Wir wollen Urmas Arumae für die Freigabe eines Kollagen-Protokoll und Jutta Fey und Ursula Hinz für hervorragende technische Unterstützung danken. Darüber hinaus wollen wir Christian F. Ackermann, Ulrike Engel und das Nikon Imaging Center an der Universität Heidelberg und auch Joachim Kirsch für die freundliche für das Video shoting helfen, danken. Die Arbeit wurde teilweise durch die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB 592) gefördert.

Ein. Herstellung von Kollagen Gels <ol><li> Bereiten Sie eine Aktie Medium, enthaltend 455 ul 10x MEM, 112 ul 7,5% NaHCO 3, 50 ul Glutamin und NaOH. Die Konzentration und die Menge der NaOH hängt vom Rattenschwanz Kollagenzubereitung (siehe 1.2), das Endvolumen des Mediums, das Lager 1000 ul. </li><li> Planen Rattenschwanz Kollagen nach Ebendal (1). Bewahren Sie die Collagen-Lösung bei 4 ° C. Ein Abbau der Kollagen-Lösung konnte nicht beobachtet werden. Nach der Vorbereitung einer neuen Charge, schätzen die NaOH-Konzentration für die Aktie Medium benötigt (siehe 1.1). Verwenden des pH-Indikators des Mediums zur Titration der Menge und Konzentration der NaOH. 800 ul sauren Rattenschwanz Kollagen muss ein Schatten von rot färben, wenn sie mit 210 ul der Aktie Medium vermischt. Wenn die Konzentration der NaOH zu niedrig ist die Kollagenlösung wird gelb aufgrund der pH-Indikator des Mediums. Fügen Sie den Kollagen zu mittel-und Mix ohne Proucing Blasen. Führen Sie diese Schritte auf dem Eis. Die Polymerisation innerhalb von 2 Stunden nach der Kollagenlösung und der Vorrat Mediums gemischt worden und die neue Lösung wird bei 37 ° C inkubiert Testen Sie dies, bevor Sie ein Experiment. 1,3) Mix 800 ul Kollagenlösung mit 210 ul auf Lager Medium (siehe 1.2). Platz 100 ul dieser Lösung in den Vertiefungen einer 8 gut Kammerobjektträgers. Inkubieren Sie die Objektträger bei 37 ° C, 5% CO 2 und feuchten Bedingungen in einem Zellkulturbrutschrank. Bereiten Sie die Kollagengelen unter einer Zellkultur Bank und sterilen Bedingungen. Das Kollagen verkleistert innerhalb von 2 Stunden. </li></ol> 2. Dissection embryonaler Standardkapitalbeihilfen <ol><li> Ernte Embryonen Zeit trächtigen Mäusen (E16-18) aus der Gebärmutter und halten sie in PBS bis auf weiteres benötigt. </li><li> Sezieren ein Embryo aus dem Amnion. Enthaupten den Embryo caudal des clavicular Ebene. Befestigen Sie den Kopf auf einem Silizium unteren Schale mit &quot;Insekten-Nadeln&quot;. Die Bauchseite des Kopfes zu Ihnen stehen eind Sie haben die Submandibulärregion sehen. Die Fixierung ermöglicht eine einfachere Vorbereitung. </li><li> Entfernen Sie die Haut des Submandibulärregion links und rechts und mit ihm die subkutane Bindegewebe. </li><li> Entfernen Sie die Glandula Speicheldrüse von ihrem Standort, um den Blick auf das Zungenbein, die infrahyoidal Muskeln und der M. sternocleidomastoideus löschen. </li><li> Entfernen Sie diese Muskeln sorgfältig, um die Sicht auf den Kehlkopf und die Luftröhre zu löschen. Entfernen Sie die Luftröhre und des Kehlkopfes. Die Halsschlagadern werden dann auf beiden Seiten sichtbar auf den prävertebralen Muskeln. Die SCG ist in der Bifurkation der Halsschlagadern und hat eine ovale Form. Entfernen Sie vorsichtig die Ganglien und legen Sie sie in PBS. Entfernen Sie die Ganglien sanft von den Dissektion Werkzeuge, wenn sie zu ihnen kleben werden. Es ist vorteilhaft, Zangen sowie ein Nadelhalter mit einem &quot;Insekt Nadel&quot; für die SCG Entfernung montiert verwenden. </li><li> Einmal in PBS, speichern die Ganglien bei Raumtemperatur in PBS, bis Sie seziert enough Ganglien. Danach reinigen Sie die Ganglien von Blutgefäßen und Bindegewebe. Durchführen der SCG Dissektion und Reinigung unter einem Präpariermikroskop unter einer laminaren Strömung Werkbank gelegt. </li><li> Schließlich stellen die explantierten Ganglien auf die gelatinierte Kollagengelen mit Hilfe Spritzennadeln auf einer Spritze zur leichteren Handhabung montiert sind. </li><li> Inkubieren Sie die SCG Explantate auf dem gelatinierte Kollagen in einer Zellkultur-Inkubator