Name: a flow cytometry-based assay to identify compounds that disrupt binding of fluorescently-labeled cxc chemokine ligand 12 to cxc chemokine receptor 4
Uploaded: 2018-03-10T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Flow Cytometry-based Assay to Identify Compounds That Disrupt Binding of Fluorescently-labeled CXC Chemokine Ligand 12 to CXC Chemokine Receptor 4 at JoVE.c

The authors would like to thank Eric Fonteyn for excellent technical assistance. This work has been supported by the KU Leuven (grant no. PF/10/018), Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (FWO, grant no. G.485.08) and the Fondation Dormeur Vaduz.

1. Maintenance of Cell Culture
NOTE: All steps described under 1 and 2 are carried out under sterile conditions in a laminar flow cabinet.
<ol>
	<li>Grow cells in T75 culture flasks at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2 in a humidified incubator. 
	NOTE: In this assay, Jurkat cells (i.e., human leukemic T lymphocyte cells that endogenously express CXCR417) are used. Expression of CXCR4 at the cell surface should be evaluated throughout cell culturing by me...

<ol>
	<li>Fredriksson, R., Lagerstrom, M. C., Lundin, L. G., Schioth, H. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+G-protein-coupled+receptors+in+the+human+genome+form+five+main+families.+Phylogenetic+analysis,+paralogon+groups,+and+fingerprints.">The G-protein-coupled receptors in the human genome form five main families. Phylogenetic analysis, paralogon groups, and fingerprints.</a> Mol Pharmacol. 63, 1256-1272 (2003).</li><li>Milligan, G., Kostenis, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterotrimeric+G-proteins:+A+short+history.">Heterotrimeric G-proteins: A short history.</a> Br J Pharmacol. 147 Suppl 1, S46-S55 (2006).</li><li>Oldham, W. M., Hamm, H. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterotrimeric+G+protein+activation+by+G-protein-coupled+receptors.">Heterotrimeric G protein activation by G-protein-coupled receptors.</a> Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 9, 60-71 (2008).</li><li>Tuteja, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Signaling+through+G+protein+coupled+receptors.">Signaling through G protein coupled receptors.</a> Plant Signal Behav. 4, 942-947 (2009).</li><li>Neves, S. R., Ram, P. T., Iyengar, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=G+protein+pathways.">G protein pathways.</a> Science. 296, 1636-1639 (2002).</li><li>Gurevich, E. V., Tesmer, J. J., Mushegian, A., Gurevich, V. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=G+protein-coupled+receptor+kinases:+more+than+just+kinases+and+not+only+for+GPCRs.">G protein-coupled receptor kinases: more than just kinases and not only for GPCRs.</a> Pharmacol Ther. 133, 40-69 (2012).</li><li>Smith, J. S., Rajagopal, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+beta-arrestins:+Multifunctional+regulators+of+G+protein-coupled+receptors.">The beta-arrestins: Multifunctional regulators of G protein-coupled receptors.</a> J Biol Chem. 291, 8969-8977 (2016).</li><li>Pierce, K. L., Premont, R. T., Lefkowitz, R. 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C., Farzan, M., Choe, H., Parolin, C., Clark-Lewis, I., Sodroski, J., Springer, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+lymphocyte+chemoattractant+SDF-1+is+a+ligand+for+LESTR/fusin+and+blocks+HIV-1+entry.">The lymphocyte chemoattractant SDF-1 is a ligand for LESTR/fusin and blocks HIV-1 entry.</a> Nature. 382, 829-833 (1996).</li><li>Flomenberg, N., DiPersio, J., Calandra, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+CXCR4+chemokine+receptor+blockade+using+AMD3100+for+mobilization+of+autologous+hematopoietic+progenitor+cells.">Role of CXCR4 chemokine receptor blockade using AMD3100 for mobilization of autologous hematopoietic progenitor cells.</a> Acta Haematol. 114, 198-205 (2005).</li><li>Domanska, U. M., Kruizinga, R. C., Nagengast, W. B., Timmer-Bosscha, H., Huls, G., de Vries, E. G., Walenkamp, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+on+CXCR4/CXCL12+axis+in+oncology:+No+place+to+hide.">A review on CXCR4/CXCL12 axis in oncology: No place to hide.</a> Eur J Cancer. 49, 219-230 (2013).</li><li>Tsou, L. K., Huang, Y. H., Song, J. S., Ke, Y. Y., Huang, J. K., Shia, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Harnessing+CXCR4+antagonists+in+stem+cell+mobilization,+HIV+infection,+ischemic+diseases,+and+oncology.">Harnessing CXCR4 antagonists in stem cell mobilization, HIV infection, ischemic diseases, and oncology.</a> Med Res Rev. , (2017).</li><li>Schols, D., Struyf, S., Van Damme, J., Este, J. A., Henson, G., De Clercq, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+T-tropic+HIV+strains+by+selective+antagonization+of+the+chemokine+receptor+CXCR4.">Inhibition of T-tropic HIV strains by selective antagonization of the chemokine receptor CXCR4.</a> J Exp Med. 186, 1383-1388 (1997).</li><li>Van Hout, A., D'Huys, T., Oeyen, M., Schols, D., Van Loy, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+cell-based+assays+for+the+identification+and+evaluation+of+competitive+CXCR4+inhibitors.">Comparison of cell-based assays for the identification and evaluation of competitive CXCR4 inhibitors.</a> PLoS One. 12, e0176057 (2017).</li><li>De Clercq, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+AMD3100+story:+the+path+to+the+discovery+of+a+stem+cell+mobilizer+(Mozobil).">The AMD3100 story: the path to the discovery of a stem cell mobilizer (Mozobil).</a> Biochem Pharmacol. 