Die Autoren danken finanzielle Unterstützung von Air Force Research Laboratory Vertrag FA8650-14-C-6571 und von DAQRI LLC.

<ol>
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SPIE. 1932, 298-311 (1993).</li><li>Ito, K., Kawamoto, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+optical+deflector+using+collinear+acoustooptic+coupling+fabricated+on+proton-exchanged+LiNbO+3.">An optical deflector using collinear acoustooptic coupling fabricated on proton-exchanged LiNbO 3.</a> Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 37 (9R), 4858 (1998).</li><li>Smalley, D., Smithwick, Q., Barabas, J., Jolly, S., DellaSilva, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Holovideo+for+everyone:+a+low-cost+holovideo+monitor.">Holovideo for everyone: a low-cost holovideo monitor.</a> J Phys Conf Ser. 415 (1), 012055 (2013).</li><li>McClaughlin, S., Leach, C., Henrie, A., Smalley, D., Jolly, S., Bove, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Frequency+Division+of+Color+for+Holovideo+Displays+using+Anisotropic+Leaky+Mode+Couplers.">Frequency Division of Color for Holovideo Displays using Anisotropic Leaky Mode Couplers.</a> Optical Society of America, 2015. , (2015).</li><li>McLaughlin, S., Leach, C., Henrie, A., Smalley, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimized+guided-to-leaky-mode+device+for+graphics+processing+unit+controlled+frequency+division+of+color.">Optimized guided-to-leaky-mode device for graphics processing unit controlled frequency division of color.</a> Appl. Opt. 54 (12), 3732-3736 (2015).</li><li>Jackel, J., Rice, C., Veselka, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proton+exchange+for+high-index+waveguides+in+LiNbO3.">Proton exchange for high-index waveguides in LiNbO3.</a> Appl. Phys. Lett. 41 (7), 607-608 (1982).</li><li>Wong, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Properties of lithium niobate. , (2002).</li><li>Tien, P., Ulrich, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Theory+of+prism-film+coupler+and+thin-film+light+guides.">Theory of prism-film coupler and thin-film light guides.</a> JOSA. 60 (10), 1325-1337 (1970).</li><li>Tsai, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Guided-wave acousto-optics: interactions, devices, and applications. , (1990).</li><li>Proklov, V., Korablev, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multichannel+waveguide+devices+using+collinear+acousto-optic+interaction.">Multichannel waveguide devices using collinear acousto-optic interaction.</a> Proc. 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Die Autoren haben nichts zu offenbaren.

Das Design jedes Gerät verfügt über zwei wichtige Schritte, Protonenaustausch und die Entwicklung des LOR. Der beiden bestimmt Protonenaustauschzeit, die Tiefe des Wellenleiters, was wiederum die Anzahl der geführten leaky Zustandsübergänge bestimmt, die steuerbare Frequenzbandbreite, und jedes Schlüsselkonstruktionsparameter für jede Farbe des Lichts. Zwei geführte Moden in rot gewünscht wird. Wenn mehr existieren dann wird die Bandbreite geopfert. Wenn weniger exist dann geführt keine undichte Modus Überga...