bei 37 ° C mit 5% CO 2 und feuchten Bedingungen. </li></ol> 3. Behandlung von SCG Explantate <ol><li> Nach 1-2 h Inkubation abdecken SCG Explantats mit Kollagen mit 100 ul Neurobasal Zellkulturmedium mit B27 Ergänzung, Glutamin und Antibiotika. Nun werden die Vertiefungen der Kammer Folien enthalten ein Volumen von 200 ul (100 ul Gel und 100 ul Medium). + 200 ul des Mediums, aber jetzt mit NGF (60 ng / ml), die axonale Wachstum zu ermöglichen. Dementsprechend die endgültige NGF-Konzentration von 30 ng / ml. </li><li><ol class="lalpha"><li> Um das Einsetzen von SC Migration zu untersuchen, zusätzliche Faktoren, die direkt am Tag in vitro 0 (DIV0). Man löst die Faktoren in der NGF enthaltenden Medium in doppelter Konzentration nötig (2). </li><li> Um die Auswirkungen auf die SCs, die bereits begonnen Migration entlang Axone analysieren, zusätzliche Faktoren DIV3 bis DIV4 (potenzielle Stopp des Experiments). Zu diesem Zweck vorsichtig 180 ul der Lösung, bei DIV3, und 200 ul neue Medium mit NGF und die zusätzlichen Faktoren von Interesse bei der doppelten Konzentration (2). </li></ol></li></ol> 4. Zeitraffer-Imaging Verwenden Sie eine inverse Mikroskop für Analysen. Verschiedene Ziele verwendet werden, Definieren des Sichtfeldes und Vergrößerung. Ein wichtiger Aspekt ist jedoch der Arbeitsabstand des verwendeten Objektivs, wie die Abbildung der SCG Explantate durch den Glasobjektträger und dem Kollagen durchgeführt wirdGel. Die Bildrate der 1/10-30 Minuten zeigten gute Ergebnisse (2). Dies hat jedoch Aspekt der wissenschaftlichen Fragestellung angepasst werden. Eine normale CCD-Kamera kann zur Bildaufnahme verwendet werden. Für Zeitablauf Abbilden einer Zellkultur Inkubationskammer muss dem Tisch des Mikroskops angebracht werden. Inkubieren des Gewebes während der Bildgebung bei 37 ° C mit 5% CO 2 und feuchten Bedingungen. Starten Sie den Inkubationssystem 1 Stunde vor Beginn der Bildgebung. Dies ermöglicht die Mikroskop-Teile (zB Ziel) einschließlich der Kammer Folie, um die Temperatur einzustellen und verhindert temperaturbedingte Drifts. Definieren spezifischen Bereichen von Analysen (innerhalb von Explantat und zwischen verschiedenen Explantaten) mit Hilfe des Mikroskops Software und einer Software-gesteuerten motorisierten Tisch (Multipositionsventil setup) zur gleichzeitigen Analysen verschiedener angewendeten Bedingungen zu den SCG Explantaten. Für Zeitraffer-Aufnahmen Wildtyp Gewebe sowie Gewebe aus transgenen Tieren verwendet werden kannMarkieren des SCs (S100b: GFP) (3). Zum Abbilden Fluorophore eine fluoreszierende Lichtquelle muss im micropscope Setup implementiert werden. Verwenden Sie Standard-Filter. 5. Quantifizierung der SC Wanderdistanzen <ol><li> Am Endpunkt (DIV4 zum Beispiel), fixieren die Kollagengelen mit 4% PFA in der Kammer Rutsche für 3-4 Stunden. Nacheinander waschen Die Kollagengelen 5 mal für 10 min mit PBS. Anwenden Standardprotokolle für Immunzytochemie (2). Wenn Sie neu in der Vorbereitung der SCG sind, überprüfen die Identität des Ganglion als sympathischen Ganglion durch Immunhistochemie gegen Tyrosin-Hydroxylase (TH) eine gemeinsame Marker für katecholaminerge Zellen. Während Immunohistochemie (nach dem primären Antikörper), übertragen die Explantat enthaltenden Kollagengelen zu 24-Well-Platten, die ein größeres Volumen, was vorteilhaft für das Waschen der Gele ist zu haben. </li><li> Nach Immunhistochemie, legen sorgfältig die Kollagengelen auf Glasträger. Vorsichtigentfernen Sie die restliche Lösung und lassen das Kollagen getrocknet / verkleinern auf zwei Dimensionen. Dies erlaubt eine einfache Messung von Entfernungen (2). Danach montieren Sie die Proben. </li><li> Schließlich messen Migration Entfernungen mit Hilfe von Fidschi (NIH) Software. Keine besonderen Plugins sind zu diesem Zweck erforderlich ist. Um korrekte Messungen in um zu ermöglichen, überprüfen Sie die korrekte Abbildung von Metadaten und die Einstellungen unter den Fidschi-, Bild-und Skala. Verwenden Fiji auch für die Quantifizierung von Zellen. </li></ol>

