Funding for this work was provided by a Garnett Passe and Rodney Williams Memorial Foundation Project grant to R. Lim and A.J. Camp.

1. Animals
<ol>
	<li>Mice were obtained from the Australian Rodent Centre (ARC; Perth, Australia) and held at the University of Sydney Bosch Animal Facility on a normal 12-hr light/dark cycle with environmental enrichment. All experiments described were approved by The University of Sydney Animal Ethics Committee.</li>
	<li>Male and female mice (C57/Bl6) were used for all experiments since this strain are commonly used as the background for genetic manipulation, and can be considered equivalent to wildtype <su...

<ol>
	<li>Dulon, D., Safieddine, S., Jones, S. M., Petit, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Otoferlin+is+critical+for+a+highly+sensitive+and+linear+calcium-dependent+exocytosis+at+vestibular+hair+cell+ribbon+synapses.">Otoferlin is critical for a highly sensitive and linear calcium-dependent exocytosis at vestibular hair cell ribbon synapses.</a> J. Neurosci. 29, 10474-10487 (2009).</li><li>Highstein, S., Art, J., Holstein, G., Rabbitt, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+pre-+and+post-synaptic+recording+from+the+peripheral+vestibular+calyx+and+its+included+type+I+hair+cell.">Simultaneous pre- and post-synaptic recording from the peripheral vestibular calyx and its included type I hair cell.</a> , (2009).</li><li>Kindig, A. E., Lim, R., Callister, R. J., Brichta, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Voltage+dependent+currents+in+type+I+and+II+hair+cell+and+calyx+terminals+of+primary+afferents+in+an+intact+in+vitro+mouse+vestibular+crista+preparation.">Voltage dependent currents in type I and II hair cell and calyx terminals of primary afferents in an intact in vitro mouse vestibular crista preparation.</a> , (2009).</li><li>Chatlani, S., Goldberg, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole-cell+recordings+from+calyx+endings+in+the+turtle+posterior+crista.">Whole-cell recordings from calyx endings in the turtle posterior crista.</a> , (2010).</li><li>Songer, J. E., Eatock, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transduction+in+the+mammalian+saccule.">Transduction in the mammalian saccule.</a> , (2010).</li><li>Lee, H. Y., Camp, A. J., Callister, R. J., Brichta, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vestibular+primary+afferent+activity+in+an+in+vitro+preparation+of+the+mouse+inner+ear.">Vestibular primary afferent activity in an in vitro preparation of the mouse inner ear.</a> J. Neurosci. Methods. 145, 73-87 (2005).</li><li>Lim, R., Kindig, A. E., Donne, S. W., Callister, R. J., Brichta, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Potassium+accumulation+between+type+I+hair+cells+and+calyx+terminals+in+mouse+crista.">Potassium accumulation between type I hair cells and calyx terminals in mouse crista.</a> Exp. Brain Res. 210, 607-621 (2011).</li><li>Camp, A. J., Callister, R. J., Brichta, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibitory+synaptic+transmission+differs+in+mouse+type+A+and+B+medial+vestibular+nucleus+neurons+in+vitro.">Inhibitory synaptic transmission differs in mouse type A and B medial vestibular nucleus neurons in vitro.</a> J. Neurophysiol. 95, 3208-3218 (2006).</li><li>Camp, A. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Attenuated+glycine+receptor+function+reduces+excitability+of+mouse+medial+vestibular+nucleus+neurons.">Attenuated glycine receptor function reduces excitability of mouse medial vestibular nucleus neurons.</a> Neuroscience. 170, 348-360 (2010).</li><li>Briggman, K. L., Euler, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bulk+electroporation+and+population+calcium+imaging+in+the+adult+mammalian+retina.">Bulk electroporation and population calcium imaging in the adult mammalian retina.</a> J. Neurophysiol. 105, 2601-2609 (2011).</li><li>Briggman, K. L., Helmstaedter, M., Denk, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wiring+specificity+in+the+direction-selectivity+circuit+of+the+retina.">Wiring specificity in the direction-selectivity circuit of the retina.</a> Nature. 471, 183-188 (2011).</li><li>Rennie, K. J., Streeter, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Voltage-dependent+currents+in+isolated+vestibular+afferent+calyx+terminals.">Voltage-dependent currents in isolated vestibular afferent calyx terminals.</a> J. Neurophysiol. 95, 26-32 (2006).</li><li>Hudspeth, A. J., Lewis, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kinetic+analysis+of+voltage-+and+ion-dependent+conductances+in+saccular+hair+cells+of+the+bull-frog,+Rana+catesbeiana.">Kinetic analysis of voltage- and ion-dependent conductances in saccular hair cells of the bull-frog, Rana catesbeiana.</a> J. Physiol. 400, 237-274 (1988).</li><li>Rennie, K. J., Ashmore, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ionic+currents+in+isolated+vestibular+hair+cells+from+the+guinea-pig+crista+ampullaris.">Ionic currents in isolated vestibular hair cells from the guinea-pig crista ampullaris.</a> Hear. Res. 51, 279-291 (1991).</li></ol>