Die meisten holographische Display-Technologien, wie pixelig Lichtventile sowie MEMS-Bauelemente und Volumenwelle akustisch-optische Modulatoren, sind zu komplex für eine breite Beteiligung an ihrer Entwicklung zu ermöglichen. Pixelated Modulatoren, insbesondere solche mit Filterschichten und aktiven hinteren Ebenen können Dutzende von Strukturierungsschritte erfordern bis 5 bauen und kann durch Auffächerung 6 begrenzt werden. Je größer die Anzahl der Strukturierungsschritte , je höher die Komplexität der Vorrichtung, und desto enger muss der Herstellungsprotokoll angemessen sein Gerät Ausbeute zu erreichen 7. Bulk-Wellen - akustooptische Modulatoren eignen sich nicht basierte Prozesse 8,9 zu Wafer. Anisotropes leaky Modus Modulatoren erfordern jedoch nur zwei Strukturierungsschritte relativ Standardmikrofabrikationstechniken 10,11 herzustellen und zu nutzen. Die Zugänglichkeit dieser Prozesse machen es möglich, für jede Institution, mit bescheidenen Herstellungsanlagen in der Entwicklung von h teilnehmenolographic Video - Display - Technologie 12. Die Einfachheit der Vorrichtungsherstellung kann betörende sein, aber, wie die ordnungsgemäße Funktion der Geräte stark von Wellenleitern, die sorgfältig gemessen werden muss, und die gewünschten Vorrichtungseigenschaften zu erreichen, eingestellt. Zum Beispiel, wenn der Wellenleiter zu tief ist, wird das Gerät die Betriebsbandbreite 13 verengt werden. Wenn die Wellenleiter zu flach ist, kann das Gerät nicht für rote Beleuchtung arbeiten. Wenn der Wellenleiter zu lange geglüht wird, wird die Form des Tiefenprofils des Wellenleiters verzerrt werden, und die roten, grünen und blauen Übergänge nicht in der Frequenzdomäne 14 in der Nähe sitzen. In dieser Arbeit stellen die Autoren die Werkzeuge und Techniken diese Charakterisierung durchzuführen. Der Leckwellenmodulator besteht aus einem Protonenleiter auf der Oberfläche eines piezoelektrischen eindiffundiert tauschten X-Schnitt - Lithiumniobat-Substrat 15,16. Am einen Endedes Wellenleiters ein Aluminium - Interdigitalwandler ist, siehe 1. Das Licht wird in den Wellenleiter eingeführt 17 ein Prismenkoppler verwendet wird . Der Wandler startet dann akustische Oberflächenwellen, die contralinearly in dem Wellenleiter entlang der y-Achse mit Licht interagieren. Diese Wechselwirkung koppelt Licht in einen Streumodus geführt , die aus dem Wellenleiter in das Volumen austritt und schließlich verlässt das Substrat von der Randfläche 18,19. Diese Interaktion dreht sich auch die Polarisation von TE polarisiertem Licht geführt zu TM Leaky-Mode-Licht polarisiert. Die akustische Oberflächenwellenmuster ist das Hologramm, und es ist in der Lage Scannen und Formung des Ausgangslichts ein holographisches Bild zu bilden. Der Wellenleiter wird durch Protonenaustausch hergestellt. Zuerst wird Aluminium auf dem Substrat abgeschieden. Dann wird das Aluminium gemustert photolithographisch und geätzten Bereiche des Substrats zu exponieren Wellenleiterkanäle zu werden. Das verbleibende Aluminium wirkt als harteMaske. Das Substrat wird in einer Schmelze von Benzoesäure eingetaucht, welche die Oberflächenindex in den belichteten Bereichen verändert. Die Vorrichtung wird entfernt, gereinigt und in einem Muffelofen getempert. Die Endtiefe des Wellenleiters bestimmt die Anzahl der Streumodus-Übergänge. Die Wellenleitertiefe bestimmt auch die Frequenz jeder geführt zu Zustandsübergänge für jede Farbe 4. Die Aluminium-Wandler werden durch Abheben gebildet. Nach dem Wellenleiter gebildet werden, widerstehen ein E-Strahl wird auf das Substrat geschleudert. Ein Interdigitalwandler ist mit einem Elektronenstrahl strukturiert verantwortlich dem 200 MHz-Band zu reagieren entwickelt ein gechirptes Wandler zu bilden zum Steuern Farbe in Wellenleitervorrichtungen. Die Fingerperiode wird durch Λƒ = v bestimmt, wo, Λ ist die Fingerperiode, v, ist die Schallgeschwindigkeit in dem Substrat und, ƒ, ist die Hochfrequenz (RF). Der Wandler wird eine Impedanz haben , die auf 75 Ohm für einen effizienten Betrieb 20 abgestimmt sein muss. &lt;p class = &quot;jove_content&quot;&gt; Die geführte undichte Modus Wechselwirkung tritt bei verschiedenen Frequenzen für verschiedene Wellenlängen des Beleuchtungslichts und als Folge rot, grün und blaues Licht kann im Frequenzbereich gesteuert werden. Die akustische Oberflächenwellenmuster wird von einem HF-Signal an den Interdigitaltransducer gesendet erzeugt. Die RF des Eingangssignals, um Raumfrequenzen auf dem akustischen Oberflächenwellenmuster übersetzen. Der Wellenleiter kann so hergestellt werden, dass niederfrequente Signale, die Winkel Sweep und Amplitude des roten Lichtes zu steuern, während mittlere Frequenzen grünes Licht steuern und hohen Frequenzen zu steuern blaues Licht. Die Autoren haben eine Reihe von Wellenleiterparameter identifiziert, die alle drei dieser Wechselwirkungen erlauben getrennt und benachbart in der Frequenzdomäne zu sein, so dass alle drei Farben können mit einer einzigen 200-MHz-Signal, das das Maximum ist Gebrauchsgutgraphiken Verarbeitungsbandbreite der Einheiten gesteuert werden ( GPUs). Durch die Bandbreite eines GPU-Kanal passendderjenigen eines Leckwellenmodulator wird das System vollständig parallel und hoch skalierbar. Durch die Zugabe von Bandbreite passende Paare von GPUs und undichte Modus Modulatorkanäle kann eine holographische Displays beliebiger Größe bauen. Nachdem das Gerät angelegt wird, wird sie sorgfältig zu überprüfen, dadurch gekennzeichnet, dass die Frequenzen für geführte-to-leaky Modusübergang zur Frequenzsteuerung von Farb geeignet sind. Zunächst werden die Lage der geführten Moden von einem kommerziellen Prismenkoppler bestimmt, um zu bestätigen, dass der Wellenleiter die entsprechende Tiefe und die richtige Anzahl von geführten Moden aufweist. Dann, nachdem die Vorrichtungen befestigt sind und verpackt, sind sie in einem benutzerdefinierten Prismenkoppler angeordnet, die ordnet die Eingangsfrequenzen des Ausgangslichts abgetastet. Die resultierenden Daten gibt die Frequenzeingangsantwort und die Winkelausgangsantwort für Rot, Grün und Blau-Licht für das Gerät zu testen. Wenn das Gerät in die Vorrichtung Eingabeantwort wird korrekt getrennt hergestellt wurdeFrequenz und die Ausgangsantwort wird in Winkel überlappen. Wenn dies bestätigt wird, ist das Gerät bereit für den Einsatz in einem holographischen Videoanzeige. Die ersten Messungen erfolgen, bevor das Gerät verpackt wurde. Die Wellenleitertiefe wird durch einen kommerziellen Prismenkoppler bestimmt. Dies kann mit nur einer Beleuchtungswellenlänge (typischerweise 632 nm rot) erreicht werden, sondern Autoren haben ihre kommerzielle Prismenkoppler modifiziert, damit sie Mode-Informationen für rot, grün und blaues Licht zu sammeln. Nach dem Verpacken durchläuft die Vorrichtung eine zweite Messung in einem benutzerdefinierten Prismenkoppler die als eine Funktion der Eingangs RF abgelenkten Ausgangslicht aufzeichnet. Eine detaillierte Beschreibung dieser Messungen folgt. Herstellungsschritte sind ebenfalls angegeben.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="921">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">X-Cut Lithium Niobate</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Gooch and Housego</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">99-00630-01</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Lithium Niobate 3&#8243; Diameter X-CUT Wafer 1mm Polish/Polish</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Positive Photo Resist 1</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">EMD Performance Materials</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">AZ 3330 F Photoresist</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Used in the creation of the proton exchange mask.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Photoresist Developer</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">EMD Performance Materials</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">AZ MIF 300</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Develops AZ3330 and LOR 3A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Aluminium</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">International Advanced Materials</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">AL13</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">99.999% Pure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Aluminium Etch</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Transene</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Type A Aluminum Etchant</td>