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L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+proteins+expressed+in+mouse+transgenic+lines+mark+subsets+of+glia,+neurons,+macrophages,+and+dendritic+cells+for+vital+examination.">Fluorescent proteins expressed in mouse transgenic lines mark subsets of glia, neurons, macrophages, and dendritic cells for vital examination.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience. 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R., Mirsky, R., Matsas, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+neuron-glia+signal+beta-neuregulin+promotes+Schwann+cell+motility+via+the+MAPK+pathway.">The neuron-glia signal beta-neuregulin promotes Schwann cell motility via the MAPK pathway.</a> Glia. 34 (1), 39-51 (2001).</li><li>Yamauchi, J., Miyamoto, Y., Chan, J. R., Tanoue, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ErbB2+directly+activates+the+exchange+factor+Dock7+to+promote+Schwann+cell+migration.">ErbB2 directly activates the exchange factor Dock7 to promote Schwann cell migration.</a> The Journal of cell biology. 181 (2), 351-365 (2008).</li><li>Anton, E. S., Weskamp, G., Reichardt, L. F., Matthew, W. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nerve+growth+factor+and+its+low-affinity+receptor+promote+Schwann+cell+migration.">Nerve growth factor and its low-affinity receptor promote Schwann cell migration.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (7), 2795-2799 (1994).</li><li>Mahanthappa, N. K., Anton, E. S., Matthew, W. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glial+growth+factor+2,+a+soluble+neuregulin,+directly+increases+Schwann+cell+motility+and+indirectly+promotes+neurite+outgrowth.">Glial growth factor 2, a soluble neuregulin, directly increases Schwann cell motility and indirectly promotes neurite outgrowth.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 16 (15), 4673-4683 (1996).</li><li>Yamauchi, J., Chan, J. R., Shooter, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurotrophins+regulate+Schwann+cell+migration+by+activating+divergent+signaling+pathways+dependent+on+Rho+GTPases.">Neurotrophins regulate Schwann cell migration by activating divergent signaling pathways dependent on Rho GTPases.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (23), 8774-8779 (2004).</li><li>Gumy, L. F., Bampton, E. T. W., Tolkovsky, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hyperglycaemia+inhibits+Schwann+cell+proliferation+and+migration+and+restricts+regeneration+of+axons+and+Schwann+cells+from+adult+murine+DRG.">Hyperglycaemia inhibits Schwann cell proliferation and migration and restricts regeneration of axons and Schwann cells from adult murine DRG.</a> Molecular and Cellular Neurosciences. 37 (2), 298-311 (2008).</li><li>Sakaue-Sawano, A., Kurokawa, H., Morimura, T., Hanyu, A., Hama, H., Osawa, H., Kashiwagi, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+spatiotemporal+dynamics+of+multicellular+cell-cycle+progression.">Visualizing spatiotemporal dynamics of multicellular cell-cycle progression.</a> Cell. 132 (3), 487-498 (2008).</li><li>Park, D., Don, A. S., Massamiri, T., Karwa, A., Warner, B., MacDonald, J., Hemenway, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noninvasive+imaging+of+cell+death+using+an+Hsp90+ligand.">Noninvasive imaging of cell death using an Hsp90 ligand.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 133 (9), 2832-2835 (2011).</li><li>Shcherbo, D., Souslova, E. A., Goedhart, J., Chepurnykh, T. V., Gaintzeva, A., Shemiakina, I. I., Gadella, T. W. J., Lukyanov, S., Chudakov, D. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Practical+and+reliable+FRET/FLIM+pair+of+fluorescent+proteins.">Practical and reliable FRET/FLIM pair of fluorescent proteins.</a> BMC Biotechnology. 9, 24 (2009).</li></ol>

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Die Entwicklung des peripheren Nervensystems ist ein spannender Prozess. Wenn die Entwicklung beendet ist, werden Axone von SCs entlang der gesamten Länge, die beim Menschen können, oft mehr als 100 cm betragen umhüllt. Zu diesem Zweck die richtige Anzahl der benötigten SCs muss während der Entwicklung festgelegt und die SCs müssen auch entlang bewegen erstreckt Axone an den Rand, um die vollständige axonalen Abdeckung zu gewährleisten. Dies gilt für myelinisierten sondern auch für unmeylinated Axone. In beide...

