Die Arbeit wurde durch Fördermittel von der Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (# 38631) und der NIH, einschließlich DP2 OD004631 und R01 AI084119 unterstützt.

1. Methodik <ol><li> Der erste Schritt des Protokolls ist es, die V3 Krone Sequenz, die Sie wollen in silico fach zu wählen. Für die R2-Stamm, ist die Reihenfolge für dieses Fragment KSIPMGPGRAFYT. </li><li> Die 3D-atomare Struktur des Peptids entsprechend dieser Reihenfolge sollte in dem Computer den virtuellen Raum gebaut werden. Die ICM-Befehl dafür lautet: buildpep &quot;KSIPMGPGRAFYT&quot; oder Datei: Neu: Peptide können unter dem Pull-Down-Menü ausgewählt werden </li><li> Verschiedene Parameter des Verfahrens werden dann gesetzt, darunter die Anzahl der Suchschritte (Länge der Suche), die Simulation Temperatur, Suchstrategie Parameter einschließlich der variablen Beschränkungen für Verzerrungen der Suche nach angemessenen Bereichen, energetisch, die Auswahl der verschiedenen Energiequellen Berechnungsmethoden, und Parameter angeben, wie die Suche, z. B. ob ein Film aufnehmen wird aufgezeichnet und wie viele Zwischenstufen Scoring Konformationen sollten aufgezeichnet werden. Alle diese Parameter wurden von früheren Publikationen (siehe www.molsoft.com) optimiert worden. </li><li> Die Faltung wird dann mit dem Befehl gestartet: montecarlo oder Datei: Neu: Peptide können unter dem Pulldown-Menü Molecular Mechanics gewählt werden: Minimieren: Global Im ersteren Fall, sollten die Parameter aus Schritt 3 nacheinander in der Kommandozeile gesetzt werden. Im letzteren Fall sind die Kontrollkästchen für die am häufigsten gewählten Parameter in einem Bereich vorgesehen, bevor der Befehl ausgeführt wird. Der Einfachheit halber wird die gleiche Faltung ICM-Skript für dieses Experiment und bisher veröffentlichten Experimenten verwendet hier gezeigt: <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2118/2118output.jpg" alt="Ausgang" /> Dieses Skript kann in einer Textdatei gespeichert und ausgeführt werden aus dem Betriebssystem des Computers Kommandozeile (in der Regel LINUX) schnell mit dem Befehl: icm _foldingscript </li></ol> 2. Secrets to Success <ol><li> Der V3-Loop ist eine Konstante, 35 Aminosäuren lang in fast allen bekannten Stamm, so dass die Aminosäure-Positionen 1 bis 35 nummeriert sind, beginnend mit dem Ursprung Disulfid gebundene Cystin bei 1 und endet mit dem entsprechenden Disulfid gebundene Cystin bei 35. Da es Teil einer Schleife ist, sollten die Grenzen der Krone des V3 sorgfältig ausgewählt werden. Wenn eine zu große Fragment gewählt wird, ist es unwahrscheinlich ist, als frei flexible Segment verhalten, als ob es ein freies Peptid wurden, so die Faltung Simulation wird nicht korrekt beurteilen die Struktur. Wenn eine zu kleine Fragment gewählt wird, kann die informative Tertiärstruktur nicht in die Simulation zu bilden. Unsere früheren Studien zeigten, dass das Fragment von Position 10 bis Position 22 mit dem Antikörper gebunden kristallographischen Konformationen korreliert, so ist dies das Fragment einer V3-Schleife, die für die Faltung gewählt werden sollte. </li><li> Obwohl die Verwendung der grafischen Benutzeroberfläche und Pull-Down-Menüs ist einfach zu bedienen, bedarf der vorherigen erfolgreichen Arbeit auf Peptidfaltung in der Regel mit ICM und V3-Loops Krone Falten insbesondere die oben beschriebenen Skript verwendet werden, einfache Änderung der Reihenfolge in der buildpep Linie und den Betrieb der obige Skript von der Kommandozeile wird empfohlen. </li></ol> 3. Repräsentative Ergebnisse Die Ergebnisse für die R2 Falten sind repräsentativ für die Ergebnisse für jeden V3-Schleife. Zur Auswertung der Ergebnisse sollte die Projekt-Datei (es wird mit dem Namen &quot;newProject1.icb&quot; aus dem obigen Skript sein) geöffnet werden und &quot;Molecular Mechanics, Stapel, View&quot; gewählt. Eine Tabelle des Stapels Konformationen erscheint. Der Stack Konformationen können grafisch visualisiert werden, indem Sie auf den Plot / Histogramm-Symbol. &quot;Molecular Mechanics, Stapel, Play&quot; wird ein Film des Stapels, um visuell zu schätzen wissen die konformative Präferenzen durch die Faltung aufgedeckt. Für die R2-Sequenz wird die Konformation beta-Haarnadel-artige wie für V3-Loops 2 erwartet - vor allem in dem Fragment an den Positionen 12 bis 14, wo eine klare β-Strang-Bevorzugung im ganzen Stapel zu sehen ist, und nur sehr wenige alpha-Helices zu sehen sind. Darüber hinaus ist eine Energielücke von fast 3 Einheiten zwischen dem niedrigsten Energie-Konformation und die zweitniedrigste Energie Konformation gesehen. Aus energetischer Sicht bedeutet dies, dass die Struktur nur flackert aus der niedrigsten Energie Konformation weniger als ein Prozent der Zeit: die Faltung Ergebnisse schlagen daher vor, dass die R2 V3 Krone einer starren, anstatt flexible, Struktur ist. Möglicherweise gibt es weitere wichtige strukturelle Merkmale in das Ensemble von Konformationen werden, aber sie sind kaum systematisch zu schätzen wissen. <table border="1"><tbody><tr><td></td><td> JRFL </td><td> SF162_V3JRFL </td><td> SF162_V3R2 </td></tr><tr><td> 447-52D GMT 50 </td><td> 15 </td><td> 0,00061 </td><td> 0,00078 </td></tr></tbody></table> Tabelle 1: Relative Neutralisierung JRFL und R2 V3-Loops in maskierten und nicht maskierten Einstellungen. Die Daten wurden zuvor in Cardozo T., et al. ARHR (200 gemeldet8) und Pinter, A., et. al J. Virol (2004). SF162_V3JRFL enthält die JRFL: Kurz gesagt, wurde eine neutralisierende Aktivität mit einem Single-Cycle-Infektiosität Assay mit PSV mit dem env-defekten Luciferase-exprimierenden pNL4-3.Luc.RE-Plasmid pseudotypisiert mit dem JRFL Env oder SF162 V3 oben beschriebenen Varianten generiert ermittelt V3-Loop-Sequenz anstelle des SF162 V3-Loop-Sequenz. SF162_V3R2 enthält die R2 V3-Loop-Sequenz anstelle des SF162 V3-Loop-Sequenz. Der PSV wurden mit seriellen Verdünnungen der 447-52D mAb für 1,5 h bei 37 ° C und anschließend an CD4 + CCR5 hinzugefügt + U87 Zielzellen in 96-Well-Platten in Gegenwart von Polybren (10 mg = ml) beschichtet. Nach 24 Stunden wurden die Zellen mit RPMI-Medium mit 10% FBS und 10 mg = mL Polybren durch eine zusätzliche 24-48 h Inkubation folgte wieder zugeführt. Luciferaseaktivität wurde 48-72 h nach Infektion mit einem Mikrotiterplatten-Luminometer (HARTA, Inc.) mit Assay-Reagenzien von Promega, Inc. geometrischen Mittelwerte der Titer für 50% Neutralisation (GMT50) von 447-52D bestimmt wurden durch Interpolation aus der Neutralisation Kurven bestimmt und sind Mittelwerte aus mindestens drei unabhängigen Assays.