The mechanisms underlying our sense of balance have received limited attention in comparison with other sensory systems, e.g. the visual and auditory systems. Of the studies that have investigated changes in vestibular or balance function, most have focused on behavioral measures including the vestibulo-ocular reflex, with incomplete knowledge of the fundamental building blocks of balance- the vestibular hair cells themselves. Those studies that have concentrated on the hair cells have almost invariably do...

Despite the significant contribution of the vestibular system to our everyday lives, a clear understanding of the processes responsible for the observed decline in vestibular function with age remain elusive. One reason for this lack of knowledge is that decline in vestibular function has almost exclusively been explored using behavioral assays, including the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), a precise indicator of extrinsic vestibular function, but provides limited insights into the changes of intrinsic components. This is a major impediment to our understanding of vestibular hair cell function in health, disease, or aging.
While there have been many studies of individual vestibular hair cells, a major shortcoming has been the reliance on acute hair cell preparations, where hair cells and even calyx afferent terminals are removed from their normal environment via mechanical and/or enzymatic treatment. Such approaches inevitably disrupt the delicate microarchitecture between hair cell and calyx, and hair cell and supporting cell. With the development of semi-intact preparations 1-5, and an isolated mouse labyrinth preparation 6, there is now an opportunity to study the various forms of synaptic communication under conditions that more closely resemble those in vivo. Indeed, Lim et al. (2011) showed marked differences in whole cell currents recorded from acutely isolated type I vestibular hair cells compared to those that remained embedded within the neuroepithelium. Specifically, potassium is thought to accumulate in the intercellular space, between the hair cell and calyx afferent, and significantly alter hair cell response7. This type of information would be impossible to obtain without the semi-intact preparation of the vestibular sensory epithelium described here. We demonstrate the semi-intact preparation of the mouse crista 3, and show representative results obtained from whole-cell patch electrophysiology, and two-photon calcium imaging.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>REAGENTS</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Leibovitz medium L-15</td>
 <td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
 <td>L4386-10X1L</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>BAPTA-1-oregon green</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>O6806 </td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>EQUIPMENT </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Stereo microscope</td>
 <td>Leica Microsystems</td>
 <td>A60S</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Upright microscope</td>
 <td>Olympus</td>
 <td>BX51WI</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Two-photon microscope</td>
 <td>Olympus/La Vision</td>
 <td>BX51WI/ TriMScope II</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Dumont #5 SF Forceps</td>
 <td>FST</td>
 <td>11252-00</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Friedman-Pearson Rongeurs</td>
 <td>FST</td>
 <td>16221-14</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Standard Pattern Scissors</td>
 <td>FST</td>
 <td>14001-12</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>InstraTECH A-D converter</td>
 <td>HEKA</td>
 <td>ITC-18</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sutter Micromanipulator</td>
 <td>Sutter</td>
 <td>MP-225/M</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>multiclamp amplifier</td>
 <td>Axon Instruments</td>
 <td>700B</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Data acquisition software (electrophysiology)</td>
 <td>Axograph</td>
 <td>N/A</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Imspector Data acquisition software (two-photon)</td>
 <td>Max Planck innovation</td>
 <td>N/A</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

an isolated semi-intact preparation of the mouse vestibular sensory epithelium for electrophysiology and high-resolution two-photon microscopy