			<td style="width:391px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Benzoic Acid</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">109479-500G</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">99% Pure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Acetone</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">UN1009</td>
			<td style="width:391px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">IPA</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">UN1219</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">99.5% pure Isopropyl Alcohol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Acidic Piranha etch</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Cyantek Corperation</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Nanostrip</td>
			<td style="width:391px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Under Layer Resist</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Micro Chem</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">LOR 3A</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Bottom layer used for liftoff.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Positive Photo Resist</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Micro Chem</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">950 PMMA A9</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Top layer used for liftoff</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Anisole</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Micro Chem</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">A Thinner</td>
			<td style="width:391px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Conductive polymer aqueous solution</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Mitsubishi Rayon Company</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">AquaSAVE</td>
			<td style="width:391px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">MIBK (4-Methyl-2-pentanone)</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">360511</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Develops PMMA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">NMP (1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone)</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">328634</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Used for liftoff</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Name of the Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Comments/ Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">E-beam Evaporator&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Denton Vacuum&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Integrity 20</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Thin Film Spinner</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Laurell Technologies Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">WS-400A-6NPP-LITE</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Mask Aligner&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Karl Suss America Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">MA 150 CC</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Automatic Dicing Saw&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Disco Corperation</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Disco Dad 320</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Muffle Furnace</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">FB1415M</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Electron Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">FEI</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">XL30 ESEM</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Dehydration Oven</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Lab-Line Instruments&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Ultra-Clean 100&#160; (3497M-3)</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:243px;">Hot Plate</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">SP131325</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Polisher</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Ultra Tec Mfg., Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Ultrapol End &#38; Edge Polisher</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Class IIIb 12V RBG Lasers: Wavelengths(nm): 638, 532, and 445</td>
			<td style="width:143px;"></td>
			<td style="width:147px;"></td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Bought second-hand. Probably pulled from a laser projector. Any equivalent equipment would suffice.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:243px;">Signal Generator</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Agilent</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">8648D</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Now found at Keysight. Obsolete. Any equivalent equipment would suffice. Needed Frequency sweep 9 KHz-1000 MHz.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Signal Amplifier</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Mini-Circuits</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">TB-17</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Necessary only to overcome the limitations of the signal generator.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Power Meter Controller</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">ThorLabs</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">PM100D</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">With power meter model S130C. Any equivalent equipment would suffice. Needed sensitivity 500pW</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">Linear Actuator Controller</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Newport</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">ESP7000</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">With linear actuator model MFN25PP. Any equivalent equipment would suffice. Needs 0.1mm accuracy.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">AutomatedDeviceCharacterization.vi&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">LabView</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Experimental Control Software by BYU</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Found in the appendix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:243px;">CompareWDMmodes.m</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">MATLab</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Analytical Software by BYU</td>
			<td style="width:391px;">Found in the appendix</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

