodopsin-2+in+excitable+cells+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans+triggers+rapid+behavioral+responses.">Light activation of channelrhodopsin-2 in excitable cells of Caenorhabditis elegans triggers rapid behavioral responses.</a> Curr Biol. 15 (24), 2279 (2005).</li><li>Nagel, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Channelrhodopsin-2,+a+directly+light-gated+cation-selective+membrane+channel.">Channelrhodopsin-2, a directly light-gated cation-selective membrane channel.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 100 (24), 13940 (2003).</li><li>Schroll, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Light-induced+activation+of+distinct+modulatory+neurons+triggers+appetitive+or+aversive+learning+in+Drosophila+larvae.">Light-induced activation of distinct modulatory neurons triggers appetitive or aversive learning in Drosophila larvae.</a> Curr Biol. 16 (17), 1741 (2006).</li><li>Lin, D. M., Auld, V. J., Goodman, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeted+neuronal+cell+ablation+in+the+Drosophila+embryo:+pathfinding+by+follower+growth+cones+in+the+absence+of+pioneers.">Targeted neuronal cell ablation in the Drosophila embryo: pathfinding by follower growth cones in the absence of pioneers.</a> Neuron. 14 (4), 707 (1995).</li><li>Ralph Greenspan, . <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Fly Pushing: The Theory and Practice of Drosophila Genetics, 2nd ed. , (2004).</li></ol>

Wir haben keine Interessenkonflikte offen zu legen.

Kritische Schritte umfassen sowohl die ursprüngliche Dissektion und das Eintreten von Muskelzellen. Wenn die Nerven abgeschnitten werden oder Muskel beschädigt ist während der ersten Sektion ist es schwierig, den Rest das Experiment fortzusetzen. Während Dissektion, muss man sehr vorsichtig sein, um Winkel Präparierscheren nach oben so viel wie möglich während der dorsale Inzision. Während der zweite entscheidende Schritt in eine Muskelzelle, muss man für eine Hyperpolarisation letzten ~ 30 mV zu beobachten. We...

<table border="1">
<tr>
<td>Material Name</td>
<td>Type</td>
<td>Company</td>
<td>Catalogue Number</td>
<td>Comment</td>
</tr>	
<tr>
<td>Sylgard</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Ellsworth adhesives </td>
<td>4019862</td>
<td><a href="http://www.ellsworth.com" target="_blank">www.ellsworth.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Minutens Pins</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
<td>26002-10</td>
<td><a href="http://www.finescience.com" target="_blank">www.finescience.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Dissecting Dish</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.fishersci.com" target="_blank">www.fishersci.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Neuroprobe Intracellular Amplifier and Head Stage</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>A-M Systems</td>
<td>680100</td>
<td><a href="http://www.a-msystems.com" target="_blank">www.a-msystems.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="http://www.adinstruments.com/products/hardware/corporate/product/ML866/" target="_blank">Powerlab 4/30 data acquisition system</a></td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.adinstruments.com" target="_blank">AD instruments</a></td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.adinstruments.com" target="_blank">www.adinstruments.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Grass stimulator</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Grass instruments</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.grasstechnologies.com" target="_blank">www.grasstechnologies.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Desktop Computer</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Dell</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.dell.com" target="_blank">www.dell.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Dissecting Scope</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Leica</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.leica-microsystems.com" target="_blank">www.leica-microsystems.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Light Source</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Dolan-Jenner</td>
<td>41446-062</td>
<td><a href="http://www.dolan-jenner.com" target="_blank">www.dolan-jenner.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Fly Media</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>All-Trans-Retinal</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>116-31-4</td>
<td><a href="http://www.sigmaaldrich.com" target="_blank">www.sigmaaldrich.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>OK-371 Gal4 Flies</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Aberle lab, Griffith lab, Bloomington stock center </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>UAS-ChR2 Flies</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fiala lab, Griffith lab </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>LED controller circuit</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Built in Griffith lab</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.ledsupply.com" target="_blank">http://www.ledsupply.com</a> 
<a href="http://www.futureelectronics.com" target="_blank">http://www.futureelectronics.com</a> 
Composed of: 
1. 200 mA Buck Puck 
2. Blue LED 
3. Insulated wire 
4. Circuit bread board </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>LED Heat Sink</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Thor Labs</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.thorlabs.com/" target="_blank">http://www.thorlabs.com/</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Air Table</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>TMC</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.techmfg.com/products/accessories/intro3.html" target="_blank">http://www.techmfg.com/products/accessories/intro3.html</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Faraday Cage</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Built in Griffith lab</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Leica Leitz M Micro-Manipulator</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Leica Leitz</td>
<td>ACS01</td>
<td><a href="http://www.leica-microsystems.com" target="_blank">www.leica-microsystems.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Electrode Holder</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Axon Instruments</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.axon.com" target="_blank">www.axon.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Borosilicate Glass</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>FHC</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.fh-co.com/p14-15.pdf" target="_blank">www.fh-co.com/p14-15.pdf</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Electrode Puller</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.sutter.com" target="_blank">www.sutter.com</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>HL 3.1 Saline with 0.8mM Ca2+</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Contents (mM): 
NaCl:70 KCl:5 CaCl2: 0.8 MgCl2:4Sucrose:115 
NaHCO3: 10 Trehalose: 5 HEPES
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Micro-Dissection Tools</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.finescience.com" target="_blank">www.finescience.com</a></td>
</tr>		
</tbody>
</table>