77, 1655-1664 (2009).</li><li>Debnath, B., Xu, S., Grande, F., Garofalo, A., Neamati, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Small+molecule+inhibitors+of+CXCR4.">Small molecule inhibitors of CXCR4.</a> Theranostics. 3, 47-75 (2013).</li><li>Woodard, L. E., Nimmagadda, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CXCR4-based+imaging+agents.">CXCR4-based imaging agents.</a> J Nucl Med. 52, 1665-1669 (2011).</li><li>Wang, Y., Xie, Y., Oupicky, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Potential+of+CXCR4/CXCL12+Chemokine+Axis+in+Cancer+Drug+Delivery.">Potential of CXCR4/CXCL12 Chemokine Axis in Cancer Drug Delivery.</a> Curr Pharmacol Rep. 2, 1-10 (2016).</li><li>Nimmagadda, S., Pullambhatla, M., Stone, K., Green, G., Bhujwalla, Z. M., Pomper, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+imaging+of+CXCR4+receptor+expression+in+human+cancer+xenografts+with+[64Cu]AMD3100+positron+emission+tomography.">Molecular imaging of CXCR4 receptor expression in human cancer xenografts with [64Cu]AMD3100 positron emission tomography.</a> Cancer Res. 70, 3935-3944 (2010).</li><li>De Silva, R. A., Peyre, K., Pullambhatla, M., Fox, J. J., Pomper, M. G., Nimmagadda, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+CXCR4+expression+in+human+cancer+xenografts:+evaluation+of+monocyclam+64Cu-AMD3465.">Imaging CXCR4 expression in human cancer xenografts: evaluation of monocyclam 64Cu-AMD3465.</a> J Nucl Med. 52, 986-993 (2011).</li><li>Hatse, S., Princen, K., Liekens, S., Vermeire, K., De Clercq, E., Schols, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+CXCL12AF647+as+a+novel+probe+for+nonradioactive+CXCL12/CXCR4+cellular+interaction+studies.">Fluorescent CXCL12AF647 as a novel probe for nonradioactive CXCL12/CXCR4 cellular interaction studies.</a> Cytometry A. 61, 178-188 (2004).</li><li>Wootten, D., Christopoulos, A., Sexton, P. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emerging+paradigms+in+GPCR+allostery:+implications+for+drug+discovery.">Emerging paradigms in GPCR allostery: implications for drug discovery.</a> Nat Rev Drug Discov. 12, 630-644 (2013).</li><li>Louis, K. S., Siegel, A. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+viability+analysis+using+trypan+blue:+manual+and+automated+methods.">Cell viability analysis using trypan blue: manual and automated methods.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 740, 7-12 (2011).</li><li>Perry, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maraviroc:+a+review+of+its+use+in+the+management+of+CCR5-tropic+HIV-1+infection.">Maraviroc: a review of its use in the management of CCR5-tropic HIV-1 infection.</a> Drugs. 70, 1189-1213 (2010).</li><li>Moyle, G., DeJesus, E., Boffito, M., Wong, R. S., Gibney, C., Badel, K., MacFarland, R., Calandra, G., Bridger, G., Becker, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proof+of+activity+with+AMD11070,+an+orally+bioavailable+inhibitor+of+CXCR4-tropic+HIV+type+1.">Proof of activity with AMD11070, an orally bioavailable inhibitor of CXCR4-tropic HIV type 1.</a> Clin Infect Dis. 48, 798-805 (2009).</li><li>Balabanian, K., Lagane, B., Infantino, S., Chow, K. Y., Harriague, J., Moepps, B., Arenzana-Seisdedos, F., Thelen, M., Bachelerie, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+chemokine+SDF-1/CXCL12+binds+to+and+signals+through+the+orphan+receptor+RDC1+in+T+lymphocytes.">The chemokine SDF-1/CXCL12 binds to and signals through the orphan receptor RDC1 in T lymphocytes.</a> J Biol Chem. 280, 35760-35766 (2005).</li><li>Burns, J. M., Summers, B. C., Wang, Y., Melikian, A., Berahovich, R., Miao, Z., Penfold, M. E., Sunshine, M. J., Littman, D. R., Kuo, C. J., Wei, K., McMaster, B. E., Wright, K., Howard, M. C., Schall, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+chemokine+receptor+for+SDF-1+and+I-TAC+involved+in+cell+survival,+cell+adhesion,+and+tumor+development.">A novel chemokine receptor for SDF-1 and I-TAC involved in cell survival, cell adhesion, and tumor development.</a> J Exp Med. 203, 2201-2213 (2006).</li><li>Stoddart, L. A., Kilpatrick, L. E., Briddon, S. J., Hill, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+the+pharmacology+of+G+protein-coupled+receptors+with+fluorescent+ligands.">Probing the pharmacology of G protein-coupled receptors with fluorescent ligands.</a> Neuropharmacology. 98, 48-57 (2015).</li><li>Vernall, A. J., Hill, S. J., Kellam, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+evolving+small-molecule+fluorescent-conjugate+toolbox+for+Class+A+GPCRs.">The evolving small-molecule fluorescent-conjugate toolbox for Class A GPCRs.</a> Br J Pharmacol. 171, 1073-1084 (2014).</li><li>Stoddart, L. A., White, C. W., Nguyen, K., Hill, S. J., Pfleger, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescence-+and+bioluminescence-based+approaches+to+study+GPCR+ligand+binding.">Fluorescence- and bioluminescence-based approaches to study GPCR ligand binding.</a> Br J Pharmacol. 173, 3028-3037 (2016).</li></ol>

Compared to other types of binding assays (i.e., saturation binding and kinetic binding experiments), competition&#160;binding assays are best suited for screening purposes. Indeed, they allow evaluation of large batches of unlabeled compounds, for instance small molecules, by scoring their capability to interfere with the binding of a fixed amount of a labeled receptor ligand. Compounds that bind to other receptor sites than the labeled ligand might remain undetected in the assay. Although the competition bindi...