characterization of anisotropic leaky mode modulators for holovideo

Holovideo displays are based on light-bending spatial light modulators. One such spatial light modulator is the anisotropic leaky mode modulator. This modulator is particularly well suited for holographic video experimentation as it is relatively simple and inexpensive to fabricate1-3. Some additional advantages of leaky mode devices include: large aggregate bandwidth, polarization separation of signal light from noise, large angular deflection and frequency control of color1. In order to realize these advantages, it is necessary to be able to adequately characterize these devices as their operation is strongly dependent on waveguide and transducer parameters4. To characterize the modulators, the authors use a commercial prism coupler as well as a custom characterization apparatus to identify guided modes, calculate waveguide thickness and finally to map the device's frequency input and angular output of leaky mode modulators. This work gives a detailed description of the measurement and characterization of leaky mode modulators suitable for full-color holographic video.

Die prinzipiellen Ergebnisse des Protokolls über der geführte Mode Messung vom kommerziellen Prismenkoppler in Abbildung 2, die einzelne Frequenz, raw Eingangs- / Ausgangsdaten gesammelt aus dem maßgeschneiderten Prismenkoppler in Figur gezeigt sind , 8 und die Mehrfarben Kurven in Abbildung 9 gezeigt. in den folgenden Abschnitten diskutieren wir die verwertbare Informationen von jedem dieser Ausgänge erzeugt. <p...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterization of Anisotropic Leaky Mode Modulators for Holovideo at JoVE.com

Characterization of Anisotropic Leaky Mode Modulators for Holovideo

Charakterisierung von anisotroper Leaky-Modus Modulatoren für die Holovideo

This work describes fabrication and characterization of anisotropic leaky mode modulators for holographic video.

Holovideo displays are based on light-bending spatial light modulators.  One such spatial light modulator is the anisotropic leaky mode modulator.  This ...

characterization-of-anisotropic-leaky-mode-modulators-for-holovideo

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

7.9K Aufrufe.  Brigham Young University. This work describes fabrication and characterization of anisotropic leaky mode modulators for holographic video.