channelrhodopsin2 mediated stimulation of synaptic potentials at drosophila neuromuscular junctions

Die<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Larvalen neuromuskulären Vorbereitung hat sich als ein nützliches Werkzeug für die Untersuchung synaptischer Physiologie<sup&gt; 1,2,3</sup&gt;. Derzeit ist das nur für exzitatorische junctional Potentiale (EJPs) in dieser Zubereitung auslösen beinhaltet die Verwendung von Saug-Elektroden. In Forschung und Lehre Labore, Studenten haben oft Schwierigkeiten, Rangieren und manipulieren diese Art der stimulierenden Elektrode. In der vorliegenden Arbeit zeigen wir, wie aus der Ferne zu stimulieren synaptischen Potentiale an den Larven NMJ ohne den Einsatz von Saug-Elektroden. Durch die Expression Channelrhodopsin2 (ChR2)<sup&gt; 4,5,6</sup&gt; In<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Motoneuronen mit dem<em&gt; GAL4-UAS</em&gt; System<sup&gt; 7</sup&gt;, Und kleinere Änderungen an einer grundlegenden Elektrophysiologie rig, konnten wir zuverlässig wecken EJPs mit Impulsen von blauem Licht. Diese Technik könnte von besonderem Nutzen in der Neurophysiologie Lehre Labors, in denen Schüler rig Praxis Zeit und Ressourcen sind begrenzt.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions at JoVE.com

Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions

Bei diesem Verfahren wird ein blaues Licht aktiviert Algen Kanal-und Zell-spezifische genetische Expression Tools zur synaptischen Potentiale mit Lichtimpulsen evozieren an der neuromuskulären Synapse (NMJ) in<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Larven. Diese Technik ist eine kostengünstige und einfach zu bedienende Alternative zu Saugelektrode Stimulation für die synaptische Physiologie Studien in Forschung und Lehre Labors.