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are cell surface proteins that can be activated by extracellular ligands (e.g., peptides, protein hormones, amines), thereby regulating many physiological and developmental processes1. When an agonist occupies its GPCR binding pocket, the induced conformational change in the receptor protein promotes the binding of intracellular receptor-associated heterotrimeric G proteins, consisting of G&#945;-GDP and G&#946;&#947; subunits. The subsequent exchange of GTP for GDP on the G&#945; subunit results in the dissociation of the G protein subunits (G&#945;-GTP and G&#946;&#947;) that, in turn, will further initiate downstream signaling pathways2,3. When the G&#945;-GTP becomes hydrolyzed, re-association of the G&#945;-GDP and G&#946;&#947; subunits will convert the G protein back into its resting state3,4. Distinct types of G proteins exist (Gs, Gi/o, Gq, G12/13), which are categorized based on sequence similarity with the G&#945; subunit5. All of these G proteins induce defined intracellular signaling pathways that underlie the biological response to receptor activation. Subsequent to receptor activation, GPCR kinases (GRKs) phosphorylate the intracellular tail of GPCRs, thereby promoting interaction with &#946;-arrestins. This process leads to the termination of G protein signaling, receptor desensitization and internalization6. &#946;-arrestins are also part of multi-molecular complexes that trigger signaling cascades independent of G protein signaling7.
GPCRs are amongst the most validated molecular targets for therapeutic intervention, as deregulated GPCR-mediated signaling, for instance due to gain-of-function mutations in the receptor gene or receptor overexpression, contributes to the etiology of many human diseases8. Therefore, GPCRs represent one of the most important classes of drug targets investigated by the pharmaceutical industry8,9,10. A notable example of a clinically relevant GPCR is the CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), which can be activated by a sole natural ligand, the CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12)11. Due to its established role as a major co-receptor for human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) entry and infection in cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) positive T-lymphocytes12, CXCR4 was first investigated as an antiviral drug target. CXCL12-CXCR4 interaction in the bone marrow further regulates the retention and homing of stem and progenitor cells13. Also, given its involvement in many aspects of cancer biology (e.g., tumor cell survival, metastasis, tumor-related angiogenesis)14 and several other human diseases (e.g., inflammatory diseases)15, CXCR4 raised significant interest as a promising target for drug discovery. AMD3100, a small molecule that specifically targets CXCR4, was initially discovered as an anti-HIV drug candidate16 and is still one of the most potent CXCR4 antagonists described to date17. Its development as an antiviral drug was, however, discontinued18. Currently this molecule is used as a stem cell mobilization agent during the treatment of multiple myeloma and lymphoma patients18. Several other chemically unrelated small molecules and biologics that inhibit CXCR4 function with varying potency have been described19.
Receptor binding methods are valuable tools in pharmacology that allow the identification of compounds (e.g., small molecules) that directly interact with the GPCR of interest. In order to perform binding studies, there is no need for prior knowledge concerning the intracellular signaling properties or functionality of a given GPCR. Although this can be considered to be an advantage, it implies that compounds for which receptor binding can be demonstrated need to be further characterized by evaluating their potential agonistic or antagonistic activity. This activity can be evaluated using pharmacological or biological assays related to the GPCR under study. Dependent on their activity profile, receptor binding molecules might then potentially evolve to become novel lead compounds for investigation in pre-clinical and clinical studies. Molecules that specifically bind to a receptor with high affinity can also serve as scaffolds to generate therapeutic or diagnostic tools, for instance by radiolabeling them for noninvasive in vivo imaging of tumor cells20, or as potential vehicles for targeted delivery of therapeutics21. In case of CXCR4, in vivo imaging of tumor cells has already been demonstrated using mouse models wherein labeled CXCR4-targeting molecules allowed the visualization of human cancer xenografts20,22,23.
In this report, we describe a detailed protocol for a competition binding assay that enables the identification of small molecules and biologics that directly interfere with agonist (CXCL12) binding to CXCR4. The basic principle of the assay is the competition between a fixed amount of fluorescently labeled ligand (CXCL12AF647, see Table of Materials and Reagents) and unlabeled compounds for binding to the receptor protein17,24. The specific fluorescent signal from labeled ligand bound to single cells expressing CXCR4 is then analyzed by flow cytometry. This fluorescent signal will be reduced when unlabeled small molecules disrupt the interaction between CXCL12AF647 and CXCR4. The assay uses non-manipulated living cells that endogenously express CXCR4 (i.e., Jurkat cells). Hence, no cell membrane preparation is required, which makes the assay convenient, fast and compatible with increased throughput. Since a fluorescently labeled ligand is used, radioactivity is avoided.
Because CXCL12 is the natural agonist for CXCR4, small molecule compounds that interfere with CXCL12AF647 binding in the assay are likely to interact with the orthosteric receptor binding site (i.e., the binding site occupied by the natural agonist). Molecules that would interact with receptor binding sites topographically distinct from the orthosteric binding site remain undetected,&#160;if they do not influence binding of CXCL12. For instance, positive and negative allosteric modulators, an important and emerging category of GPCR targeting molecules acting on allosteric binding sites25, will potentially not be picked up with this assay. In addition, whether the compounds identified with this binding assay function as receptor antagonists or as agonists cannot be derived. Investigation of the identified compounds in additional pharmacological or functional receptor-related assays will thus be required. These assays might include (a combination of) cellular fluorescence- or luminescence-based assays for the detection of second messengers (e.g., Ca2+, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)), phenotypic or biological assays and &#946;-arrestin recruitment assays, the choice of which depends on the specific signaling properties of the GPCR under study. Hence, the competitive binding assay described herein mainly serves as an initial screening assay that needs to be complemented with other cell-based assays to enable an in-depth characterization of compounds with receptor binding potency.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1217">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">BD FACSCanto II</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">Not applicable</td>
			<td style="width:304px;">Flow cytometry device</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">BD FACSDIVA Software</td>
			<td style="width:247px;"></td>
			<td style="width:281px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">BD FACSArray</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">Not applicable</td>
			<td>Flow cytometry device</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">BD FACSArray System Software</td>
			<td style="width:247px;"></td>
			<td style="width:281px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Graphpad Prism</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Graphpad</td>
			<td style="width:281px;"></td>
			<td>software package used for nonlinear regression analysis in Figure 2 and Figure 3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:387px;">FlowJo</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">FlowJo is now a wholly owned subsidiary of BD.</td>
			<td style="width:281px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Vi-CELL</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">Not applicable</td>
			<td>cell viability analyzer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Sigma 3-18 KS</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">Not applicable</td>
			<td>centrifuge</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">AMD3100</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">A5602-5mg</td>
			<td>specific CXCR4 antagonist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Maraviroc</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Pfizer</td>
			<td style="width:281px;"></td>
			<td>antiretroviral drug, CCR5 antagonist, available for research at Selleckchem (cat#S2003), Sigma (cat#PZ0002)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">h-SDF1a (AF647)</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">ALMAC</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">CAF-11-B-01</td>
			<td>fluorescently labeled CXCL12, CXCL12AF647</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">10270-106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">A1933-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">HBSS (10x), calcium, magnesium, no phenol red</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">14065-049</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">HEPES (1M)</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">15630-056</td>
			<td style="width:304px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Dulbecco&#39;s Phosphate Buffered Saline (DPBS)</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Gibco (Life Technologies)</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">14190-094</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Jurkat cells</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:281px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Reagent reservoir PP</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">BR703411</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rapid flow filter: 0.2 &#181;m aPES</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>566-0020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Sterilin microtiter plate, 96-well, U bottom, clear</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">611U96</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Falcon tubes, 50ml</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Greiner Bio-One</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">227 261</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:387px;">Tissue culture flask (T75)</td>
			<td style="width:247px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:281px;">353024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a flow cytometry-based assay to identify compounds that disrupt binding of fluorescently-labeled cxc chemokine ligand 12 to cxc chemokine receptor 4