Understanding vestibular hair cells function under normal conditions, or how trauma, disease, and aging disrupt this function is a vital step in the development of preventative approaches and/or novel therapeutic strategies. However, the majority of studies looking at abnormal vestibular function have not been at the cellular level but focused primarily on behavioral assays of vestibular dysfunction such as gait analyses and vestibulo-ocular reflex performance. While this work has yielded valuable data about what happens when things go wrong, little information is gleaned regarding the underlying causes of dysfunction. Of the studies that focus on the cellular and subcellular processes that underlie vestibular function, most have relied on acutely isolated hair cells, devoid of their synaptic connections and supporting cell environment. Therefore, a major technical challenge has been access to the exquisitely sensitive vestibular hair cells in a preparation that is least disrupted, physiologically. Here we demonstrate a semi-intact preparation of the mouse vestibular sensory epithelium that retains the local micro-environment including hair cell/primary afferent complexes.

The electrophysiological properties of vestibular hair cells are dependent on the complex microarchitecture within which they are embedded 7. Figure 5 shows that the semi-intact vestibular epithelium preparation can be used to differentiate between type I hair cells (Figure 5A), type II hair cells (Figure 5B), and the calyx primary afferent (Figure 5C) based on characteristic whole cell conductances. These characteristics include a prono...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Isolated Semi-intact Preparation of the Mouse Vestibular Sensory Epithelium for Electrophysiology and High-resolution Two-photon Microscopy at JoVE.com

An Isolated Semi-intact Preparation of the Mouse Vestibular Sensory Epithelium for Electrophysiology and High-resolution Two-photon Microscopy

Analysis of vestibular hair cell function is complicated by their location deep within the hardest part of the skull, the petrous temporal bone. Most functional hair cell studies have used acutely isolated hair cells. Here we describe a semi-intact preparation of mouse vestibular epithelium for electrophysiological and two-photon microscopy studies.

Understanding vestibular hair cells function  under normal conditions, or how trauma, disease, and aging disrupt this  function is a vital step in the ...

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JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

11.8K vistas.  University of Sydney. Análisis de la función de las células ciliadas vestibulares se complica por su ubicación en lo profundo de la parte más dura del cráneo, hueso temporal pétreo. La mayoría de los estudios de células pilosas funcionales han utilizado intensamente células ciliadas aislados. A continuación se describe una preparación semi-intacta de ratón epitelio vestibular para estudios electrofisiológicos y de microscopía de dos fotones.

Video: An Isolated Semi-intact Preparation of the Mouse Vestibular Sensory Epithelium for Electrophysiology and High-resolution Two-photon Microscopy

In vivo Imaging of the Mouse Spinal Cord Using Two-photon Microscopy

In vivo imaging using two-photon microscopy 1 in mice that have been genetically engineered to express fluorescent proteins in specific cell types 2-3 has significantly broadened our knowledge of physiological and pathological processes in numerous tissues in vivo 4-7. In studies of the central nervous system (CNS), there has been a broad application of in vivo imaging in the brain, which has produced a plethora of novel and often unexpected findings about the behavior of cells such as neurons, astrocytes, microglia, under physiological or pathological conditions 8-17. However, mostly technical complications have limited the implementation of in vivo imaging in studies of the living mouse spinal cord. In particular, the anatomical proximity of the spinal cord to the lungs and heart generates significant movement artifact that makes imaging the living spinal cord a challenging task.
We developed a novel method that overcomes the inherent limitations of spinal cord imaging by stabilizing the spinal column, reducing respiratory-induced movements and thereby facilitating the use of two-photon microscopy to image the mouse spinal cord in vivo. This is achieved by combining a customized spinal stabilization device with a method of deep anesthesia, resulting in a significant reduction of respiratory-induced movements. This video protocol shows how to expose a small area of the living spinal cord that can be maintained under stable physiological conditions over extended periods of time by keeping tissue injury and bleeding to a minimum. Representative raw images acquired in vivo detail in high resolution the close relationship between microglia and the vasculature. A timelapse sequence shows the dynamic behavior of microglial processes in the living mouse spinal cord. Moreover, a continuous scan of the same z-frame demonstrates the outstanding stability that this method can achieve to generate stacks of images and/or timelapse movies that do not require image alignment post-acquisition. Finally, we show how this method can be used to revisit and reimage the same area of the spinal cord at later timepoints, allowing for longitudinal studies of ongoing physiological or pathological processes in vivo.