Channelrhodopsin2 vermittelte Stimulation der synaptischen Potentiale an Drosophila Neuromuskulären Endplatten

The Drosophila larval neuromuscular preparation has proven to be a useful tool for studying synaptic physiology1,2,3. Currently, the only means available ...

channelrhodopsin2-mediated-stimulation-synaptic-potentials-at

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions

13.6K Aufrufe.  Brandeis. Bei diesem Verfahren wird ein blaues Licht aktiviert Algen Kanal-und Zell-spezifische genetische Expression Tools zur synaptischen Potentiale mit Lichtimpulsen evozieren an der neuromuskulären Synapse (NMJ) in Drosophila Larven. Diese Technik ist eine kostengünstige und einfach zu bedienende Alternative zu Saugelektrode Stimulation für die synaptische Physiologie Studien in Forschung und Lehre Labors.

Serie: Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions

Loading Drosophila Nerve Terminals with Calcium Indicators

Calcium plays many roles in the nervous system but none more impressive than as the trigger for neurotransmitter release, and none more profound than as the messenger essential for the synaptic plasticity that supports learning and memory. To further elucidate the molecular underpinnings of Ca2+-dependent synaptic mechanisms, a model system is required that is both genetically malleable and physiologically accessible. Drosophila melanogaster provides such a model. In this system, genetically-encoded fluorescent indicators are available to detect Ca2+ changes in nerve terminals. However, these indicators have limited sensitivity to Ca2+ and often show a non-linear response. Synthetic fluorescent indicators are better suited for measuring the rapid Ca2+ changes associated with nerve activity. Here we demonstrate a technique for loading dextran-conjugated synthetic Ca2+ indicators into live nerve terminals in Drosophila larvae. Particular emphasis is placed on those aspects of the protocol most critical to the technique's success, such as how to avoid static electricity discharges along the isolated nerves, maintaining the health of the preparation during extended loading periods, and ensuring axon survival by providing Ca2+ to promote sealing of severed axon endings. Low affinity dextran-conjugated Ca2+-indicators, such as fluo-4 and rhod, are available which show a high signal-to-noise ratio while minimally disrupting presynaptic Ca2+ dynamics. Dextran-conjugation helps prevent Ca2+ indicators being sequestered into organelles such as mitochondria. The loading technique can be applied equally to larvae, embryos and adults.

Calcium is a ubiquitous messenger in the nervous system, essential for triggering neurotransmitter release and changes in synaptic strength. Here we demonstrate a technique for loading Ca2+-indicators into Drosophila nerve terminals. We also demonstrate fabrication of the required apparatus and emphasize points critical for the technique's success.

Loading Drosophila Nerve Terminals mit Calcium-Indikatoren

Calcium plays many roles in the nervous system but none more impressive than as the trigger for neurotransmitter release, and none more profound than as ...

Forschung

Biologie

Operant Learning of Drosophila at the Torque Meter

For experiments at the torque meter, flies are kept on standard fly medium at 25&deg;C and 60% humidity with a 12hr light/12hr dark regime. A standardized breeding regime assures proper larval density and age-matched cohorts. Cold-anesthetized flies are glued with head and thorax to a triangle-shaped hook the day before the experiment. Attached to the torque meter via a clamp, the fly's intended flight maneuvers are measured as the angular momentum around its vertical body axis. The fly is placed in the center of a cylindrical panorama to accomplish stationary flight. An analog to digital converter card feeds the yaw torque signal into a computer which stores the trace for later analysis. The computer also controls a variety of stimuli which can be brought under the fly's control by closing the feedback loop between these stimuli and the yaw torque trace. Punishment is achieved by applying heat from an adjustable infrared laser.

Measuring the yaw torque of tethered Drosophila with the torque meter allows the neuroscientist exquisite control of the stimulus situation of the experimental animal. Together with the unique genetic tools available in the fruit fly, this paradigm is used for a wide variety of neurobiological research.

Operanten Lernens von Drosophila an der Torque Meter

For experiments at the torque meter, flies are kept on standard fly medium at 25&deg;C and 60% humidity with a 12hr light/12hr dark regime. A standardized ...