Pharmacological targeting of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is of great importance to human health, as dysfunctional GPCR-mediated signaling contributes to the progression of many diseases. The ligand/receptor pair CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12)/CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) has raised significant clinical interest, for instance as a potential target for the treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases. Small molecules as well as therapeutic antibodies that specifically target CXCR4 and inhibit the receptor&#39;s function are therefore considered to be valuable pharmacological tools. Here, a flow cytometry-based cellular assay that allows identification of compounds (e.g., small molecules) that abrogate CXCL12 binding to CXCR4, is described. Essentially, the assay relies on the competition for receptor binding between a fixed amount of fluorescently labeled CXCL12, the natural chemokine agonist for CXCR4, and unlabeled compounds. Hence, the undesirable use of radioactively labeled probes is avoided in this assay. In addition, living cells are used as the source of receptor (CXCR4) instead of cell membrane preparations. This allows easy adaptation of the assay to a plate format, which increases the throughput. This assay has been shown to be a valuable generic drug discovery assay to identify CXCR4-targeting compounds. The protocol can likely be adapted to other GPCRs, at least if fluorescently labeled ligands are available or can be generated. Prior knowledge concerning the intracellular signaling pathways that are induced upon activation of these GPCRs, is not required.

The general workflow of the binding assay is presented in Figure 1A. An illustration of the type of flow cytometry data obtained for different sample types in a standard experiment (i.e., negative control, positive control, and experimental sample) is depicted in Figure 1B, and a possible plate layout to perform the assay in a 96-well plate format is given in Figure 1C. Incubation of Jurkat ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Flow Cytometry-based Assay to Identify Compounds That Disrupt Binding of Fluorescently-labeled CXC Chemokine Ligand 12 to CXC Chemokine Receptor 4 at JoVE.c

A Flow Cytometry-based Assay to Identify Compounds That Disrupt Binding of Fluorescently-labeled CXC Chemokine Ligand 12 to CXC Chemokine Receptor 4

A flow cytometry-based cellular binding assay is described that is primarily used as a screening tool to identify compounds that inhibit the binding of a fluorescently labeled CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) to the CXC chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4).

Pharmacological targeting of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is of great importance to human health, as dysfunctional GPCR-mediated signaling ...

The overall goal of the cell-based Assay is to identify molecules that bind to a G protein coupled receptor. Based on their capability to compete with a fluorescently-labeled ligand for binding to the receptor. Competition binding assay can support G-protein coupled receptor drug discovery.As we will demonstrate with this protocol for the chemokine receptor, CXC4. The main advantage of this method is that living cells are used to analyze receptive binding instead of memory preparations. And that the use of radioactivity label probes is avoided.Though this method has initially been set up to study binding to the chemokine receptor CXCR4, it can also be developed for other GPCR for which fluorescently-labeled ligands exist. To begin, dispense 100 microliters of compound solution into a clear 96 well rounded bottom plate, according to a predefined experimental layout. Add 50 microliters of cell suspension from a reagent reservoir into the 96 well plate using a multi-channel pipette.Incubate the plate for 15 minutes at room temperature in the dark. Following incubation, add 50 microliters of fluorescently-labeled 100 nanograms per milliliter CXCL12 from a similar reagent reservoir to the wells of the 96 well-plate. Incubate for 30 minutes at room temperature in the dark.Next, centrifuge the 96 well plate at 400 times gravity for five minutes at room temperature. Remove the supernatant from the pelleted cells by flipping over the plate. Dry the plate on a tissue.Add 200 microliters of fresh SA buffer from a reagent reservoir to the wells using a multi-channel pipette. Immediately proceed to centrifuge the plate again, for five minutes at 400 times gravity at room temperature. Again remove the supernatant, by flipping over the plate and then drying it on a tissue.Finally, gently resuspend the cell pellet in 200 microliters of 1%paraformaldehyde dissolved in PBS. This step will fix the cells. To analyze the samples by flow cytometry, start up the device and open the corresponding software.Select the cellular parameters to be visualized in a dot block format, as forward scatter area, side scatter area, and in a histogram view, the fluoro four detection channel. Choose one sample. For instance a negative control sample, to perform gating of a defined homogenous cell population based on the forward scatter and side scatter parameters.Adapt the settings for loading the cells into the flow cytometry device. Select three mixes before injection. Select automatic injection of 100 microliters of fixated cells, and use a sample flow rate of 1.5 microliters per second.Run the sample by selecting acquire data. The forward scatter and side scatter parameters for this sample, as well as the fluoro four detection will now appear on the screen. Now, select the software gating tool.Based on the forward scatter and side scatter dot plot visualization, predefine a homogenous and viable cell population by gating. Select to analyze 20, 000 events per sample. This means that for each sample, 20, 000 cells that fall within a predefined gates, will eventually be analyzed.Data acquisition will continue until this number of events is reached. Start the run by selecting first, the wells to be analyzed. Then selects run wells.The flow cytometry device will now analyze these samples one by one, by recording the mean fluorescence intensity for each sample. Which corresponds to the mean fluorescent signal from the 20, 000 cells that fall within the predefined gate. Finally, perform data analysis as described in the protocol.Following pre-incubation of jurkat cells with high concentrations of AMD3100, unestablished and specific CXCR4 antagonist. The mean fluorescence intensity that reflects binding of labeled CXCL12 is almost entirely reduced to background levels. This demonstrates the highly specific binding of CXCL12 to CXCR4 expressed on jurkat cells.Compounds that are unable to compete with labeled CXCL12 for binding at the CXCR4 receptor, like the CCR5 antagonist Maraviroc, will not affect the mean fluorescence intensity. In contrast, highly active compounds will do this in a dose-dependent manner. After watching the video, you should have a good understanding of how to perform a competition receptive binding assay using living cells and flow cytometry.