In vivo Imaging of the Mouse Spinal Cord Using Two-photon Microscopy

A minimally invasive protocol to stabilize the mouse spinal column and perform repetitive in vivo spinal cord imaging using two-photon microscopy is described. This method combines a spinal stabilization device and an anesthetic regimen to minimize respiratory-induced movements and produce raw imaging data that require no alignment or other post-processing.

In vivo imaging using two-photon microscopy 1 in mice that have been genetically engineered to express fluorescent proteins in specific cell types 2-3 has ...

Tissue Preparation and Immunostaining of Mouse Sensory Nerve Fibers Innervating Skin and Limb Bones

Detection and primary processing of physical, chemical and thermal sensory stimuli by peripheral sensory nerve fibers is key to sensory perception in animals and humans. These peripheral sensory nerve fibers express a plethora of receptors and ion channel proteins which detect and initiate specific sensory stimuli. Methods are available to characterize the electrical properties of peripheral sensory nerve fibers innervating the skin, which can also be utilized to identify the functional expression of specific ion channel proteins in these fibers. However, similar electrophysiological methods are not available (and are also difficult to develop) for the detection of the functional expression of receptors and ion channel proteins in peripheral sensory nerve fibers innervating other visceral organs, including the most challenging tissues such as bone. Moreover, such electrophysiological methods cannot be utilized to determine the expression of non-excitable proteins in peripheral sensory nerve fibers. Therefore, immunostaining of peripheral/visceral tissue samples for sensory nerve fivers provides the best possible way to determine the expression of specific proteins of interest in these nerve fibers. So far, most of the protein expression studies in sensory neurons have utilized immunostaining procedures in sensory ganglia, where the information is limited to the expression of specific proteins in the cell body of specific types or subsets of sensory neurons. Here we report detailed methods/protocols for the preparation of peripheral/visceral tissue samples for immunostaining of peripheral sensory nerve fibers. We specifically detail methods for the preparation of skin or plantar punch biopsy and bone (femur) sections from mice for immunostaining of peripheral sensory nerve fibers. These methods are not only key to the qualitative determination of protein expression in peripheral sensory neurons, but also provide a quantitative assay method for determining changes in protein expression levels in specific types or subsets of sensory fibers, as well as for determining the morphological and/or anatomical changes in the number and density of sensory fibers during various pathological states. Further, these methods are not confined to the staining of only sensory nerve fibers, but can also be used for staining any types of nerve fibers in the skin, bones and other visceral tissue.

Immunocytochemical identification of peripheral sensory nerve fiber subtypes (and detection of protein expression therein) are key to the understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying peripheral sensation. Here we describe methods for preparation of peripheral/visceral tissue samples, such as skin and limb bones, for specific immunostaining of peripheral sensory nerve fibers.

Detection and primary processing of physical, chemical and thermal sensory stimuli by peripheral sensory nerve fibers is key to sensory perception in ...