A Magnetic Tether System to Investigate Visual and Olfactory Mediated Flight Control in Drosophila

It has been clear for many years that insects use visual cues to stabilize their heading in a wind stream. Many animals track odors carried in the wind. As such, visual stabilization of upwind tracking directly aids in odor tracking. But do olfactory signals directly influence visual tracking behavior independently from wind cues? Also, the recent deluge of research on the neurophysiology and neurobehavioral genetics of olfaction in Drosophila has motivated ever more technically sophisticated and quantitative behavioral assays. Here, we modified a magnetic tether system originally devised for vision experiments by equipping the arena with narrow laminar flow odor plumes. A fly is glued to a small steel pin and suspended in a magnetic field that enables it to yaw freely. Small diameter food odor plumes are directed downward over the fly s head, eliciting stable tracking by a hungry fly. Here we focus on the critical mechanics of tethering, aligning the magnets, devising the odor plume, and confirming stable odor tracking.

Here we describe how to tether a fly in an olfactory magnetic-tether (OMT) apparatus. We describe how to align the rare-earth magnets and odor ports, and how to set mass flow rates for both the stimulus delivery and vacuum suction to achieve optimal odor tracking.

A Magnetic Tether System zur visuellen und olfaktorischen Mediated Flight Control in Drosophila Untersuchen

It has been clear for many years that insects use visual cues to stabilize their heading in a wind stream. Many animals track odors carried in the wind. ...

Electrophysiological Methods for Recording Synaptic Potentials from the NMJ of Drosophila Larvae

In this video, we describe the electrophysiological methods for recording synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of Drosophila larva. The larval neuromuscular system is a model synapse for the study of synaptic physiology and neurotransmission, and is a valuable research tool that has defined genetics and is accessible to experimental manipulation. Larvae can be dissected to expose the body wall musculature, central nervous system, and peripheral nerves. The muscles of Drosophila and their innervation pattern are well characterized and muscles are easy to access for intracellular recording. Individual muscles can be identified by their location and orientation within the 8 abdominal segments, each with 30 muscles arranged in a pattern that is repeated in segments A2 - A7. Dissected drosophila larvae are thin and individual muscles and bundles of motor neuron axons can be visualized by transillumination1. Transgenic constructs can be used to label target cells for visual identification or for manipulating gene products in specific tissues. In larvae, excitatory junction potentials (EJP&#8217;s) are generated in response to vesicular release of glutamate from the motoneurons at the synapse. In dissected larvae, the EJP can be recorded in the muscle with an intracellular electrode. Action potentials can be artificially evoked in motor neurons that have been cut posterior to the ventral ganglion, drawn into a glass pipette by gentle suction and stimulated with an electrode. These motor neurons have distinct firing thresholds when stimulated, and when they fire simultaneously, they generate a response in the muscle. Signals transmitted across the NMJ synapse can be recorded in the muscles that the motor neurons innervate. The EJP&#8217;s and minature excitatory junction potentials (mEJP&#8217;s) are seen as changes in membrane potential. Electrophysiological responses are recorded at room temperature in modified minimal hemolymph-like solution2 (HL3) that contains 5 mM Mg2+ and 1.5 mM Ca2+. Changes in the amplitude of evoked EJP&#8217;s can indicate differences in synaptic function and structure. Digitized recordings are analyzed for EJP amplitude, mEJP frequency and amplitude, and quantal content.

Here we describe electrophysiological methods for measuring synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction of Drosophila larva. Evoked release is initiated artificially by stimulating the motor neuron axons, and transmission through the NMJ can be measured by the postsynaptic response evoked in the muscle.

Elektrophysiologischen Methoden für die Aufzeichnung Synaptic Potentials aus dem NMJ von Drosophila-Larven

In this video, we describe the electrophysiological methods for recording synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of Drosophila larva. ...