Serie: Characterization of Anisotropic Leaky Mode Modulators for Holovideo

Development of Whispering Gallery Mode Polymeric Micro-optical Electric Field Sensors

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The optical modes are frequently referred to as "whispering gallery modes" (WGM) or "morphology dependent resonances" (MDR) and exhibit high optical quality factors. Some proposed applications of micro-cavity optical resonators are in spectroscopy1, micro-cavity laser technology2, optical communications3-6 as well as sensor technology. The WGM-based sensor applications include those in biology7, trace gas detection8, and impurity detection in liquids9. Mechanical sensors based on microsphere resonators have also been proposed, including those for force10,11, pressure12, acceleration13 and wall shear stress14. In the present, we demonstrate a WGM-based electric field sensor, which builds on our previous studies15,16. A candidate application of this sensor is in the detection of neuronal action potential.
The electric field sensor is based on polymeric multi-layered dielectric microspheres. The external electric field induces surface and body forces on the spheres (electrostriction effect) leading to elastic deformation. This change in the morphology of the spheres, leads to shifts in the WGM. The electric field-induced WGM shifts are interrogated by exciting the optical modes of the spheres by laser light. Light from a distributed feedback (DFB) laser (nominal wavelength of ~ 1.3 &mu;m) is side-coupled into the microspheres using a tapered section of a single mode optical fiber. The base material of the spheres is polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Three microsphere geometries are used: (1) PDMS sphere with a 60:1 volumetric ratio of base-to-curing agent mixture, (2) multi layer sphere with 60:1 PDMS core, in order to increase the dielectric constant of the sphere, a middle layer of 60:1 PDMS that is mixed with varying amounts (2% to 10% by volume) of barium titanate and an outer layer of 60:1 PDMS and (3) solid silica sphere coated with a thin layer of uncured PDMS base. In each type of sensor, laser light from the tapered fiber is coupled into the outermost layer that provides high optical quality factor WGM (Q ~ 106). The microspheres are poled for several hours at electric fields of ~ 1 MV/m to increase their sensitivity to electric field.

A high-sensitivity photonic micro sensor was developed for electric field detection. The sensor exploits the optical modes of a dielectric sphere. Changes in the external electric field perturb the sphere morphology leading to shifts in its optical modes. The electric field strength is measured by monitoring these optical shifts.

Entwicklung von Whispering Gallery-Modus polymeren Mikro-optische Electric Field Sensoren

Optical modes of dielectric micro-cavities have received significant attention in recent years for their potential in a broad range of applications. The ...

Forschung

Ingenieurwesen

Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various areas of technology and applied science, such as aerospace and communication engineering, sensing, metrology, nonlinear photonics, and quantum optics. In this article, we present the principal techniques used in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators. First detailed in this article is the protocol for resonator polishing, which is based on a grind-and-polish technique close to the ones used to polish optical components such as lenses or telescope mirrors. Then, a white light interferometric profilometer measures surface roughness, which is a key parameter to characterize the quality of the polishing. In order to launch light in the resonator, a tapered silica fiber with diameter in the micrometer range is used. To reach such small diameters, we adopt the "flame-brushing" technique, using simultaneously computer-controlled motors to pull the fiber apart, and a blowtorch to heat the fiber area to be tapered. The resonator and the tapered fiber are later approached to one another to visualize the resonance signal of the whispering gallery modes using a wavelength-scanning laser. By increasing the optical power in the resonator, nonlinear phenomena are triggered until the formation of a Kerr optical frequency comb is observed with a spectrum made of equidistant spectral lines. These Kerr comb spectra have exceptional characteristics that are suitable for several applications in science and technology. We consider the application related to ultra-stable microwave frequency synthesis and demonstrate the generation of a Kerr comb with GHz intermodal frequency.

The customized techniques developed in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators are presented. The protocols to obtain and characterize these resonators are detailed, and an explanation of some of their applications in microwave photonics is given.