<ol>
	<li>Almond, D., Kimura, T., Kong, X., Zolla-Pazner, S. &. a. m. p. ;. a. m. p., Cardozo, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+characterization+of+the+V3+loop+crown.">Dynamic characterization of the V3 loop crown.</a> Antiviral Therapy. 12, 13-31 (2007).</li><li>Almond, D., Kimura, T., Kong, X., Swetnam, J., Zolla-Pazner, S., Cardozo, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+conservation+predominates+over+sequence+variability+in+the+crown+of+HIV+type+1's+V3+loop.">Structural conservation predominates over sequence variability in the crown of HIV type 1's V3 loop.</a> AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 26, (2010).</li><li>Abagyan, R., Totrov, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biased+probability+Monte+Carlo+conformational+searches+and+electrostatic+calculations+for+peptides+and+proteins.">Biased probability Monte Carlo conformational searches and electrostatic calculations for peptides and proteins.</a> J Mol Biol. 235, 983-1002 (1994).</li><li>Quinnan, G. V., Zhang, P. F., Fu, D. W., Dong, M., Alter, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+and+characterization+of+HIV+type+1+envelope+protein+associated+with+a+broadly+reactive+neutralizing+antibody+response.">Expression and characterization of HIV type 1 envelope protein associated with a broadly reactive neutralizing antibody response.</a> AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 15, 561-5670 (1999).</li><li>Zhang, P. F., Bouma, P., Park, E. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+variable+region+3+(V3)+mutation+determines+a+global+neutralization+phenotype+and+CD4-independent+infectivity+of+a+human+immunodeficiency+virus+type+1+envelope+associated+with+a+broadly+cross-reactive,+primary+virus-neutralizing+antibody+response.">A variable region 3 (V3) mutation determines a global neutralization phenotype and CD4-independent infectivity of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope associated with a broadly cross-reactive, primary virus-neutralizing antibody response.</a> J Virol. 76, 644-655 (2002).</li></ol>