a-flow-cytometry-based-assay-to-identify-compounds-that-disrupt

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Proteomics to Identify Proteins Interacting with P2X2 Ligand-Gated Cation Channels

Ligand-gated ion channels underlie synaptic communication in the nervous system1. In mammals there are three families of ligand-gated channels: the cys loop, the glutamate-gated and the P2X receptor channels2. In each case binding of transmitter leads to the opening of a pore through which ions flow down their electrochemical gradients. Many ligand-gated channels are also permeable to calcium ions3, 4, which have downstream signaling roles5 (e.g. gene regulation) that may exceed the duration of channel opening. Thus ligand-gated channels can signal over broad time scales ranging from a few milliseconds to days. Given these important roles it is necessary to understand how ligand-gated ion channels themselves are regulated by proteins, and how these proteins may tune signaling. Recent studies suggest that many, if not all, channels may be part of protein signaling complexes6. In this article we explain how to identify the proteins that bind to the C-terminal aspects of the P2X2 receptor cytosolic domain.
P2X receptors are ATP-gated cation channels and consist of seven subunits (P2X1-P2X7). P2X receptors are widely expressed in the brain, where they mediate excitatory synaptic transmission and presynaptic facilitation of neurotransmitter release7. P2X receptors are found in excitable and non-excitable cells and mediate key roles in neuronal signaling, inflammation and cardiovascular function8. P2X2 receptors are abundant in the nervous system9 and are the focus of this study. Each P2X subunit is thought to possess two membrane spanning segments (TM1 &amp; TM2) separated by an extracellular region7 and intracellular N and C termini (Fig 1a)7. P2X subunits10 (P2X1-P2X7) show 30-50% sequence homology at the amino acid level11. P2X receptors contain only three subunits, which is the simplest stoichiometry among ionotropic receptors. The P2X2 C-terminus consists of 120 amino acids (Fig 1b) and contains several protein docking consensus sites, supporting the hypothesis that P2X2 receptor may be part of signaling complexes. However, although several functions have been attributed to the C-terminus of P2X2 receptors9 no study has described the molecular partners that couple to the intracellular side of this protein via the full length C-terminus. In this methods paper we describe a proteomic approach to identify the proteins which interact with the full length C-terminus of P2X2 receptors.

We describe a simple protocol to identify brain proteins that bind to the full length C terminus of ATP-gated P2X2 receptors. The extension and systematic application of this approach to all P2X receptors is expected to lead to a better understanding of P2X receptor signaling.

Ligand-gated ion channels underlie synaptic communication in the nervous system1. In mammals there are three families of ligand-gated channels: the cys ...

PAR-CliP - A Method to Identify Transcriptome-wide the Binding Sites of RNA Binding Proteins

RNA transcripts are subjected to post-transcriptional gene regulation by interacting with hundreds of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and microRNA-containing ribonucleoprotein complexes (miRNPs) that are often expressed in a cell-type dependently. To understand how the interplay of these RNA-binding factors affects the regulation of individual transcripts, high resolution maps of in vivo protein-RNA interactions are necessary1.
A combination of genetic, biochemical and computational approaches are typically applied to identify RNA-RBP or RNA-RNP interactions. Microarray profiling of RNAs associated with immunopurified RBPs (RIP-Chip)2 defines targets at a transcriptome level, but its application is limited to the characterization of kinetically stable interactions and only in rare cases3,4 allows to identify the RBP recognition element (RRE) within the long target RNA. More direct RBP target site information is obtained by combining in vivo UV crosslinking5,6 with immunoprecipitation7-9 followed by the isolation of crosslinked RNA segments and cDNA sequencing (CLIP)10. CLIP was used to identify targets of a number of RBPs11-17. However, CLIP is limited by the low efficiency of UV 254 nm RNA-protein crosslinking, and the location of the crosslink is not readily identifiable within the sequenced crosslinked fragments, making it difficult to separate UV-crosslinked target RNA segments from background non-crosslinked RNA fragments also present in the sample.
We developed a powerful cell-based crosslinking approach to determine at high resolution and transcriptome-wide the binding sites of cellular RBPs and miRNPs that we term PAR-CliP (Photoactivatable-Ribonucleoside-Enhanced Crosslinking and Immunoprecipitation) (see Fig. 1A for an outline of the method). The method relies on the incorporation of photoreactive ribonucleoside analogs, such as 4-thiouridine (4-SU) and 6-thioguanosine (6-SG) into nascent RNA transcripts by living cells. Irradiation of the cells by UV light of 365 nm induces efficient crosslinking of photoreactive nucleoside-labeled cellular RNAs to interacting RBPs. Immunoprecipitation of the RBP of interest is followed by isolation of the crosslinked and coimmunoprecipitated RNA. The isolated RNA is converted into a cDNA library and deep sequenced using Solexa technology. One characteristic feature of cDNA libraries prepared by PAR-CliP is that the precise position of crosslinking can be identified by mutations residing in the sequenced cDNA. When using 4-SU, crosslinked sequences thymidine to cytidine transition, whereas using 6-SG results in guanosine to adenosine mutations. The presence of the mutations in crosslinked sequences makes it possible to separate them from the background of sequences derived from abundant cellular RNAs.
Application of the method to a number of diverse RNA binding proteins was reported in Hafner et al.18