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> Name des Reagenz / Material </td><td> Firma </td><td> Katalog-Nummer </td><td> Kommentare </td></tr><tr><td> 10x MEM </td><td> Gibco </td><td> 21430 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Natriumbikarbonat (7,5%) </td><td> Gibco </td><td> 25080 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Glutamin </td><td> Gibco </td><td> 25030 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> NaOH </td><td> Merck </td><td> 109137 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> NGF </td><td> Roche </td><td> 1058231 </td><td> R &amp; D # 556-NG-100 </td></tr><tr><td> Neurobasal Medium </td><td> Gibco </td><td> 21103 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> B27 Supplement </td><td> Gibco </td><td> 17504 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Antibiotika </td><td> Gibco </td><td> 15640 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> d-PBS </td><td> Gibco </td><td> 14040 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Insekten Nadeln </td><td> FST </td><td> 26002-20 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Spritzennadel </td><td> Braun </td><td></td><td> BD # 300013 </td></tr><tr><td> 8 gut Kammerobjektträgers </td><td> Lab tek </td><td> 177402 </td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

analyzing murine schwann cell development along growing axons

Die Entwicklung der peripheren Nerven ist eine faszinierende Prozess. Neuronen senden Axone um spezifische Ziele, die Menschen sind oft mehr als 100 cm vom soma des Neurons innervieren. Neuronale Überleben während der Entwicklung hängt Target-Wachstumsfaktoren, sondern auch auf dem Träger von Schwann-Zellen (SCs). Zu diesem Zweck sind SC umhüllen Axone vom Bereich des neuronalen Soma (oder der Übergang von der zentralen zu peripheren Nervensystem) auf der Synapse oder neuromuskulären Verbindung. Schwann-Zellen sind Derivate des Neuralleiste und migrieren als Vorprodukte entlang austretenden Axone bis die gesamte Axons mit SCs bedeckt ist. Dies zeigt die Bedeutung der SC Migration für die Entwicklung des peripheren Nervensystems und unterstreicht die Notwendigkeit, diesen Prozess zu untersuchen. Um SC Entwicklung zu analysieren, wird ein Setup benötigt, die neben den SCs auch ihrer physiologischen Substrat für Migration, das Axon. Aufgrund intrauterine Entwicklung <em&gt; in vivo Zeitraffer-Aufnahmen, ist jedoch nicht in der Plazenta Wirbeltieren wie Maus möglich (mus musculus). Um dies zu umgehen, passten wir die Ganglion cervicale superius (SCG) Explantat-Technik. Bei der Behandlung mit nerve growth factor (NGF) SCG Explantate erweitern Axone von SC Vorstufen Migration entlang der Axone aus dem Ganglion an die Peripherie gefolgt. Der Vorteil bei diesem System ist, dass die SC aus einem Pool von endogenen SC und dass sie entlang ihrem eigenen physiologischen Axone, die zur gleichen Zeit wachsen migrieren abgeleitet sind. Dieses System ist besonders interessant, weil die SC Entwicklung entlang Axonen von Zeitraffer-Aufnahmen analysiert werden können, eröffnet weitere Möglichkeiten, Einblicke in SC Migration gewinnen.

Axonale Wachstum von SCG Explantate nach der Behandlung mit NGF (4) (Film-Schema S1 Abbildung 1 Schema) erleichtert. Dieser Vorgang ist leicht sichtbar durch jedes inversen Mikroskop und kann durch Zeitraffer-Bildgebung (Film S2) folgen. Wenn ein Wissenschaftler ist neu Sezieren SCG von Maus-Embryonen empfehlen wir eine Validierung der Technik durch eine einfache Anti-Tyrosin-Hydroxylase (TH) Immunhistochemie. TH ist eine häufige Marker für katecholaminerge Neuronen (in diesem Fall sy...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analyzing Murine Schwann Cell Development Along Growing Axons at JoVE.com

Analyzing Murine Schwann Cell Development Along Growing Axons

Hier beschreiben wir eine Schwann-Zellen (SC) Migration Assay, in dem SCs sind in der Lage zu entwickeln entlang erstreckt Axone.

Analyse Murine Schwann Zell Entwicklung entlang wachsenden Axone

The  development of peripheral nerves is an intriguing process. Neurons send out  axons to innervate specific targets, which in humans are often more than ...

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11.6K Aufrufe.  University of Freiburg. Hier beschreiben wir eine Schwann-Zellen (SC) Migration Assay, in dem SCs sind in der Lage zu entwickeln entlang erstreckt Axone.

Serie: Analyzing Murine Schwann Cell Development Along Growing Axons

Morphological Analysis of Drosophila Larval Peripheral Sensory Neuron Dendrites and Axons Using Genetic Mosaics