Ab-initio-Falten zeigt tertiären strukturellen Eigenschaften, deren Auswirkungen sich möglicherweise nicht offensichtlich aus dem Studium einzelner Aminosäuren nacheinander. Mehrere vorher obskure strukturellen Eigenschaften der R2 V3 loop Krone durch die Faltung Simulation enthüllt. Diese beobachteten strukturellen Präferenzen können mit den beobachteten funktionellen Eigenschaften der R2-Stamm, nämlich Empfindlichkeit gegenüber Neutralisation und hyperinfectivity 5 korrelieren. <p class...

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assessment of immunologically relevant dynamic tertiary structural features of the hiv-1 v3 loop crown r2 sequence by ab initio folding

Die antigene Vielfalt der HIV-1 ist schon lange ein Hindernis für die Impfstoff-Design worden, und diese Variabilität ist besonders in der V3-Schleife des Virus &#39;Oberfläche Hüllglycoprotein ausgeprägt. Wir haben bereits vorgeschlagen, dass die Krone des V3-Loops, obwohl dynamische und variable Reihenfolge, in der gesamten Bevölkerung von HIV-1 Viren auf eine immunologisch relevante β-Haarnadel Tertiärstruktur ist eingeschränkt. Wichtig ist, gibt es Tausende von verschiedenen V3-Loop-Sequenzen Krone in zirkulierenden HIV-1 Viren, die Herstellung von 3D strukturelle Charakterisierung von Trends in der Vielfalt der Viren erschweren oder unmöglich durch Kristallographie oder NMR. Unsere bisherige erfolgreiche Studien mit Faltung der V3 Krone 1, 2 verwendet die ab initio-Algorithmus 3 zugänglich in der ICM-Pro Molecular Modelling-Software-Paket (Molsoft LLC, La Jolla, CA) und schlug vor, dass die Krone des V3-Loops, und zwar aus Positionen 10 bis 22, Leistungen ausreichend von der Flexibilität und Länge der flankierenden stammt zu einem großen Teil verhalten, als ob es ein ungezwungenes Peptid frei Faltung in Lösung wurden. Als solche schnellen Ab-initio-Faltung nur diesen Teil des V3-Loops von einzelnen Stamm der 60.000 + zirkulierenden HIV-1 Stämme können sehr informativ sein. Hier, gefaltet wir die V3-Loop des R2 anstrengen, um Einblick in die strukturelle Grundlage seiner einzigartigen Eigenschaften zu gewinnen. R2 trägt ein seltenes V3-Loop-Sequenz als verantwortlich für die exquisite Empfindlichkeit dieses Stammes zur Neutralisation von Patientenseren und monoklonalen Antikörpern 4, 5. Die Belastung vermittelt CD4-unabhängige Infektion und scheint breit neutralisierenden Antikörper hervorzurufen. Wir zeigen, wie Auswertung der Ergebnisse der Faltung kann informativ für die Zuordnung von beobachteten Strukturen in der Faltung mit der immunologischen Aktivitäten für R2 beobachtet.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Immunologically Relevant Dynamic Tertiary Structural Features of the HIV-1 V3 Loop Crown R2 Sequence by ab initio Folding at JoVE.com

Assessment of Immunologically Relevant Dynamic Tertiary Structural Features of the HIV-1 V3 Loop Crown R2 Sequence by ab initio Folding

Die Krone Region unterschiedliche V3-Loop-Sequenzen von der Oberfläche Hüllglycoprotein (gp120) des HIV-1 kann strukturell in vielen Fällen gekennzeichnet durch in silico Faltung von Positionen 10 bis 22 der Schleife mit einer state-of-the-art<em&gt; Ab initio</em&gt; Falt-Algorithmus. Hier zeigen wir die Faltung und Auswertung dieser Region des V3-Loops von der R2-Stamm HIV-1, ein einzigartig Neutralisation sensiblen Stamm mit rätselhaften funktionellen Eigenschaften.