RNA transcripts are subject to extensive posttranscriptional regulation that is mediated by a multitude of trans-acting RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). Here we present a generalizable method to identify precisely and on a transcriptome-wide scale the RNA binding sites of RBPs.

RNA transcripts are subjected to post-transcriptional gene regulation by interacting with hundreds of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and microRNA-containing ...

Biochemical Reconstitution of Steroid Receptor&#x2022;Hsp90 Protein  Complexes and Reactivation of Ligand Binding

Hsp90 is an essential and highly abundant molecular chaperone protein that has been found to regulate more than 150 eukaryotic signaling proteins, including transcription factors (e.g. nuclear receptors, p53) and protein kinases (e.g. Src, Raf, Akt kinase) involved in cell cycling, tumorigenesis, apoptosis, and multiple eukaryotic signaling pathways 1,2. Of these many 'client' proteins for hsp90, the assembly of steroid receptor&bull;hsp90 complexes is the best defined (Figure 1). We present here an adaptable glucocorticoid receptor (GR) immunoprecipitation assay and in vitro GR&bull;hsp90 reconstitution method that may be readily used to probe eukaryotic hsp90 functional activity, hsp90-mediated steroid receptor ligand binding, and molecular chaperone cofactor requirements. For example, this assay can be used to test hsp90 cofactor requirements and the effects of adding exogenous compounds to the reconstitution process. 
The GR has been a particularly useful system for studying hsp90 because the receptor must be bound to hsp90 to have an open ligand binding cleft that is accessible to steroid 3. Endogenous, unliganded GR is present in the cytoplasm of mammalian cells noncovalently bound to hsp90. As found in the endogenous GR&bull;hsp90 heterocomplex, the GR ligand binding cleft is open and capable of binding steroid. If hsp90 dissociates from the GR or if its function is inhibited, the receptor is unable to bind steroid and requires reconstitution of the GR&bull;hsp90 heterocomplex before steroid binding activity is restored 4 . GR can be immunoprecipitated from cell cytosol using a monoclonal antibody, and proteins such as hsp90 complexed to the GR can be assayed by western blot. Steroid binding activity of the immunoprecipitated GR can be determined by incubating the immunopellet with [3H]steroid. 
Previous experiments have shown hsp90-mediated opening of the GR ligand binding cleft requires hsp70, a second molecular chaperone also essential for eukaryotic cell viability. Biochemical activity of hsp90 and hsp70 are catalyzed by co-chaperone proteins Hop, hsp40, and p23 5. A multiprotein chaperone machinery containing hsp90, hsp70, Hop, and hsp40 are endogenously present in eukaryotic cell cytoplasm, and reticulocyte lysate provides a chaperone-rich protein source 6. 
In the method presented, GR is immunoadsorbed from cell cytosol and stripped of the endogenous hsp90/hsp70 chaperone machinery using mild salt conditions. The salt-stripped GR is then incubated with reticulocyte lysate, ATP, and K+, which results in the reconstitution of the GR&bull;hsp90 heterocomplex and reactivation of steroid binding activity 7. This method can be utilized to test the effects of various chaperone cofactors, novel proteins, and experimental hsp90 or GR inhibitors in order to determine their functional significance on hsp90-mediated steroid binding 8-11.

Biochemical Reconstitution of Steroid Receptor&amp;#x2022;Hsp90 Protein  Complexes and Reactivation of Ligand Binding

An in vitro method for preparing functional glucocorticoid receptor (GR)&#x2022;hsp90 protein complexes from purified proteins and cellular lysates is described. The method utilizes immunoadsorption of recombinant GR followed by salt-stripping and protein complex reconstitution. The importance of cofactors and buffer conditions are discussed, as are potential method applications.

Hsp90 is an essential and highly abundant molecular chaperone protein that has been found to regulate more than 150 eukaryotic signaling proteins, ...

RNAi Screening to Identify Postembryonic Phenotypes in C. elegans

C. elegans has proven to be a valuable model system for the discovery and functional characterization of many genes and gene pathways1. More sophisticated tools and resources for studies in this system are facilitating continued discovery of genes with more subtle phenotypes or roles. 
Here we present a generalized protocol we adapted for identifying C. elegans genes with postembryonic phenotypes of interest using RNAi2. This procedure is easily modified to assay the phenotype of choice, whether by light or fluorescence optics on a dissecting or compound microscope. This screening protocol capitalizes on the physical assets of the organism and molecular tools the C. elegans research community has produced. As an example, we demonstrate the use of an integrated transgene that expresses a fluorescent product in an RNAi screen to identify genes required for the normal localization of this product in late stage larvae and adults. First, we used a commercially available genomic RNAi library with full-length cDNA inserts. This library facilitates the rapid identification of multiple candidates by RNAi reduction of the candidate gene product. Second, we generated an integrated transgene that expresses our fluorecently tagged protein of interest in an RNAi-sensitive background. Third, by exposing hatched animals to RNAi, this screen permits identification of gene products that have a vital embryonic role that would otherwise mask a post-embryonic role in regulating the protein of interest. Lastly, this screen uses a compound microscope equipped for single cell resolution.