Nervous system development requires the correct specification of neuron position and identity, followed by accurate neuron class-specific dendritic development and axonal wiring. Recently the dendritic arborization (DA) sensory neurons of the Drosophila larval peripheral nervous system (PNS) have become powerful genetic models in which to elucidate both general and class-specific mechanisms of neuron differentiation.
There are four main DA neuron classes (I-IV)1. They are named in order of increasing dendrite arbor complexity, and have class-specific differences in the genetic control of their differentiation2-10. The DA sensory system is a practical model to investigate the molecular mechanisms behind the control of dendritic morphology11-13 because: 1) it can take advantage of the powerful genetic tools available in the fruit fly, 2) the DA neuron dendrite arbor spreads out in only 2 dimensions beneath an optically clear larval cuticle making it easy to visualize with high resolution in vivo, 3) the class-specific diversity in dendritic morphology facilitates a comparative analysis to find key elements controlling the formation of simple vs. highly branched dendritic trees, and 4) dendritic arbor stereotypical shapes of different DA neurons facilitate morphometric statistical analyses.
DA neuron activity modifies the output of a larval locomotion central pattern generator14-16. The different DA neuron classes have distinct sensory modalities, and their activation elicits different behavioral responses14,16-20. Furthermore different classes send axonal projections stereotypically into the Drosophila larval central nervous system in the ventral nerve cord (VNC)21. These projections terminate with topographic representations of both DA neuron sensory modality and the position in the body wall of the dendritic field7,22,23. Hence examination of DA axonal projections can be used to elucidate mechanisms underlying topographic mapping7,22,23, as well as the wiring of a simple circuit modulating larval locomotion14-17.
We present here a practical guide to generate and analyze genetic mosaics24 marking DA neurons via MARCM (Mosaic Analysis with a Repressible Cell Marker)1,10,25 and Flp-out22,26,27 techniques (summarized in Fig. 1).

Morphological Analysis of Drosophila Larval Peripheral Sensory Neuron Dendrites and Axons Using Genetic Mosaics

The dendritic arborization sensory neurons of the Drosophila larval peripheral nervous system are useful models to elucidate both general and neuron class-specific mechanisms of neuron differentiation. We present a practical guide to generate and analyze dendritic arborization neuron genetic mosaics.

Morphologische Analyse Drosophila Larven peripheren sensorischen Neuron Dendriten und Axone mit Genetic Mosaike

Nervous system development requires the correct specification of neuron position and identity, followed by accurate neuron class-specific dendritic ...

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Live Imaging of Dorsal Root Axons after Rhizotomy

The primary sensory axons injured by spinal root injuries fail to regenerate into the spinal cord, leading to chronic pain and permanent sensory loss. Regeneration of dorsal root (DR) axons into spinal cord is prevented at the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ), the interface between the CNS and PNS. Our understanding of the molecular and cellular events that prevent regeneration at DREZ is incomplete, in part because complex changes associated with nerve injury have been deduced from postmortem analyses. Dynamic cellular processes, such as axon regeneration, are best studied with techniques that capture real-time events with multiple observations of each living animal. Our ability to monitor neurons serially in vivo has increased dramatically owing to revolutionary innovations in optics and mouse transgenics. Several lines of thy1-GFP transgenic mice, in which subsets of neurons are genetically labeled in distinct fluorescent colors, permit individual neurons to be imaged in vivo1. These mice have been used extensively for in vivo imaging of muscle2-4 and brain5-7, and have provided novel insights into physiological mechanisms that static analyses could not have resolved. Imaging studies of neurons in living spinal cord have only recently begun. Lichtman and his colleagues first demonstrated their feasibility by tracking injured dorsal column (DC) axons with wide-field microscopy8,9. Multi-photon in vivo imaging of deeply positioned DC axons, microglia and blood vessels has also been accomplished10. Over the last few years, we have pioneered in applying in vivo imaging to monitor regeneration of DR axons using wide-field microscopy and H line of thy1-YFP mice. These studies have led us to a novel hypothesis about why DR axons are prevented from regenerating within the spinal cord11.
In H line of thy1-YFP mice, distinct YFP+ axons are superficially positioned, which allows several axons to be monitored simultaneously. We have learned that DR axons arriving at DREZ are better imaged in lumbar than in cervical spinal cord. In the present report we describe several strategies that we have found useful to assure successful long-term and repeated imaging of regenerating DR axons. These include methods that eliminate repeated intubation and respiratory interruption, minimize surgery-associated stress and scar formation, and acquire stable images at high resolution without phototoxicity.

An in vivo imaging protocol to monitor primary sensory axons following dorsal root crush is described. The procedures utilize wide-field fluorescence microscopy and thy1-YFP transgenic mice, and permit repeated imaging of axon regeneration over 4 cm in the PNS and axon interactions with the interface of the CNS.

Live-Imaging von Spinalganglien Axone nach Rhizotomie

The primary sensory axons injured by spinal root injuries fail to regenerate into the spinal cord, leading to chronic pain and permanent sensory loss. ...