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging Of Experience-dependent Molecular Changes In Cortical Neurons

The brain's ability to change in response to experience is essential for healthy brain function, and abnormalities in this process contribute to a variety of brain disorders1,2. To better understand the mechanisms by which brain circuits react to an animal's experience requires the ability to monitor the experience-dependent molecular changes in a given set of neurons, over a prolonged period of time, in the live animal. While experience and associated neural activity is known to trigger gene expression changes in neurons1,2, most of the methods to detect such changes do not allow repeated observation of the same neurons over multiple days or do not have sufficient resolution to observe individual neurons3,4. Here, we describe a method that combines in vivo two-photon microscopy with a genetically encoded fluorescent reporter to track experience-dependent gene expression changes in individual cortical neurons over the course of day-to-day experience. 
One of the well-established experience-dependent genes is Activity-regulated cytoskeletal associated protein (Arc)5,6. The transcription of Arc is rapidly and highly induced by intensified neuronal activity3, and its protein product regulates the endocytosis of glutamate receptors and long-term synaptic plasticity7. The expression of Arc has been widely used as a molecular marker to map neuronal circuits involved in specific behaviors3. In most of those studies, Arc expression was detected by in situ hybridization or immunohistochemistry in fixed brain sections. Although those methods revealed that the expression of Arc was localized to a subset of excitatory neurons after behavioral experience, how the cellular patterns of Arc expression might change with multiple episodes of repeated or distinctive experiences over days was not investigated. 
In vivo two-photon microscopy offers a powerful way to examine experience-dependent cellular changes in the living brain8,9. To enable the examination of Arc expression in live neurons by two-photon microscopy, we previously generated a knock-in mouse line in which a GFP reporter is placed under the control of the endogenous Arc promoter10. This protocol describes the surgical preparations and imaging procedures for tracking experience-dependent Arc-GFP expression patterns in neuronal ensembles in the live animal. In this method, chronic cranial windows were first implanted in Arc-GFP mice over the cortical regions of interest. Those animals were then repeatedly imaged by two-photon microscopy after desired behavioral paradigms over the course of several days. This method may be generally applicable to animals carrying other fluorescent reporters of experience-dependent molecular changes4.

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging Of Experience-dependent Molecular Changes In Cortical Neurons

Experience-dependent molecular changes in neurons are essential for the brain's ability to adapt in response to behavioral challenges. An in vivo two-photon imaging method is described here that allows the tracking of such molecular changes in individual cortical neurons through genetically encoded reporters.

The brain's ability to change in response to experience is essential for healthy brain function, and abnormalities in this process contribute to a variety ...

An In-vitro Preparation of Isolated Enteric Neurons and Glia from the Myenteric Plexus of the Adult Mouse

The enteric nervous system is a vast network of neurons and glia running the length of the gastrointestinal tract that functionally controls gastrointestinal motility. A procedure for the isolation and culture of a mixed population of neurons and glia from the myenteric plexus is described. The primary cultures can be maintained for over 7 days, with connections developing among the neurons and glia. The longitudinal muscle strip with the attached myenteric plexus is stripped from the underlying circular muscle of the mouse ileum or colon and subjected to enzymatic digestion. In sterile conditions, the isolated neuronal and glia population are preserved within the pellet following centrifugation and plated on coverslips. Within 24-48 hr, neurite outgrowth occurs and neurons can be identified by pan-neuronal markers. After two days in culture, isolated neurons fire action potentials as observed by patch clamp studies. Furthermore, enteric glia can also be identified by GFAP staining. A network of neurons and glia in close apposition forms within 5 - 7 days. Enteric neurons can be individually and directly studied using methods such as immunohistochemistry, electrophysiology, calcium imaging, and single-cell PCR. Furthermore, this procedure can be performed in genetically modified animals. This methodology is simple to perform and inexpensive. Overall, this protocol exposes the components of the enteric nervous system in an easily manipulated manner so that we may better discover the functionality of the ENS in normal and disease states.

An In-vitro Preparation of Isolated Enteric Neurons and Glia from the Myenteric Plexus of the Adult Mouse

We demonstrate a cell culture protocol for the direct study of neuronal and glial components of the enteric nervous system. A neuron/glia mixed culture on coverslips is prepared from the myenteric plexus of adult mouse providing the ability to examine individual neuron and glia function by electrophysiology, immunohistochemical, etc.

The enteric nervous system is a vast network of neurons and glia running the length of the gastrointestinal tract that functionally controls ...