RNAi Screening to Identify Postembryonic Phenotypes in C. elegans

We describe a sensitized method to identify postembryonic regulators of protein expression and localization in C. elegans using an RNAi-based genomic screen and an integrated transgene that expresses a functional, fluorescently tagged protein.

C. elegans has proven to be a valuable model system for the discovery and functional characterization of many genes and gene pathways1. More sophisticated ...

Flow Cytometry-based Purification of S. cerevisiae Zygotes

Zygotes are essential intermediates between haploid and diploid states in the life cycle of many organisms, including yeast (Figure 1) 1. S. cerevisiae zygotes result from the fusion of haploid cells of distinct mating type (MATa, MATalpha) and give rise to corresponding stable diploids that successively generate as many as 20 diploid progeny as a result of their strikingly asymmetric mitotic divisions 2. Zygote formation is orchestrated by a complex sequence of events: In this process, soluble mating factors bind to cognate receptors, triggering receptor-mediated signaling cascades that facilitate interruption of the cell cycle and culminate in cell-cell fusion. Zygotes may be considered a model for progenitor or stem cell function.
Although much has been learned about the formation of zygotes and although zygotes have been used to investigate cell-molecular questions of general significance, almost all studies have made use of mating mixtures in which zygotes are intermixed with a majority population of haploid cells 3-8. Many aspects of the biochemistry of zygote formation and the continuing life of the zygote therefore remain uninvestigated.
Reports of purification of yeast zygotes describe protocols based on their sedimentation properties 9; however, this sedimentation-based procedure did not yield nearly 90% purity in our hands. Moreover, it has the disadvantage that cells are exposed to hypertonic sorbitol. We therefore have developed a versatile purification procedure. For this purpose, pairs of haploid cells expressing red or green fluorescent proteins were co-incubated to allow zygote formation, harvested at various times, and the resulting zygotes were purified using a flow cytometry-based sorting protocol. This technique provides a convenient visual assessment of purity and maturation. The average purity of the fraction is approximately 90%. According to the timing of harvest, zygotes of varying degrees of maturity can be recovered. The purified samples provide a convenient point of departure for "-omic" studies, for recovery of initial progeny, and for systematic investigation of this progenitor cell.

Flow Cytometry-based Purification of S. cerevisiae Zygotes

To purify zygotes of S. cerevisiae, haploid cells of opposite mating type were engineered to express red or green fluorescent proteins, co-incubated to allow zygote formation, and fractionated using a flow cytometry-based protocol. The highly-enriched fraction enables subsequent "-omic" studies, recovery of initial progeny, and systematic investigation of zygote morphogenesis.

Zygotes are essential intermediates between haploid and diploid states in the life cycle of many organisms, including yeast (Figure 1) 1. S. cerevisiae ...

Production of Xenopus tropicalis Egg Extracts to Identify Microtubule-associated RNAs

Many organisms localize mRNAs to specific subcellular destinations to spatially and temporally control gene expression. Recent studies have demonstrated that the majority of the transcriptome is localized to a nonrandom position in cells and embryos. One approach to identify localized mRNAs is to biochemically purify a cellular structure of interest and to identify all associated transcripts. Using recently developed high-throughput sequencing technologies it is now straightforward to identify all RNAs associated with a subcellular structure. To facilitate transcript identification it is necessary to work with an organism with a fully sequenced genome. One attractive system for the biochemical purification of subcellular structures are egg extracts produced from the frog Xenopus laevis. However, X. laevis currently does not have a fully sequenced genome, which hampers transcript identification. In this article we describe a method to produce egg extracts from a related frog, X. tropicalis, that has a fully sequenced genome. We provide details for microtubule polymerization, purification and transcript isolation. While this article describes a specific method for identification of microtubule-associated transcripts, we believe that it will be easily applied to other subcellular structures and will provide a powerful method for identification of localized RNAs.

Production of Xenopus tropicalis Egg Extracts to Identify Microtubule-associated RNAs

We describe the collection of unfertilized Xenopus tropicalis eggs and production of a meiosis II-arrested egg extract. This egg extract can be used to purify microtubules and microtubule-associated RNAs.

Many  organisms localize mRNAs to specific subcellular destinations to spatially and  temporally control gene expression. Recent studies have demonstrated ...

Reverse Yeast Two-hybrid System to Identify Mammalian Nuclear Receptor Residues that Interact with Ligands and/or Antagonists

As a critical regulator of drug metabolism and inflammation, Pregnane X Receptor (PXR), plays an important role in disease pathophysiology linking metabolism and inflammation (e.g.&#160;hepatic steatosis)1,2. There has been much progress in the identification of agonist ligands for PXR, however, there are limited descriptions of drug-like antagonists and their binding sites on PXR3,4,5. A critical barrier has been the inability to efficiently purify full-length protein for structural studies with antagonists despite the fact that PXR was cloned and characterized in 1998. Our laboratory developed a novel high throughput yeast based two-hybrid assay to define an antagonist, ketoconazole&#39;s, binding residues on PXR6. Our method involves creating mutational libraries that would rescue the effect of single mutations on the AF-2 surface of PXR expected to interact with ketoconazole. Rescue or &#34;gain-of-function&#34; second mutations can be made such that conclusions regarding the genetic interaction of ketoconazole and the surface residue(s) on PXR are feasible. Thus, we developed a high throughput two-hybrid yeast screen of PXR mutants interacting with its coactivator, SRC-1. Using this approach, in which the yeast was modified to accommodate the study of the antifungal drug, ketoconazole, we could demonstrate specific mutations on PXR enriched in clones unable to bind to ketoconazole. By reverse logic, we conclude that the original residues are direct interaction residues with ketoconazole. This assay represents a novel, tractable genetic assay to screen for antagonist binding sites on nuclear receptor surfaces. This assay could be applied to any drug regardless of its cytotoxic potential to yeast as well as to cellular protein(s) that cannot be studied using standard structural biology or proteomic based methods. Potential pitfalls include interpretation of data (complementary methods useful), reliance on single Y2H method, expertise in handling yeast or performing yeast two-hybrid assays, and assay optimization.