Single-cell Profiling of Developing and Mature Retinal Neurons

Highly specialized, but exceedingly small populations of cells play important roles in many tissues. The identification of cell-type specific markers and gene expression programs for extremely rare cell subsets has been a challenge using standard whole-tissue approaches. Gene expression profiling of individual cells allows for unprecedented access to cell types that comprise only a small percentage of the total tissue1-7. In addition, this technique can be used to examine the gene expression programs that are transiently expressed in small numbers of cells during dynamic developmental transitions8.
This issue of cellular diversity arises repeatedly in the central nervous system (CNS) where neuronal connections can occur between quite diverse cells9. The exact number of distinct cell types is not precisely known, but it has been estimated that there may be as many as 1000 different types in the cortex itself10. The function(s) of complex neural circuits may rely on some of the rare neuronal types and the genes they express. By identifying new markers and helping to molecularly classify different neurons, the single-cell approach is particularly useful in the analysis of cell types in the nervous system. It may also help to elucidate mechanisms of neural development by identifying differentially expressed genes and gene pathways during early stages of neuronal progenitor development.
As a simple, easily accessed tissue with considerable neuronal diversity, the vertebrate retina is an excellent model system for studying the processes of cellular development, neuronal differentiation and neuronal diversification. However, as in other parts of the CNS, this cellular diversity can present a problem for determining the genetic pathways that drive retinal progenitors to adopt a specific cell fate, especially given that rod photoreceptors make up the majority of the total retinal cell population11. Here we report a method for the identification of the transcripts expressed in single retinal cells (Figure 1). The single-cell profiling technique allows for the assessment of the amount of heterogeneity present within different cellular populations of the retina2,4,5,12. In addition, this method has revealed a host of new candidate genes that may play role(s) in the cell fate decision-making processes that occur in subsets of retinal progenitor cells8. With some simple adjustments to the protocol, this technique can be utilized for many different tissues and cell types.

A method for the isolation of single retinal cells and subsequent amplification of their cDNAs is described. Single-cell transcriptomics reveals the degree of cellular heterogeneity present in a tissue and uncovers new marker genes for rare cell populations. The accompanying protocol can be adjusted to suit many different cell types.

Einzel-Zell-Profiling der Entwicklung und Reife Netzhautneuronen

Highly specialized, but exceedingly small populations of cells play important roles in many tissues. The identification of cell-type specific markers and ...

Isolation and Culture of Neural Crest Cells from Embryonic Murine Neural Tube

The embryonic neural crest (NC) is a multipotent progenitor population that originates at the dorsal aspect of the neural tube, undergoes an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and migrates throughout the embryo, giving rise to diverse cell types 1-3. NC also has the unique ability to influence the differentiation and maturation of target organs4-6. When explanted in vitro, NC progenitors undergo self-renewal, migrate and differentiate into a variety of tissue types including neurons, glia, smooth muscle cells, cartilage and bone. 
NC multipotency was first described from explants of the avian neural tube7-9. In vitro isolation of NC cells facilitates the study of NC dynamics including proliferation, migration, and multipotency. Further work in the avian and rat systems demonstrated that explanted NC cells retain their NC potential when transplanted back into the embryo10-13. Because these inherent cellular properties are preserved in explanted NC progenitors, the neural tube explant assay provides an attractive option for studying the NC in vitro. 
To attain a better understanding of the mammalian NC, many methods have been employed to isolate NC populations. NC-derived progenitors can be cultured from post-migratory locations in both the embryo and adult to study the dynamics of post-migratory NC progenitors11,14-20, however isolation of NC progenitors as they emigrate from the neural tube provides optimal preservation of NC cell potential and migratory properties13,21,22. Some protocols employ fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) to isolate a NC population enriched for particular progenitors11,13,14,17. However, when starting with early stage embryos, cell numbers adequate for analyses are difficult to obtain with FACS, complicating the isolation of early NC populations from individual embryos. Here, we describe an approach that does not rely on FACS and results in an approximately 96% pure NC population based on a Wnt1-Cre activated lineage reporter23. 
The method presented here is adapted from protocols optimized for the culture of rat NC11,13. The advantages of this protocol compared to previous methods are that 1) the cells are not grown on a feeder layer, 2) FACS is not required to obtain a relatively pure NC population, 3) premigratory NC cells are isolated and 4) results are easily quantified. Furthermore, this protocol can be used for isolation of NC from any mutant mouse model, facilitating the study of NC characteristics with different genetic manipulations. The limitation of this approach is that the NC is removed from the context of the embryo, which is known to influence the survival, migration and differentiation of the NC2,24-28.

Isolation of embryonic neural crest from the neural tube facilitates the use of in vitro methods for studying migration, self-renewal, and multipotency of neural crest.

Isolierung und Kultivierung von Zellen der Neuralleiste aus embryonalen murinen Neuralrohr

The embryonic neural crest (NC) is a multipotent progenitor population that originates at the dorsal aspect of the neural tube, undergoes an epithelial to ...