Bewertung von immunologisch relevanten dynamischen tertiären strukturellen Merkmale der HIV-1 V3-Loop Crown R2 Sequence durch Ab initio Folding

The antigenic diversity of HIV-1 has long been an obstacle to vaccine design, and this variability is especially pronounced in the V3 loop of the virus' ...

assessment-immunologically-relevant-dynamic-tertiary-structural

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Assessment of Immunologically Relevant Dynamic Tertiary Structural Features of the HIV-1 V3 Loop Crown R2 Sequence by ab initio Folding

9.5K Aufrufe.  School of Medicine, New York University. Die Krone Region unterschiedliche V3-Loop-Sequenzen von der Oberfläche Hüllglycoprotein (gp120) des HIV-1 kann strukturell in vielen Fällen gekennzeichnet durch in silico Faltung von Positionen 10 bis 22 der Schleife mit einer state-of-the-art Ab initio Falt-Algorithmus. Hier zeigen wir die Faltung und Auswertung dieser Region des V3-Loops von der R2-Stamm HIV-1, ein einzigartig Neutralisation sensiblen Stamm mit rätselhaften funktionellen Eigenschaften...

Serie: Assessment of Immunologically Relevant Dynamic Tertiary Structural Features of the HIV-1 V3 Loop Crown R2 Sequence by ab initio Folding

Specific Marking of HIV-1 Positive Cells using a Rev-dependent Lentiviral Vector Expressing the Green Fluorescent Protein

Most of HIV-responsive expression vectors are based on the HIV promoter, the long terminal repeat (LTR). While responsive to an early HIV protein, Tat, the LTR is also responsive to cellular activation states and to the local chromatin activity where the integration has occurred. This can result in high HIV-independent activity, and has restricted the usefulness of LTR-based reporter to mark HIV positive cells 1,2,3. Here, we constructed an expression lentiviral vector that possesses, in addition to the Tat-responsive LTR, numerous HIV DNA sequences that include the Rev-response element and HIV splicing sites 4,5,6. The vector was incorporated into a lentiviral reporter virus, permitting highly specific detection of replicating HIV in living cell populations. The activity of the vector was measured by expression of the green fluorescence protein (GFP). The application of this vector as reported here offers a novel alternative approach to existing methods, such as in situ PCR or HIV antigen staining, to identify HIV-positive cells. The vector can also express therapeutic genes for basic or clinical experimentation to target HIV-positive cells.

We have developed a lentiviral vector that possesses, in addition to the Tat-responsive LTR, the Rev-response element (RRE) that can regulate reporter gene expression in an HIV-1 Tat- and Rev-dependent fashion. The vector permits the specific detection of replicating HIV in living cells via the expression of GFP.

Spezielle Kennzeichnung von HIV-1 positiven Zellen mit Hilfe eines Rev-abhängigen Lentivirale Vector mit dem Ausdruck des Green Fluorescent Protein

Most of HIV-responsive expression vectors are based on the HIV promoter, the long terminal repeat (LTR). While responsive to an early HIV protein, Tat, ...

Forschung

Immunologie und Infektion

Genotypic Inference of HIV-1 Tropism Using Population-based Sequencing of V3

Background: Prior to receiving a drug from CCR5-antagonist class in HIV therapy, a patient must undergo an HIV tropism test to confirm that his or her viral population uses the CCR5 coreceptor for cellular entry, and not an alternative coreceptor. One approach to tropism testing is to examine the sequence of the V3 region of the HIV envelope, which interacts with the coreceptor.
Methods: Viral RNA is extracted from blood plasma. The V3 region is amplified in triplicate with nested reverse transcriptase-PCR. The amplifications are then sequenced and analyzed using the software, RE_Call. Sequences are then submitted to a bioinformatic algorithm such as geno2pheno to infer viral tropism from the V3 region. Sequences are inferred to be non-R5 if their geno2pheno false positive rate falls below 5.75%. If any one of the three sequences from a sample is inferred to be non-R5, the patient is unlikely to respond to a CCR5-antagonist.

HIV tropism can be inferred from the V3 region of the viral envelope. V3 is PCR amplified in triplicate using nested RT-PCR, sequenced, and interpreted using bioinformatic software. Samples with with 1 or more sequence(s) with low g2P scores are classified as non-R5 virus.