In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin

Nerve endings in skin are involved in physiological processes such as sensing1 as well as in pathological processes such as neuropathic pain2. Their close-to-surface positioning facilitates microscopic imaging of skin nerve endings in living intact animal. Using multiphoton microscopy, it is possible to obtain fine images overcoming the problem of strong light scattering of the skin tissue. Reporter transgenic mice that express EYFP under the control of Thy-1 promoter in neurons (including periphery sensory neurons) are well suited for the longitudinal studies of individual nerve endings over extended periods of time up to several months or even life-long. Furthermore, using the same femtosecond laser as for the imaging, it is possible to produce highly selective lesions of nerve fibers for the studies of the nerve fiber restructuring. Here, we present a simple and reliable protocol for longitudinal multiphoton in vivo imaging and laser-based microsurgery on mouse skin nerve endings.

In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin

The protocol for dynamic longitudinal imaging and selective laser lesion of nerve endings in reporter transgenic mice is presented.&#160;

Nerve endings in skin are involved in physiological processes such as sensing1 as well as in pathological processes such as neuropathic pain2. Their ...

Two-Photon in vivo Imaging of Dendritic Spines in the Mouse Cortex Using a Thinned-skull Preparation

In the mammalian cortex, neurons form extremely complicated networks and exchange information at synapses. Changes in synaptic strength, as well as addition/removal of synapses, occur in an experience-dependent manner, providing the structural foundation of neuronal plasticity. As postsynaptic components of the most excitatory synapses in the cortex, dendritic spines are considered to be a good proxy of synapses. Taking advantages of mouse genetics and fluorescent labeling techniques, individual neurons and their synaptic structures can be labeled in the intact brain. Here we introduce a transcranial imaging protocol using two-photon laser scanning microscopy to follow fluorescently labeled postsynaptic dendritic spines over time in vivo. This protocol utilizes a thinned-skull preparation, which keeps the skull intact and avoids inflammatory effects caused by exposure of the meninges and the cortex. Therefore, images can be acquired immediately after surgery is performed. The experimental procedure can be performed repetitively over various time intervals ranging from hours to years. The application of this preparation can also be expanded to investigate different cortical regions and layers, as well as other cell types, under physiological and pathological conditions.

Two-Photon in vivo Imaging of Dendritic Spines in the Mouse Cortex Using a Thinned-skull Preparation

Time-lapse imaging in the living animal provides valuable information on structural reorganization in the intact brain. Here, we introduce a thinned-skull preparation that allows transcranial imaging of fluorescently labeled synaptic structures in the living mouse cortex by two-photon microscopy.

In the mammalian cortex, neurons form extremely complicated networks and exchange information at synapses. Changes in synaptic strength, as well as ...

Two-photon Imaging of Cellular Dynamics in the Mouse Spinal Cord

Two-photon (2P) microscopy is utilized to reveal cellular dynamics and interactions deep within living, intact tissues. Here, we present a method for live-cell imaging in the murine spinal cord. This technique is uniquely suited to analyze neural precursor cell (NPC) dynamics following transplantation into spinal cords undergoing neuroinflammatory demyelinating disorders. NPCs migrate to sites of axonal damage, proliferate, differentiate into oligodendrocytes, and participate in direct remyelination. NPCs are thereby a promising therapeutic treatment to ameliorate chronic demyelinating diseases. Because transplanted NPCs migrate to the damaged areas on the ventral side of the spinal cord, traditional intravital 2P imaging is impossible, and only information on static interactions was previously available using histochemical staining approaches. Although this method was generated to image transplanted NPCs in the ventral spinal cord, it can be applied to numerous studies of transplanted and endogenous cells throughout the entire spinal cord. In this article, we demonstrate the preparation and imaging of a spinal cord with enhanced yellow fluorescent protein-expressing axons and enhanced green fluorescent protein-expressing transplanted NPCs.

A new ex vivo preparation for imaging the mouse spinal cord. This protocol allows for two-photon imaging of live cellular interactions throughout the spinal cord.

Two-photon (2P) microscopy is utilized to reveal cellular dynamics and interactions deep within living, intact tissues. Here, we present a method for ...