A Quantitative Cell Migration Assay for Murine Enteric Neural Progenitors

Neural crest cells (NCC) are a transient and multipotent cell population that originates from the dorsal neural tube and migrates extensively throughout the developing vertebrate embryo. In addition to providing peripheral glia and neurons, NCC generate melanocytes as well as most of the cranio-facial skeleton. NCC migration and differentiation is controlled by a combination of their axial origin along the neural tube and their exposure to regionally distinct extracellular cues. Such contribution of extracellular ligands is especially evident during the formation of the enteric nervous system (ENS), a complex interconnected network of neural ganglia that locally controls (among other things) gut muscle movement and intestinal motility. Most of the ENS is derived from a small initial pool of NCC that undertake a long journey in order to colonize - in a rostral to caudal fashion - the entire length of the prospective gut. Among several signaling pathways known to influence enteric NCC colonization, GDNF/RET signaling is recognized as the most important. Indeed, spatiotemporally controlled secretion of the RET ligand GDNF by the gut mesenchyme is chiefly responsible for the attraction and guidance of RET-expressing enteric NCC to and within the embryonic gut. Here, we describe an ex vivo cell migration assay, making use of a transgenic mouse line possessing fluorescently labeled NCC, which allows precise quantification of enteric NCC migration potential in the presence of various growth factors, including GDNF.

We present an ex vivo cell migration assay that allows precise quantification of enteric neural crest cell migration potential in the presence of various growth factors.

Eine quantitative Assay für Zellmigration Murine Enteric neuralen Vorläuferzellen

Neural crest cells (NCC) are a transient and multipotent cell population that originates from the dorsal neural tube and migrates extensively throughout ...

Laser Nanosurgery of Cerebellar Axons In Vivo

Only a few neuronal populations in the central nervous system (CNS) of adult mammals show local regrowth upon dissection of their axon. In order to understand the mechanism that promotes neuronal regeneration, an in-depth analysis of the neuronal types that can remodel after injury is needed. Several studies showed that damaged climbing fibers are capable of regrowing also in adult animals1,2. The investigation of the time-lapse dynamics of degeneration and regeneration of these axons within their complex environment can be performed by time-lapse two-photon fluorescence (TPF) imaging in vivo3,4. This technique is here combined with laser surgery, which proved to be a highly selective tool to disrupt fluorescent structures in the intact mouse cortex5-9.
This protocol describes how to perform TPF time-lapse imaging and laser nanosurgery of single axonal branches in the cerebellum in vivo. Olivocerebellar neurons are labeled by anterograde tracing with a dextran-conjugated dye and then monitored by TPF imaging through a cranial window. The terminal portion of their axons are then dissected by irradiation with a Ti:Sapphire laser at high power. The degeneration and potential regrowth of the damaged neuron are monitored by TPF in vivo imaging during the days following the injury.

Laser Nanosurgery of Cerebellar Axons In Vivo

Two-photon imaging, coupled to laser nanodissection, are useful tools to study degenerative and regenerative processes in the central nervous system with subcellular resolution. This protocol shows how to label, image, and dissect single climbing fibers in the cerebellar cortex in vivo.

Laser-Nanochirurgie der Kleinhirn-Axone<em&gt; In Vivo</em

Only a few neuronal populations in the central nervous system (CNS) of adult mammals show local regrowth upon dissection of their axon. In order to ...

Live Imaging of Nicotine Induced Calcium Signaling and Neurotransmitter Release Along Ventral Hippocampal Axons

Sustained enhancement of axonal signaling and increased neurotransmitter release by the activation of pre-synaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) is an important mechanism for neuromodulation by acetylcholine (ACh). The difficulty with access to probing the signaling mechanisms within intact axons and at nerve terminals both in vitro and in vivo has limited progress in the study of the pre-synaptic components of synaptic plasticity. Here we introduce a gene-chimeric preparation of ventral hippocampal (vHipp)&#8211;accumbens (nAcc) circuit in vitro that allows direct live imaging to analyze both the pre- and post-synaptic components of transmission while selectively varying the genetic profile of the pre- vs post-synaptic neurons. We demonstrate that projections from vHipp microslices, as pre-synaptic axonal input, form multiple, reliable glutamatergic synapses with post-synaptic targets, the dispersed neurons from nAcc. The pre-synaptic localization of various subtypes of nAChRs are detected and the pre-synaptic nicotinic signaling mediated synaptic transmission are monitored by concurrent electrophysiological recording and live cell imaging. This preparation also provides an informative approach to study the pre- and post-synaptic mechanisms of glutamatergic synaptic plasticity in vitro.

We developed a gene-chimeric preparation of ventral hippocampal &#8211; accumbens circuit in vitro that allows direct live imaging to analyze presynaptic mechanisms of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) mediated synaptic transmission. This preparation also provides an informative approach to study the pre- and post-synaptic mechanisms of synaptic plasticity.

Live-Imaging von Nikotin induzierte Calcium Signaling und Neurotransmitterausschüttung Zusammen Ventral Hippocampus Axone

Sustained enhancement of axonal signaling and increased neurotransmitter release by the activation of pre-synaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors ...