Genotypische Inference von HIV-1 Tropismus mit Populations-basierte Sequenzierung von V3

Background: Prior to receiving a drug from CCR5-antagonist class in HIV therapy, a patient must undergo an HIV tropism test to confirm that his or her ...

Amplifying and Quantifying HIV-1 RNA in HIV Infected Individuals with Viral Loads Below the Limit of Detection by Standard Clinical Assays

Amplifying viral genes and quantifying HIV-1 RNA in HIV-1 infected individuals with viral loads below the limit of detection by standard assays (below 50-75 copies/ml) is necessary to gain insight to viral dynamics and virus host interactions in patients who naturally control the infection and those who are on combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). 
Here we describe how to amplify viral genomes by single genome sequencing (the SGS protocol) 13, 19 and how to accurately quantify HIV-1 RNA in patients with low viral loads (the single-copy assay (SCA) protocol) 12, 20. 
The single-copy assay is a real-time PCR assay with sensitivity depending on the volume of plasma being assayed. If a single virus genome is detected in 7 ml of plasma, then the RNA copy number is reported to be 0.3 copies/ml. The assay has an internal control testing for the efficiency of RNA extraction, and controls for possible amplification from DNA or contamination. Patient samples are measured in triplicate.
The single-genome sequencing assay (SGS), now widely used and considered to be non-labor intensive 3, 7, 12, 14, 15,is a limiting dilution assay, in which endpoint diluted cDNA product is spread over a 96-well plate. According to a Poisson distribution, when less than 1/3 of the wells give product, there is an 80% chance of the PCR product being resultant of amplification from a single cDNA molecule. SGS has the advantage over cloning of not being subjected to resampling and not being biased by PCR-introduced recombination 19. However, the amplification success of SCA and SGS depend on primer design. Both assays were developed for HIV-1 subtype B, but can be adapted for other subtypes and other regions of the genome by changing primers, probes, and standards.

Quantifying levels of HIV-1 RNA in plasma and sequencing single HIV-1 genomes from individuals with viral loads below the limit of detection (50-75 copies/ml) is difficult. Here we describe how to extract and quantify plasma viral RNA using a real time PCR assay that reliably measures HIV-1 RNA down to 0.3 copies/ml and how to amplify viral genomes by single genome sequencing, from samples with very low viral loads.

Verstärkung und Quantifizierung von HIV-1 RNA in HIV-infizierten Personen mit Viruslast unter der Nachweisgrenze von Standard Clinical Assays

Amplifying viral genes and quantifying HIV-1 RNA in HIV-1 infected individuals with viral loads below the limit of detection by standard assays (below ...

Structure of HIV-1 Capsid Assemblies by Cryo-electron Microscopy and Iterative Helical Real-space Reconstruction

Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), combined with image processing, is an increasingly powerful tool for structure determination of macromolecular protein complexes and assemblies. In fact, single particle electron microscopy1 and two-dimensional (2D) electron crystallography2 have become relatively routine methodologies and a large number of structures have been solved using these methods. At the same time, image processing and three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction of helical objects has rapidly developed, especially, the iterative helical real-space reconstruction (IHRSR) method3, which uses single particle analysis tools in conjunction with helical symmetry. Many biological entities function in filamentous or helical forms, including actin filaments4, microtubules5, amyloid fibers6, tobacco mosaic viruses7, and bacteria flagella8, and, because a 3D density map of a helical entity can be attained from a single projection image, compared to the many images required for 3D reconstruction of a non-helical object, with the IHRSR method, structural analysis of such flexible and disordered helical assemblies is now attainable.
In this video article, we provide detailed protocols for obtaining a 3D density map of a helical protein assembly (HIV-1 capsid9 is our example), including protocols for cryo-EM specimen preparation, low dose data collection by cryo-EM, indexing of helical diffraction patterns, and image processing and 3D reconstruction using IHRSR. Compared to other techniques, cryo-EM offers optimal specimen preservation under near native conditions. Samples are embedded in a thin layer of vitreous ice, by rapid freezing, and imaged in electron microscopes at liquid nitrogen temperature, under low dose conditions to minimize the radiation damage. Sample images are obtained under near native conditions at the expense of low signal and low contrast in the recorded micrographs. Fortunately, the process of helical reconstruction has largely been automated, with the exception of indexing the helical diffraction pattern. Here, we describe an approach to index helical structure and determine helical symmetries (helical parameters) from digitized micrographs, an essential step for 3D helical reconstruction. Briefly, we obtain an initial 3D density map by applying the IHRSR method. This initial map is then iteratively refined by introducing constraints for the alignment parameters of each segment, thus controlling their degrees of freedom. Further improvement is achieved by correcting for the contrast transfer function (CTF) of the electron microscope (amplitude and phase correction) and by optimizing the helical symmetry of the assembly.