Mikrowelle Photonics Systems on Whispering-Gallery-Mode-Resonatoren Grundlage

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Disordered Polymer Optical Fibers for Transverse Anderson Localization of Light

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed polymer optical fiber is composed of 80,000 strands of poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) that are randomly mixed and drawn into a square cross section optical fiber with a side width of 250 &mu;m. Initially, each strand is 200 &mu;m in diameter and 8-inches long. During the mixing process of the original fiber strands, the fibers cross over each other; however, a large draw ratio guarantees that the refractive index profile is invariant along the length of the fiber for several tens of centimeters. The large refractive index difference of 0.1 between the disordered sites results in a small localized beam radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers. The input light is launched from a standard single mode optical fiber using the butt-coupling method and the near-field output beam from the disordered fiber is imaged using a 40X objective and a CCD camera. The output beam diameter agrees well with the expected results from the numerical simulations. The disordered optical fiber presented in this work is the first device-level implementation of 2D Anderson localization, and can potentially be used for image transport and short-haul optical communication systems.

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. This microstructured fiber can transport a small localized beam with a radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers.

Herstellung und Charakterisierung von Disordered Optische Polymerfasern für Quer Anderson Localization of Light

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed ...

Construction and Characterization of External Cavity Diode Lasers for Atomic Physics

Since their development in the late 1980s, cheap, reliable external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) have replaced complex and expensive traditional dye and Titanium Sapphire lasers as the workhorse laser of atomic physics labs1,2. Their versatility and prolific use throughout atomic physics in applications such as absorption spectroscopy and laser cooling1,2 makes it imperative for incoming students to gain a firm practical understanding of these lasers. This publication builds upon the seminal work by Wieman3, updating components, and providing a video tutorial. The setup, frequency locking and performance characterization of an ECDL will be described. Discussion of component selection and proper mounting of both diodes and gratings, the factors affecting mode selection within the cavity, proper alignment for optimal external feedback, optics setup for coarse and fine frequency sensitive measurements, a brief overview of laser locking techniques, and laser linewidth measurements are included.

This is an instructional paper to guide the construction and diagnostics of external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs), including component selection and optical alignment, as well as the basics of frequency reference spectroscopy and laser linewidth measurements for applications in the field of atomic physics.

Konstruktion und Charakterisierung von External Cavity Diode Laser für die Atomphysik

Since their development in the late 1980s, cheap, reliable external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) have replaced complex and expensive traditional dye and ...

Mechanical Expansion of Steel Tubing as a Solution to Leaky Wellbores

Wellbore cement, a procedural component of wellbore completion operations, primarily provides zonal isolation and mechanical support of the metal pipe (casing), and protects metal components from corrosive fluids. These are essential for uncompromised wellbore integrity. Cements can undergo multiple forms of failure, such as debonding at the cement/rock and cement/metal interfaces, fracturing, and defects within the cement matrix. Failures and defects within the cement will ultimately lead to fluid migration, resulting in inter-zonal fluid migration and premature well abandonment. Currently, there are over 1.8 million operating wells worldwide and over one third of these wells have leak related problems defined as Sustained Casing Pressure (SCP)1. 
The focus of this research was to develop an experimental setup at bench-scale to explore the effect of mechanical manipulation of wellbore casing-cement composite samples as a potential technology for the remediation of gas leaks. 
The experimental methodology utilized in this study enabled formation of an impermeable seal at the pipe/cement interface in a simulated wellbore system. Successful nitrogen gas flow-through measurements demonstrated that an existing microannulus was sealed at laboratory experimental conditions and fluid flow prevented by mechanical manipulation of the metal/cement composite sample. Furthermore, this methodology can be applied not only for the remediation of leaky wellbores, but also in plugging and abandonment procedures as well as wellbore completions technology, and potentially preventing negative impacts of wellbores on subsurface and surface environments.

This article reports on a laboratory scale investigation of an existing field procedure and its adaptation for sealing of leaky wellbores. It consists of mechanical expansion of metal pipe, which results in an improved metal/cement bond, ultimate sealing of hydraulic pathways and prevention of gas leaks caused by the presence of a microannular channel.

Mechanische Spannstahlrohr als eine Lösung für Leaky Bohrlöchern

Wellbore cement, a procedural component of wellbore completion operations, primarily provides zonal isolation and mechanical support of the metal pipe ...