Ketoconazole binds to and antagonizes Pregnane X Receptor (PXR) activation. Yeast high throughput screens of PXR mutants define a unique region for ketoconazole binding. This yeast-based genetic method discovers novel nuclear receptor interactions with ligands that associate with surface binding sites.

As a critical regulator of drug metabolism and inflammation, Pregnane X Receptor (PXR), plays an important role in disease pathophysiology linking ...

Validation of a Mouse Model to Disrupt LINC Complexes in a Cell-specific Manner

Nuclear migration and anchorage within developing and adult tissues relies heavily upon large macromolecular protein assemblies called LInkers of the Nucleoskeleton and Cytoskeleton (LINC complexes). These protein scaffolds span the nuclear envelope and connect the interior of the nucleus to components of the surrounding cytoplasmic cytoskeleton. LINC complexes consist of two evolutionary-conserved protein families, Sun proteins and Nesprins that harbor C-terminal molecular signature motifs called the SUN and KASH domains, respectively. Sun proteins are transmembrane proteins of the inner nuclear membrane whose N-terminal nucleoplasmic domain interacts with the nuclear lamina while their C-terminal SUN domains protrudes into the perinuclear space and interacts with the KASH domain of Nesprins. Canonical Nesprin isoforms have a variable sized N-terminus that projects into the cytoplasm and interacts with components of the cytoskeleton. This protocol describes the validation of a dominant-negative transgenic mouse strategy that disrupts endogenous SUN/KASH interactions in a cell-type specific manner. Our approach is based on the Cre/Lox system that bypasses many drawbacks such as perinatal lethality and cell nonautonomous phenotypes that are associated with germline models of LINC complex inactivation. For this reason, this model provides a useful tool to understand the role of LINC complexes during development and homeostasis in a wide array of tissues.

Nuclear envelope proteins play a central role in many basic biological processes and have been implicated in a variety of human diseases. This protocol describes a new Cre/Lox-based mouse model that allows for the spatiotemporal control of LINC complexes disruption.

Nuclear migration and anchorage within developing and adult tissues relies heavily upon large macromolecular protein assemblies called LInkers of the ...

Gap Junctional Intercellular Communication: A Functional Biomarker to Assess Adverse Effects of Toxicants and Toxins, and Health Benefits of Natural Products

This protocol describes a scalpel loading-fluorescent dye transfer (SL-DT) technique that measures intercellular communication through gap junction channels, which is a major intercellular process by which tissue homeostasis is maintained. Interruption of gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) by toxicants, toxins, drugs, etc. has been linked to numerous adverse health effects. Many genetic-based human diseases have been linked to mutations in gap junction genes. The SL-DT technique is a simple functional assay for the simultaneous assessment of GJIC in a large population of cells. The assay involves pre-loading cells with a fluorescent dye by briefly perturbing the cell membrane with a scalpel blade through a population of cells. The fluorescent dye is then allowed to traverse through gap junction channels to neighboring cells for a designated time. The assay is then terminated by the addition of formalin to the cells. The spread of the fluorescent dye through a population of cells is assessed with an epifluorescence microscope and the images are analyzed with any number of morphometric software packages that are available, including free software packages found on the public domain. This assay has also been adapted for in vivo studies using tissue slices from various organs from treated animals. Overall, the SL-DT assay can serve a broad range of in vitro pharmacological and toxicological needs, and can be potentially adapted for high throughput set-up systems with automated fluorescence microscopy imaging and analysis to elucidate more samples in a shorter time.

This protocol describes a scalpel loading-fluorescent dye transfer technique that measures intercellular communication through gap junction channels. Gap junctional intercellular communication is a major cellular process by which tissue homeostasis is maintained and disruption of this cell signaling has adverse health effects.

This protocol describes a scalpel loading-fluorescent dye transfer (SL-DT) technique that measures intercellular communication through gap junction ...

The Use of Ex Vivo Whole-organ Imaging and Quantitative Tissue Histology to Determine the Bio-distribution of Fluorescently Labeled Molecules

Fluorescent labeling is a well-established process for examining the fate of labeled molecules under a variety of experimental conditions both in vitro and in vivo. Fluorescent probes are particularly useful in determining the bio-distribution of administered large molecules, where the addition of a small-molecule fluorescent label is unlikely to affect the kinetics or bio-distribution of the compound. A variety of methods exist to examine bio-distribution that vary significantly in the amount of effort required and whether the resulting measurements are fully quantitative, but using multiple methods in conjunction can provide a rapid and effective system for analyzing bio-distributions.
Ex vivo whole-organ imaging is a method that can be used to quickly compare the relative concentrations of fluorescent molecules within tissues and between multiple types of tissues or treatment groups. Using an imaging platform designed for live-animal or whole-organ imaging, fluorescence within intact tissues can be determined without further processing, saving time and labor while providing an accurate picture of the overall bio-distribution. This process is ideal in experiments attempting to determine the tissue specificity of a compound or for the comparison of multiple different compounds. Quantitative tissue histology on the other hand requires extensive further processing of tissues in order to create a quantitative measure of the labeled compounds. To accurately assess bio-distribution, all tissues of interest must be sliced, scanned, and analyzed relative to standard curves in order to make comparisons between tissues or groups. Quantitative tissue histology is the gold standard for determining absolute compound concentrations within tissues.
Here, we describe how both methods can be used together effectively to assess the ability of different administration methods and compound modifications to target and deliver fluorescently labeled molecules to the central nervous system1.

The Use of Ex Vivo Whole-organ Imaging and Quantitative Tissue Histology to Determine the Bio-distribution of Fluorescently Labeled Molecules

Ex vivo whole-organ imaging is a rapid method for determining the relative concentrations of fluorescently labeled compounds within and between tissues or treatment groups. Conversely, quantitative fluorescence histology, while more labor intensive, allows for the quantification of the absolute tissue levels of labeled molecules.

Fluorescent labeling is a well-established process for examining the fate of labeled molecules under a variety of experimental conditions both in vitro ...