Quantification of Cerebral Vascular Architecture using Two-photon Microscopy in a Mouse Model of HIV-induced Neuroinflammation

Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1) infection frequently results in HIV-1 Associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND), and is characterized by a chronic neuroinflammatory state within the central nervous system (CNS), thought to be driven principally by virally-mediated activation of microglia and brain resident macrophages. HIV-1 infection is also accompanied by changes in cerebrovascular blood flow (CBF), raising the possibility that HIV-associated chronic neuroinflammation may lead to changes in CBF and/or in cerebral vascular architecture. To address this question, we have used a mouse model for HIV-induced neuroinflammation, and we have tested whether long-term exposure to this inflammatory environment may damage brain vasculature and result in rarefaction of capillary networks. In this paper we describe a method to quantify changes in cortical capillary density in a mouse model of neuroinflammatory disease (HIV-1 Tat transgenic mice). This generalizable approach employs in vivo two-photon imaging of cortical capillaries through a thin-skull cortical window, as well as ex vivo two-photon imaging of cortical capillaries in mouse brain sections. These procedures produce images and z-stack files of capillary networks, respectively, which can be then subjected to quantitative analysis in order to assess changes in cerebral vascular architecture.

This paper describes a method by which the vascular architecture in the brain can be quantified using in vivo and ex vivo two-photon microscopy.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1) infection frequently results in HIV-1 Associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND), and is characterized by a chronic ...

Physiological Preparation of Hair Cells from the Sacculus of the American Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana)

The study of hearing and balance rests upon insights drawn from biophysical studies of model systems. One such model, the sacculus of the American bullfrog, has become a mainstay of auditory and vestibular research. Studies of this organ have revealed how sensory cells hair can actively detect signals from the environment. Because of these studies, we now better understand the mechanical gating and localization of a hair cell&#39;s transduction channels, calcium&#39;s role in mechanical adaptation, and the identity of hair cell currents. This highly accessible organ continues to provide insight into the workings of hair cells. Here we describe the preparation of the bullfrog&#39;s sacculus for biophysical studies on its hair cells. We include the complete dissection procedure and provide specific protocols for the preparation of the sacculus in specific contexts. We additionally include representative results using this preparation, including the calculation of a hair bundle&#39;s instantaneous force-displacement relation and measurement of a bundle&#39;s spontaneous oscillation.

Physiological Preparation of Hair Cells from the Sacculus of the American Bullfrog Rana catesbeiana

The American bullfrog&#39;s (Rana catesbeiana) sacculus permits direct examination of hair-cell physiology. Here the dissection and preparation of the bullfrog&#39;s sacculus for biophysical studies is described. We show representative experiments from these hair cells, including the calculation of a bundle&#39;s force-displacement relation and measurement of its unforced motion.

The study of hearing and balance rests upon insights drawn from biophysical studies of model systems. One such model, the sacculus of the American ...

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging of Cortical Neurons in Neonatal Mice

Two-photon imaging is a powerful tool for the in vivo analysis of neuronal circuits in the mammalian brain. However, a limited number of in vivo imaging methods exist for examining the brain tissue of live newborn mammals. Herein we summarize a protocol for imaging individual cortical neurons in living neonatal mice. This protocol includes the following two methodologies: (1) the Supernova system for sparse and bright labeling of cortical neurons in the developing brain, and (2) a surgical procedure for the fragile neonatal skull. This protocol allows the observation of temporal changes of individual cortical neurites during neonatal stages with a high signal-to-noise ratio. Labeled cell-specific gene silencing and knockout can also be achieved by combining the Supernova with RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing systems. This protocol can, thus, be used for analyzing the developmental dynamics of cortical neurons, molecular mechanisms that control the neuronal dynamics, and changes in neuronal dynamics in disease models.

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging of Cortical Neurons in Neonatal Mice

We present an in vivo two-photon imaging protocol for imaging the cerebral cortex of neonatal mice. This method is suitable for analyzing the developmental dynamics of cortical neurons, the molecular mechanisms that control the neuronal dynamics, and the changes in neuronal dynamics in disease models.

Two-photon imaging is a powerful tool for the in vivo analysis of neuronal circuits in the mammalian brain. However, a limited number of in vivo imaging ...