This article describes a method to obtain a three-dimensional (3D) structure of helically assembled molecules using cryo-electron microscopy. In this protocol, we use HIV-1 capsid assemblies to illustrate the detailed 3D reconstruction procedure for achieving a density map by the iterative helical real-space reconstruction method.

Aufbau des HIV-1 Capsid Assemblies durch Kryo-Elektronenmikroskopie und Iterative Helical Real-Raum Wiederaufbau

Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), combined with image processing, is an increasingly powerful tool for structure determination of macromolecular protein ...

Prediction of HIV-1 Coreceptor Usage (Tropism) by Sequence Analysis using a Genotypic Approach

Maraviroc (MVC) is the first licensed antiretroviral drug from the class of coreceptor antagonists. It binds to the host coreceptor CCR5, which is used by the majority of HIV strains in order to infect the human immune cells (Fig. 1). Other HIV isolates use a different coreceptor, the CXCR4. Which receptor is used, is determined in the virus by the Env protein (Fig. 2). Depending on the coreceptor used, the viruses are classified as R5 or X4, respectively. MVC binds to the CCR5 receptor inhibiting the entry of R5 viruses into the target cell. During the course of disease, X4 viruses may emerge and outgrow the R5 viruses. Determination of coreceptor usage (also called tropism) is therefore mandatory prior to administration of MVC, as demanded by EMA and FDA. 
The studies for MVC efficiency MOTIVATE, MERIT and 1029 have been performed with the Trofile assay from Monogram, San Francisco, U.S.A. This is a high quality assay based on sophisticated recombinant tests. The acceptance for this test for daily routine is rather low outside of the U.S.A., since the European physicians rather tend to work with decentralized expert laboratories, which also provide concomitant resistance testing. These laboratories have undergone several quality assurance evaluations, the last one being presented in 20111.
For several years now, we have performed tropism determinations based on sequence analysis from the HIV env-V3 gene region (V3)2. This region carries enough information to perform a reliable prediction. 
The genotypic determination of coreceptor usage presents advantages such as: shorter turnover time (equivalent to resistance testing), lower costs, possibility to adapt the results to the patients' needs and possibility of analysing clinical samples with very low or even undetectable viral load (VL), particularly since the number of samples analysed with VL&lt;1000 copies/&mu;l roughly increased in the last years (Fig. 3).
The main steps for tropism testing (Fig. 4) demonstrated in this video: 
1. Collection of a blood sample 
 2. Isolation of the HIV RNA from the plasma and/or HIV proviral DNA from blood mononuclear cells 
 3. Amplification of the env region 
 4. Amplification of the V3 region 
 5. Sequence reaction of the V3 amplicon 
 6. Purification of the sequencing samples 
 7. Sequencing the purified samples 
 8. Sequence editing 
 9. Sequencing data interpretation and tropism prediction

Prediction of HIV-1 Coreceptor Usage Tropism by Sequence Analysis using a Genotypic Approach

The prediction of the coreceptor usage of HIV-1 is required for the administration of a new class of antiretroviral drugs, i.e. coreceptor antagonists. It can be performed by sequence analysis of the env gene and subsequent interpretation through an internet based interpretation system (geno2pheno[coreceptor]).

Vorhersage von HIV-1 Korezeptor Usage (Tropismus) durch Sequenzanalyse mit einem Genotypische Ansatz

Maraviroc (MVC) is the first licensed antiretroviral drug from the class of coreceptor antagonists. It binds to the host coreceptor CCR5, which is used by ...