Visually Mediated Odor Tracking During Flight in Drosophila

Flying insects use visual cues to stabilize their heading in a wind stream. Many animals additionally track odors carried in the wind. As such, visual stabilization of upwind tracking directly aids in odor tracking. But do olfactory signals directly influence visual tracking behavior independently from wind cues? Additionally, recent advances in olfactory molecular genetics and neurophysiology have motivated novel quantitative behavioral analyses to assess the behavioral influence of (e.g.) genetically inactivating specific olfactory activation circuits. We modified a magnetic tether system originally devised for vision experiments by equipping the arena with narrow laminar flow odor plumes. Here we focus on experiments that can be performed after a fly is tethered and is able to navigate in the magnetic arena. We show how to acquire video images optimized for measuring body angle, how to judge stable odor tracking, and we illustrate two experiments to examine the influence of visual cues on odor tracking.

Here we describe how to optimize the acquired video image for an olfactory magnetic-tether (OMT) apparatus. We also describe two sample experimental protocols for studying visuo-olfactory fusion.

Visuell vermittelte Odor-Tracking während des Fluges in Drosophila

Flying insects use visual cues to stabilize their heading in a wind stream. Many animals additionally track odors carried in the wind. As such, visual ...

Visualizing the Live Drosophila Glial-neuromuscular Junction with Fluorescent Dyes

Our project identified GFP labeled glial structures at the developing larval fly neuromuscular synapse. To look at development of live glial-nerve-muscle synapses, we developed a larval tissue preparation that had features of live intact larvae, but also had good optical properties.  This new preparation also allowed for access of perfusates to the synapse.  We used fly larvae, immersed them in artificial hemolymph, and relaxed their normal rhythmic body contractions by chilling them. Next we dissected off the posterior segments of each animal and with a blunt insect pin pushed the mouth parts backward through the body cavity.  This everted the larval body wall, like turning a sock inside-out.  We completed the dissection with ultra-fine dissection scissors and thus exposed the visceral side of the body wall muscles. The glial structures at the NMJ expressed membrane targeted GFP under the control of glial specific promoters. The post-synaptic membrane, the SSR (Subsynaptic Reticula) in muscle expressed synaptically targeted dsRed. We needed to acutely label the motor neuron terminals, the third part of the synapse. To do this we applied primary antibodies to HRP, conjugated to a far-red emitting flurophore.  To test for dye diffusion properties into the perisynaptic space between the motor neuron terminals and the SSR, we applied a solution of large Dextran molecules conjugated to far-red emitting flurophore and collected images.

Visualizing the Live Drosophila Glial-neuromuscular Junction with Fluorescent Dyes

We described structural features of the Glia-neuromuscular synapses in a novel Inside-out tissue preparation of live fly larvae using fluorescent dyes with confocal microscopy. We labeled live neuron terminals with fluorescent primary antibodies to HRP, and also visualized the perisynaptic space with fluorescent Dextrans.

Visualisierung der Live- Drosophila Glial-neuromuskulären Synapse mit Fluoreszenzfarbstoffen

Our project identified GFP labeled glial structures at the developing larval fly neuromuscular synapse. To look at development of live glial-nerve-muscle ...

In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

Recent improvements in optical imaging, genetically encoded fluorophores and genetic tools allowing efficient establishment of desired transgenic animal lines have enabled biological processes to be studied in the context of a living, and in some instances even behaving, organism. In this protocol we will describe how to anesthetize intact Drosophila larvae, using the volatile anesthetic desflurane, to follow the development and plasticity of synaptic populations at sub-cellular resolution1-3. While other useful methods to anesthetize Drosophila melanogaster larvae have been previously described4,5,6,7,8, the protocol presented herein demonstrates significant improvements due to the following combined key features: (1) A very high degree of anesthetization; even the heart beat is arrested allowing for lateral resolution of up to 150 nm1, (2) a high survival rate of &gt; 90% per anesthetization cycle, permitting the recording of more than five time-points over a period of hours to days2 and (3) a high sensitivity enabling us in 2 instances to study the dynamics of proteins expressed at physiological levels. In detail, we were able to visualize the postsynaptic glutamate receptor subunit GluR-IIA expressed via the endogenous promoter1 in stable transgenic lines and the exon trap line FasII-GFP1. (4) In contrast to other methods4,7 the larvae can be imaged not only alive, but also intact (i.e. non-dissected) allowing observation to occur over a number of days1. The accompanying video details the function of individual parts of the in vivo imaging chamber2,3, the correct mounting of the larvae, the anesthetization procedure, how to re-identify specific positions within a larva and the safe removal of the larvae from the imaging chamber.