In Vivo Gene Transfer to Schwann Cells in the Rodent Sciatic Nerve by Electroporation

The formation of the myelin sheath by Schwann cells (SCs) is essential for rapid conduction of nerve impulses along axons in the peripheral nervous system. SC-selective genetic manipulation in living animals is a powerful technique for studying the molecular and cellular mechanisms of SC myelination and demyelination in vivo. While knockout/knockin and transgenic mice are powerful tools for studying SC biology, these methods are costly and time consuming. Viral vector-mediated transgene introduction into the sciatic nerve is a simpler and less laborious method. However, viral methods have limitations, such as toxicity, transgene size constraints, and infectivity restricted to certain developmental stages. Here, we describe a new method that allows selective transfection of myelinating SCs in the rodent sciatic nerve using electroporation. By applying electric pulses to the sciatic nerve at the site of plasmid DNA injection, genes of interest can be easily silenced or overexpressed in SCs in both neonatal and more mature animals. Furthermore, this in vivo electroporation method allows for highly efficient simultaneous expression of multiple transgenes. Our novel technique should enable researchers to efficiently manipulate SC gene expression, and facilitate studies on SC development and function.

In Vivo Gene Transfer to Schwann Cells in the Rodent Sciatic Nerve by Electroporation

Here, we present an in vivo technique for gene transfer to Schwann cells (SCs) in the rodent sciatic nerve. This simple technique is useful for investigating signaling mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance of myelinating SCs.

In vivo - Gentransfer auf Schwann - Zellen in der Nagerischiasnerv durch Elektroporation

The formation of the myelin sheath by Schwann cells (SCs) is essential for rapid conduction of nerve impulses along axons in the peripheral nervous ...

Using Linear Agarose Channels to Study Drosophila Larval Crawling Behavior

Drosophila larval crawling is emerging as a powerful model to study neural control of sensorimotor behavior. However, larval crawling behavior on flat open surfaces is complex,&#160;including: pausing, turning, and meandering. This complexity in the repertoire of movement hinders detailed analysis of the events occurring during a single crawl stride cycle. To overcome this obstacle, linear agarose channels were made that constrain larval behavior to straight, sustained, rhythmic crawling. In principle, because agarose channels and the Drosophila larval body are both optically clear, the movement of larval structures labeled by genetically-encoded fluorescent probes can be monitored in intact, freely-moving larvae. In the past, larvae were placed in linear channels and crawling at the level of whole organism, segment, and muscle were analyzed1. In the future, larvae crawling in channels can be used for calcium imaging to monitor neuronal activity. Moreover, these methods can be used with larvae of any genotype and with any researcher-designed channel. Thus the protocol presented below is widely applicable for studies using the Drosophila larva as a model to understand motor control.

Using Linear Agarose Channels to Study Drosophila Larval Crawling Behavior

The Drosophila larva is a powerful model system to study neural control of behavior. This publication describes the use of linear agarose channels to elicit sustained bouts of linear crawling and methods to quantify the dynamics of larval structures during repetitive crawling behavior.

Linear Agarose Kanäle zu studieren<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Larval Krabbeln Verhalten

Drosophila larval crawling is emerging as a powerful model to study neural control of sensorimotor behavior. However, larval crawling behavior on flat ...

Analyzing Dendritic Morphology in Columns and Layers

In many regions of the central nervous systems, such as the fly optic lobes and the vertebrate cortex, synaptic circuits are organized in layers and columns to facilitate brain wiring during development and information processing in developed animals. Postsynaptic neurons elaborate dendrites in type-specific patterns in specific layers to synapse with appropriate presynaptic terminals. The fly medulla neuropil is composed of 10 layers and about 750 columns; each column is innervated by dendrites of over 38 types of medulla neurons, which match with the axonal terminals of some 7 types of afferents in a type-specific fashion. This report details the procedures to image and analyze dendrites of medulla neurons. The workflow includes three sections: (i) the dual-view imaging section combines two confocal image stacks collected at orthogonal orientations into a high-resolution 3D image of dendrites; (ii) the dendrite tracing and registration section traces dendritic arbors in 3D and registers dendritic traces to the reference column array; (iii) the dendritic analysis section analyzes dendritic patterns with respect to columns and layers, including layer-specific termination and planar projection direction of dendritic arbors, and derives estimates of dendritic branching and termination frequencies. The protocols utilize custom plugins built on the open-source MIPAV (Medical Imaging Processing, Analysis, and Visualization) platform and custom toolboxes in the matrix laboratory language. Together, these protocols provide a complete workflow to analyze the dendritic routing of Drosophila medulla neurons in layers and columns, to identify cell types, and to determine defects in mutants.

Here, we show how to analyze dendritic routing of Drosophila medulla neurons in columns and layers. The workflow includes a dual-view imaging technique to improve the image quality and computational tools for tracing, registering dendritic arbors to the reference column array and for analyzing the dendritic structures in 3D space.

Analyse dendritischer Morphologie in Spalten und Schichten

In many regions of the central nervous systems, such as the fly optic lobes and the vertebrate cortex, synaptic circuits are organized in layers and ...