In vitro Uncoating of HIV-1 Cores

The genome of the retroviruses is encased in a capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope. For lentiviruses, such as HIV-1, the conical capsid shell is composed of CA protein arranged as a lattice of hexagon. The capsid is closed by 7 pentamers at the broad end and 5 at the narrow end of the cone1, 2. Encased in this capsid shell is the viral ribonucleoprotein complex, and together they comprise the core.
Following fusion of the viral membrane with the target cell membrane, the HIV-1 is released into the cytoplasm. The capsid then disassembles releasing free CA in the soluble form3 in a process referred to as uncoating. The intracellular location and timing of HIV-1 uncoating are poorly understood. Single amino-acid substitutions in CA that alter the stability of the capsid also impair the ability of HIV-1 to infect cells4. This indicates that the stability of the capsid is critical for HIV-1 infection.
HIV-1 uncoating has been difficult to study due to lack of availability of sensitive and reliable assays for this process. Here we describe a quantitative method for studying uncoating in vitro using cores isolated from infectious HIV-1 particles. The approach involves isolation of cores by sedimentation of concentrated virions through a layer of detergent and into a linear sucrose gradient, in the cold. To quantify uncoating, the isolated cores are incubated at 37&deg;C for various timed intervals and subsequently pelleted by ultracentrifugation. The extent of uncoating is analyzed by quantifying the fraction of CA in the supernatant. This approach has been employed to analyze effects of viral mutations on HIV-1 capsid stability4, 5, 6. It should also be useful for studying the role of cellular factors in HIV-1 uncoating.

In vitro Uncoating of HIV-1 Cores

Uncoating is an essential step in the early phase of the HIV-1 life cycle and is defined as the disassembly of the capsid shell and the release of the viral ribonucleoprotein complex (vRNP). Here, we demonstrate techniques for isolating intact cores from HIV-1 virions and for quantifying their uncoating in vitro.

In vitro Uncoating von HIV-1-Kerne

The genome of the retroviruses is encased in a capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope. For lentiviruses, such as HIV-1, the conical capsid shell is ...

Assessing the Innate Sensing of HIV-1 Infected CD4+ T Cells by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Using an Ex vivo Co-culture System.

HIV-1 innate sensing requires direct contact of infected CD4+ T cells with plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). In order to study this process, the protocols described here use freshly isolated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) to sense infections in either T cell line (MT4) or heterologous primary CD4+ T cells. In order to ensure proper sensing, it is essential that PBMC are isolated immediately after blood collection and that optimal percentage of infected T cells are used. Furthermore, multi-parametric flow cytometric staining can be used to confirm that PBMC samples contain the different cell lineages at physiological ratios. A number of controls can also be included to evaluate viability and functionality of pDCs. These include, the presence of specific surface markers, assessing cellular responses to known agonist of Toll-Like Receptors (TLR) pathways, and confirming a lack of spontaneous type-I interferon (IFN) production. In this system, freshly isolated PBMCs or pDCs are co-cultured with HIV-1 infected cells in 96 well plates for 18-22 hr. Supernatants from these co-cultures are then used to determine the levels of bioactive type-I IFNs by monitoring the activation of the ISGF3 pathway in HEK-Blue IFN-&#945;/&#946; cells. Prior and during co-culture conditions, target cells can be subjected to flow cytometric analysis to determine a number of parameters, including the percentage of infected cells, levels of specific surface markers, and differential killing of infected cells. Although, these protocols were initially developed to follow type-I IFN production, they could potentially be used to study other imuno-modulatory molecules released from pDCs and to gain further insight into the molecular mechanisms governing HIV-1 innate sensing.

Assessing the Innate Sensing of HIV-1 Infected CD4+ T Cells by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Using an Ex vivo Co-culture System.

Unlike cell-free HIV-1 particles, infected CD4+ T cells are effectively sensed by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). This manuscript describes a method where peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or isolated pDCs are co-cultured with HIV-1 infected T cells to evaluate innate sensing by pDCs as assessed by release of type-I IFN.

Beurteilung der Innate Sensing von HIV-1-infizierten CD4<sup&gt; +</sup&gt; T-Zellen durch Plasmazytoide Dendritische Zellen unter Verwendung eines<em&gt; Ex-vivo-</em&gt; Co-Kultursystem.

HIV-1 innate sensing requires direct contact of infected CD4+ T cells with plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). In order to study this process, the ...

Conformational Evaluation of HIV-1 Trimeric Envelope Glycoproteins Using a Cell-based ELISA Assay

HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) mediate viral entry into target cells and are essential to the infectious cycle. Understanding how those glycoproteins are able to fuel the fusion process through their conformational changes could lead to the design of better, more effective immunogens for vaccine strategies. Here we describe a cell-based ELISA assay that allows studying the recognition of trimeric HIV-1 Env by monoclonal antibodies. Following expression of HIV-1 trimeric Env at the surface of transfected cells, conformation specific anti-Env antibodies are incubated with the cells. A horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody and a simple chemiluminescence reaction are then used to detect bound antibodies. This system is highly flexible and can detect Env conformational changes induced by soluble CD4 or cellular proteins. It requires minimal amount of material and no highly-specialized equipment or know-how. Thus, this technique can be established for medium to high throughput screening of antigens and antibodies, such as newly-isolated antibodies.