In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

This protocol describes a reliable method for anesthetization and imaging of intact Drosophila melanogaster larvae. We have utilized the volatile anesthetic desflurane to allow for repetitive imaging at sub-cellular resolution and re-identification of structures for up to a few days1.

In-vivo-Imaging von Intact Drosophila-Larven auf subzellulärer Auflösung

Recent improvements in optical imaging, genetically encoded fluorophores and genetic tools allowing efficient establishment of desired transgenic animal ...

Quantitative Comparison of cis-Regulatory Element (CRE) Activities in Transgenic Drosophila melanogaster

Gene expression patterns are specified by cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences, which are also called enhancers or cis-regulatory modules. A typical CRE possesses an arrangement of binding sites for several transcription factor proteins that confer a regulatory logic specifying when, where, and at what level the regulated gene(s) is expressed. The full set of CREs within an animal genome encodes the organism&prime;s program for development1, and empirical as well as theoretical studies indicate that mutations in CREs played a prominent role in morphological evolution2-4. Moreover, human genome wide association studies indicate that genetic variation in CREs contribute substantially to phenotypic variation5,6. Thus, understanding regulatory logic and how mutations affect such logic is a central goal of genetics. 
Reporter transgenes provide a powerful method to study the in vivo function of CREs. Here a known or suspected CRE sequence is coupled to heterologous promoter and coding sequences for a reporter gene encoding an easily observable protein product. When a reporter transgene is inserted into a host organism, the CRE&prime;s activity becomes visible in the form of the encoded reporter protein. P-element mediated transgenesis in the fruit fly species Drosophila (D.) melanogaster7 has been used for decades to introduce reporter transgenes into this model organism, though the genomic placement of transgenes is random. Hence, reporter gene activity is strongly influenced by the local chromatin and gene environment, limiting CRE comparisons to being qualitative. In recent years, the phiC31 based integration system was adapted for use in D. melanogaster to insert transgenes into specific genome landing sites8-10. This capability has made the quantitative measurement of gene and, relevant here, CRE activity11-13 feasible. The production of transgenic fruit flies can be outsourced, including phiC31-based integration, eliminating the need to purchase expensive equipment and/or have proficiency at specialized transgene injection protocols. 
Here, we present a general protocol to quantitatively evaluate a CRE&prime;s activity, and show how this approach can be used to measure the effects of an introduced mutation on a CRE&prime;s activity and to compare the activities of orthologous CREs. Although the examples given are for a CRE active during fruit fly metamorphosis, the approach can be applied to other developmental stages, fruit fly species, or model organisms. Ultimately, a more widespread use of this approach to study CREs should advance an understanding of regulatory logic and how logic can vary and evolve.

Quantitative Comparison of cis-Regulatory Element CRE Activities in Transgenic Drosophila melanogaster

Phenotypic variation for traits can result from mutations in cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences that control gene expression patterns. Methods derived for use in Drosophila melanogaster can quantitatively compare the levels of spatial and temporal patterns of gene expression mediated by modified or naturally occurring CRE variants.

Quantitativen Vergleich der Cis-Regulatory Element (CRE) Aktivitäten in transgenen Drosophila melanogaster</em

Gene expression patterns are specified by cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences, which are also called enhancers or cis-regulatory modules. A typical CRE ...