Electron Channeling Contrast Imaging for Rapid III-V Heteroepitaxial Characterization

Misfit dislocations in heteroepitaxial layers of GaP grown on Si(001) substrates are characterized through use of electron channeling contrast imaging (ECCI) in a scanning electron microscope (SEM). ECCI allows for imaging of defects and crystallographic features under specific diffraction conditions, similar to that possible via plan-view transmission electron microscopy (PV-TEM). A particular advantage of the ECCI technique is that it requires little to no sample preparation, and indeed can use large area, as-produced samples, making it a considerably higher throughput characterization method than TEM. Similar to TEM, different diffraction conditions can be obtained with ECCI by tilting and rotating the sample in the SEM. This capability enables the selective imaging of specific defects, such as misfit dislocations at the GaP/Si interface, with high contrast levels, which are determined by the standard invisibility criteria. An example application of this technique is described wherein ECCI imaging is used to determine the critical thickness for dislocation nucleation for GaP-on-Si by imaging a range of samples with various GaP epilayer thicknesses. Examples of ECCI micrographs of additional defect types, including threading dislocations and a stacking fault, are provided as demonstration of its broad, TEM-like applicability. Ultimately, the combination of TEM-like capabilities &#8211; high spatial resolution and richness of microstructural data &#8211; with the convenience and speed of SEM, position ECCI as a powerful tool for the rapid characterization of crystalline materials.

The use of electron channeling contrast imaging in a scanning electron microscope to characterize defects in III-V/Si heteroexpitaxial thin films is described. This method yields similar results to plan-view transmission electron microscopy, but in significantly less time due to lack of required sample preparation.

Electron Channeling Contrast Imaging Rapid III-V heteroepitaktischen Charakterisierung

Misfit dislocations in heteroepitaxial layers of GaP grown on Si(001) substrates are characterized through use of electron channeling contrast imaging ...

Automation of Mode Locking in a Nonlinear Polarization Rotation Fiber Laser through Output Polarization Measurements

When a laser is mode-locked, it emits a train of ultra-short pulses at a repetition rate determined by the laser cavity length. This article outlines a new and inexpensive procedure to force mode locking in a pre-adjusted nonlinear polarization rotation fiber laser. This procedure is based on the detection of a sudden change in the output polarization state when mode locking occurs. This change is used to command the alignment of the intra-cavity polarization controller in order to find mode-locking conditions. More specifically, the value of the first Stokes parameter varies when the angle of the polarization controller is swept and, moreover, it undergoes an abrupt variation when the laser enters the mode-locked state. Monitoring this abrupt variation provides a practical easy-to-detect signal that can be used to command the alignment of the polarization controller and drive the laser towards mode locking. This monitoring is achieved by feeding a small portion of the signal to a polarization analyzer measuring the first Stokes parameter. A sudden change in the read out of this parameter from the analyzer will occur when the laser enters the mode-locked state. At this moment, the required angle of the polarization controller is kept fixed. The alignment is completed. This procedure provides an alternate way to existing automating procedures that use equipment such as an optical spectrum analyzer, an RF spectrum analyzer, a photodiode connected to an electronic pulse-counter or a nonlinear detecting scheme based on two-photon absorption or second harmonic generation. It is suitable for lasers mode locked by nonlinear polarization rotation. It is relatively easy to implement, it requires inexpensive means, especially at a wavelength of 1550 nm, and it lowers the production and operation costs incurred in comparison to the above-mentioned techniques.

A protocol to detect and automate mode locking in a pre-adjusted nonlinear polarization rotation fiber laser is presented. The detection of a sudden change in the output polarization state when mode locking occurs is used to command the alignment of an intra-cavity polarization controller in order to find mode-locking conditions.

Automatisierung der Modenkopplung in einem nicht-linearen Polarisationsdrehung Faserlaser durch Ausgabe Polarisationsmessungen

When a laser is mode-locked, it emits a train of ultra-short pulses at a repetition rate determined by the laser cavity length. This article outlines a ...

Stimulated Stokes and Antistokes Raman Scattering in Microspherical Whispering Gallery Mode Resonators

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres can be thought as a store of energy with a huge variety of applications: compact laser sources, highly sensitive biochemical sensors and nonlinear phenomena. A protocol for the fabrication of both the microspheres and coupling system is given. The couplers described here are tapered fibers. Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS). A proof of the cavity-enhanced phenomenon is given by the lack of correlation among the pump, signal and idler: a resonant mode has to exist in order to obtain the pair of signal and idler. In the case of hyperparametric oscillations (four wave mixing and stimulated anti-stokes Raman scattering), the modes must fulfill the energy and momentum conservation and, last but not least, have a good spatial overlap.

Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS).

Stimulated Stokes und Antistokes Raman Scattering in Mikrosphärische Whispering Gallery-Modus Resona

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres ...

A Novel Method for In Situ Electromechanical Characterization of Nanoscale Specimens

Electrically assisted deformation (EAD) is increasingly being used to improve the formability of metals during processes such as sheet metal rolling and forging. Adoption of this technique is proceeding despite disagreement concerning the underlying mechanism responsible for EAD. The experimental procedure described herein enables a more explicit study compared to previous EAD research by removing thermal effects, which are responsible for disagreement in interpreting previous EAD results. Furthermore, as the procedure described here enables EAD observation in situ and in real time in a transmission electron microscope (TEM), it is superior to existing post-mortem methods that observe EAD effects post-test. Test samples consist of a single crystal copper (SCC) foil having a free-standing tensile test section of nanoscale thickness, fabricated using a combination of laser and ion beam milling. The SCC is mounted to an etched silicon base that provides mechanical support and electrical isolation while serving as a heat sink. Using this geometry, even at high current density (~3,500 A/mm2), the test section experiences a negligible temperature increase (&#60;0.02 &#176;C), thus eliminating Joule heating effects. Monitoring material deformation and identifying the corresponding changes to microstructures, e.g. dislocations, are accomplished by acquiring and analyzing a series of TEM images. Our sample preparation and in situ experiment procedures are robust and versatile as they can be readily utilized to test materials with different microstructures, e.g., single and polycrystalline copper.

A Novel Method for In Situ Electromechanical Characterization of Nanoscale Specimens

Isolating electrical and thermal effects on electrically assisted deformation (EAD) is very difficult using macroscopic samples. Metallic sample micro- and nanostructures together with a custom test procedure have been developed to evaluate the impact of applied current on the formation without joule heating and evolution of dislocations on these samples.

Eine neuartige Methode für<em&gt; In Situ</em&gt; Elektromechanische Charakterisierung von nanoskaligen Proben

Electrically assisted deformation (EAD) is increasingly being used to improve the formability of metals during processes such as sheet metal rolling and ...

Ultrasonic Fatigue Testing in the Tension-Compression Mode

Ultrasonic fatigue testing is one of a few methods which allow investigating fatigue properties in the ultra-high cycle region. The method is based on exposing the specimen to longitudinal vibrations on its resonance frequency close to 20 kHz. With use of this method, it is possible to significantly decrease the time required for the test, when compared to conventional testing devices usually working at frequencies under 200 Hz. It is also used to simulate loading of material during operation in high speed conditions, such as those experienced by components of jet engines or car turbo pumps. It is necessary to operate only in the high and ultra-high cycle region, due to the possibility of extremely high deformation rates, which can have a significant influence on the test results. Specimen shape and dimensions have to be carefully selected and calculated to fulfill the resonance condition of the ultrasonic system; thus, it is not possible to test the full components or specimens of arbitrary shape. Before each test, it is necessary to harmonize the specimen with the frequency of the ultrasonic system to compensate for deviations of the real shape from the ideal one. It is not possible to run a test until a total fracture of the specimen, since the test is automatically terminated after initiation and propagation of the crack to a certain length, when the stiffness of the system changes enough to shift the system out of the resonance frequency. This manuscript describes the process of evaluation of materials' fatigue properties at high-frequency ultrasonic fatigue loading with use of mechanical resonance at a frequency close to 20 kHz. The protocol includes a detailed description of all steps required for a correct test, including specimen design, stress calculation, harmonizing with the resonance frequency, performing the test, and final static fracture.

A protocol for ultrasonic fatigue testing in the high and ultra-high cycle region in axial tension-compression loading mode.

Ultraschall Ermüdungsprüfung im Zug-Druck-Modus

Ultrasonic fatigue testing is one of a few methods which allow investigating fatigue properties in the ultra-high cycle region. The method is based on ...