Understanding viral surface antigens conformations is required to evaluate antibody neutralization and guide the design of effective vaccine immunogens. Here we describe a cell-based ELISA assay that allows the study of the recognition of trimeric HIV-1 Env expressed at the surface of transfected cells by specific anti-Env antibodies.

Konformationsänderungen Auswertung der HIV-1-Trimeric Hüllglycoproteine ​​mit eine Handy-basierte ELISA-Test

HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) mediate viral entry into target cells and are essential to the infectious cycle. Understanding how those glycoproteins ...

Nucleocapsid Annealing-Mediated Electrophoresis (NAME) Assay Allows the Rapid Identification of HIV-1 Nucleocapsid Inhibitors

RNA or DNA folded in stable tridimensional folding are interesting targets in the development of antitumor or antiviral drugs. In the case of HIV-1, viral proteins involved in the regulation of the virus activity recognize several nucleic acids. The nucleocapsid protein NCp7 (NC) is a key protein regulating several processes during virus replication. NC is in fact a chaperone destabilizing the secondary structures of RNA and DNA and facilitating their annealing. The inactivation of NC is a new approach and an interesting target for anti-HIV therapy. The Nucleocapsid Annealing-Mediated Electrophoresis (NAME) assay was developed to identify molecules able to inhibit the melting and annealing of RNA and DNA folded in thermodynamically stable tridimensional conformations, such as hairpin structures of TAR and cTAR elements of HIV, by the nucleocapsid protein of HIV-1. The new assay employs either the recombinant or the synthetic protein, and oligonucleotides without the need of their previous labeling. The analysis of the results is achieved by standard polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) followed by conventional nucleic acid staining. The protocol reported in this work describes how to perform the NAME assay with the full-length protein or its truncated version lacking the basic N-terminal domain, both competent as nucleic acids chaperones, and how to assess the inhibition of NC chaperone activity by a threading intercalator. Moreover, NAME can be performed in two different modes, useful to obtain indications on the putative mechanism of action of the identified NC inhibitors.

Nucleocapsid Annealing-Mediated Electrophoresis NAME Assay Allows the Rapid Identification of HIV-1 Nucleocapsid Inhibitors

This protocol describes NAME, an assay that allows the rapid identification of molecules able to inhibit in vitro the chaperone activities of HIV-1 nucleocapsid protein.

Nucleocapsid Glühen-vermittelte Elektrophorese (NAME) Assay ermöglicht die schnelle Identifizierung von HIV-1-Inhibitoren Nucleocapsid

RNA or DNA folded in stable tridimensional folding are interesting targets in the development of antitumor or antiviral drugs. In the case of HIV-1, viral ...

Isolation of Exosomes from the Plasma of HIV-1 Positive Individuals

Exosomes are small vesicles ranging in size from 30 nm to 100 nm that are released both constitutively and upon stimulation from a variety of cell types. They are found in a number of biological fluids and are known to carry a variety of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acid molecules. Originally thought to be little more than reservoirs for cellular debris, the roles of exosomes regulating biological processes and in diseases are increasingly appreciated.
Several methods have been described for isolating exosomes from cellular culture media and biological fluids. Due to their small size and low density, differential ultracentrifugation and/or ultrafiltration are the most commonly used techniques for exosome isolation. However, plasma of HIV-1 infected individuals contains both exosomes and HIV viral particles, which are similar in size and density. Thus, efficient separation of exosomes from HIV viral particles in human plasma has been a challenge.
To address this limitation, we developed a procedure modified from Cantin et. al., 2008 for purification of exosomes from HIV particles in human plasma. Iodixanol velocity gradients were used to separate exosomes from HIV-1 particles in the plasma of HIV-1 positive individuals. Virus particles were identified by p24 ELISA. Exosomes were identified on the basis of exosome markers acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and the CD9, CD63, and CD45 antigens. Our gradient procedure yielded exosome preparations free of virus particles. The efficient purification of exosomes from human plasma enabled us to examine the content of plasma-derived exosomes and to investigate their immune modulatory potential and other biological functions.

Techniques describing a gradient procedure to separate exosomes from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) particles are described. This procedure was used to isolate exosomes away from HIV particles in human plasma from HIV-infected individuals. The isolated exosomes were analyzed for cytokine/chemokine content.

Isolierung der Exosomen aus dem Plasma von HIV-1-positiven Individuen

Exosomes are small vesicles ranging in size from 30 nm to 100 nm that are released both constitutively and upon stimulation from a variety of cell types. ...