Recombineering Homologous Recombination Constructs in Drosophila

The continued development of techniques for fast, large-scale manipulation of endogenous gene loci will broaden the use of Drosophila melanogaster as a genetic model organism for human-disease related research. Recent years have seen technical advancements like homologous recombination and recombineering. However, generating unequivocal null mutations or tagging endogenous proteins remains a substantial effort for most genes. Here, we describe and demonstrate techniques for using recombineering-based cloning methods to generate vectors that can be used to target and manipulate endogenous loci in vivo. Specifically, we have established a combination of three technologies: (1) BAC transgenesis/recombineering, (2) ends-out homologous recombination and (3) Gateway technology to provide a robust, efficient and flexible method for manipulating endogenous genomic loci. In this protocol, we provide step-by-step details about how to (1) design individual vectors, (2) how to clone large fragments of genomic DNA into the homologous recombination vector using gap repair, and (3) how to replace or tag genes of interest within these vectors using a second round of recombineering. Finally, we will also provide a protocol for how to mobilize these cassettes in vivo to generate a knockout, or a tagged gene via knock-in. These methods can easily be adopted for multiple targets in parallel and provide a means for manipulating the Drosophila genome in a timely and efficient manner.

Recombineering Homologous Recombination Constructs in Drosophila

Homologous recombination techniques greatly advance Drosophila genetics by enabling the creation of molecularly precise mutations. The recent adoption of recombineering allows one to manipulate large pieces of DNA and transform them into Drosophila6. The methods presented here combine these techniques to rapidly generate large homologous recombination vectors.

Recombineering homologen Rekombination Konstrukte in<em&gt; Drosophila</em

The continued development of techniques for fast, large-scale manipulation of endogenous gene loci will broaden the use of Drosophila melanogaster as a ...

Using Coculture to Detect Chemically Mediated Interspecies Interactions

In nature, bacteria rarely exist in isolation; they are instead surrounded by a diverse array of other microorganisms that alter the local environment by secreting metabolites. These metabolites have the potential to modulate the physiology and differentiation of their microbial neighbors and are likely important factors in the establishment and maintenance of complex microbial communities. We have developed a fluorescence-based coculture screen to identify such chemically mediated microbial interactions. The screen involves combining a fluorescent transcriptional reporter strain with environmental microbes on solid media and allowing the colonies to grow in coculture. The fluorescent transcriptional reporter is designed so that the chosen bacterial strain fluoresces when it is expressing a particular phenotype of interest (i.e. biofilm formation, sporulation, virulence factor production, etc.) Screening is performed under growth conditions where this phenotype is not expressed (and therefore the reporter strain is typically nonfluorescent). When an environmental microbe secretes a metabolite that activates this phenotype, it diffuses through the agar and activates the fluorescent reporter construct. This allows the inducing-metabolite-producing microbe to be detected: they are the nonfluorescent colonies most proximal to the fluorescent colonies. Thus, this screen allows the identification of environmental microbes that produce diffusible metabolites that activate a particular physiological response in a reporter strain. This publication discusses how to: a) select appropriate coculture screening conditions, b) prepare the reporter and environmental microbes for screening, c) perform the coculture screen, d) isolate putative inducing organisms, and e) confirm their activity in a secondary screen. We developed this method to screen for soil organisms that activate biofilm matrix-production in Bacillus subtilis; however, we also discuss considerations for applying this approach to other genetically tractable bacteria.

Bacteria produce secreted compounds that have the potential to affect the physiology of their microbial neighbors. Here we describe a coculture screen that allows detection of such chemically mediated interspecies interactions by mixing soil microbes with fluorescent transcriptional reporter strains of Bacillus subtilis on solid media.

Mit Cokultur zur Erkennung chemisch vermittelte Interspezies-Interaktionen

In nature, bacteria rarely exist in isolation; they are instead surrounded by a diverse array of other microorganisms that alter the local environment by ...