Work in the authors' laboratory is supported by a grant from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (GM41628) and by a grant to the Stowers Institute for Medical Research from the Helen Nelson Medical Research Fund at the Greater Kansas City Community Foundation.

1. ATP-dependientes Nucleosome Remodelación ensayos Para medir las actividades de remodelación nucleosoma dependiente de ATP, inmunopurificado INO80 o subcomplexes INO80 se incuban con ATP y un sustrato mononucleosomal, que contiene un único nucleosoma posicionado en un extremo de un fragmento de ADN de 216 pb, marcado con P 32. Los productos de reacción se someten después a electroforesis en geles de poli-acrilamida nativos. <ol><li> Para generar el fragmento de ADN marcado con 32P &#39;601&#39;, amplificar de pGEM-3Z-601 4 un fragmento de ADN de 216 pb que contiene una secuencia de 601 el posicionamiento de nucleosomas final ubicado, utilizando los oligonucleótidos 5&#39;-ACAGGATGTATATATCTGACACGTGCCTGG y 5&#39;-AATACTCAAGCTTGGATGCCTGCAG como adelante y atrás primers. <ol><li> Configurar una reacción de PCR 100 l como se describe en la Tabla 1. </li><li> Lleve a cabo las reacciones de PCR en un termociclador con el siguiente programa: 1 min a 96 ° C, followed por 45 segundos a 94 ° C, 30 segundos a 57 ° C, 60 segundos a 72 ° C durante 30 ciclos; terminando con 7 min a 72 ° C. </li><li> Después de que se terminó la reacción de PCR, eliminar los nucleótidos no incorporados haciendo pasar los productos de reacción dos veces a través de columnas de centrifugado sin nucleasa. </li><li> Ejecutar 5 l de producto de PCR purificado en un gel de agarosa al 1,2% para confirmar que la reacción de PCR generó el fragmento de ADN de ~ 216 pb deseado. </li><li> Diluir 5 l de producto de PCR purificado de 20 veces, y medir la concentración de ADN utilizando un espectrofotómetro UV. El rendimiento promedio es de ~ 40 ng / l. </li><li> Medir la radiactividad de 1 l de producto de PCR purificado en un contador de centelleo. Estimar el etiquetado de eficiencia mediante el cálculo de la cpm / ng. Se espera una reacción de marcado con éxito para producir ~ 15.000 cpm / ng de fragmento de ADN de 601. </li></ol></li><li> Transferencia de células HeLa nucleosomas en el ADN marcado 601 utilizando un método de dilución en serie 5. <ol><li> Mezclar 2 pmol de32 P-etiquetados 601 fragmento de ADN con 6 g de nucleosomas Hela (preparado como se describe 5) en 50 l de un tampón que contenía NaCl 1,0 M, Tris-HCl 10, pH 8,0, EDTA 1 mM, PMSF 0,1 mM, y 1 mM TDT y se incuba a 30 ° C durante 30 min. </li><li> Secuencialmente se diluye la mezcla a 0,8 M, 0,6 M y NaCl 0,4 M por dilución con 12,5 l, 20,8 l, y 41,6 l, respectivamente, de 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8,0), EDTA 1 mM, PMSF 0,1 mM, y DTT 1 mM, con una incubación de 30 min a 30 ° C después de cada dilución. </li><li> Además se diluye la mezcla a 0,2 M y luego a NaCl 0,1 M mediante la adición de 125 l y luego 250 l de la misma solución tampón que contiene 0,1% de Nonidet P-40, 20% de glicerol, y 200 mg / ml de BSA, con una incubación de 30 min a 30 ° C entre las dos últimas diluciones. Almacenar el sustrato mononucleosome a 4 ° C durante un máximo de 3 meses. </li></ol></li><li> Realizar reacciones nucleosoma deslizamiento dependientes de ATP en un volumen total de 10 l. El reaction componentes se enumeran en la Tabla 2. Puesto que la concentración de NaCl óptima para INO80 actividad de remodelación nucleosoma es de ~ 50 mM de NaCl (resultados no publicados), ajustar la concentración total de NaCl en cada reacción a 50 mM, teniendo en cuenta la cantidad de contenido en NaCl preparaciones de nucleosomas y enzima. <ol><li> Antes de comenzar a configurar los ensayos, emitidos geles poli-acrilamida nativos (18 x 16 cm). Para preparar un solo gel que contiene 5% de acrilamida (acrilamida: bisacrilamida 37.5: 1), TBE 0,5 x (Tris 45 mM borato, EDTA 1 mM), persulfato de amonio 0,01% (APS), y 0,001% de N, N, N &#39;, N &#39;tetrametiletilendiamina (TEMED), mezclar los ingredientes enumerados en la Tabla 3. Deje que el gel se polimerice por lo menos durante 2 horas a RT. </li><li> Mientras tanto, para que se realice cada reacción, se combinan en un tubo de 1.5 ml con silicona previamente enfriado ~ 20 nM INO80 o subcomplejo INO80 (preparada como se describe 3) con una cantidad de tampón EB100 ( <strong&gt; Tabla 4) suficiente para dar un volumen de 4,75 l. Inmediatamente vuelva a congelar las fracciones que contiene INO80-que quedan en hielo seco en polvo o nitrógeno líquido. </li><li> Establecer un cóctel principal con el resto de los ingredientes, la ampliación por un factor de &#39;X&#39; (donde X = número total de reacciones 3). La cantidad de cada ingrediente necesario para una sola reacción de 10 l se enumera en la Tabla 5; la receta debe ampliarse de acuerdo con el número de reacciones a realizar. Mezclar bien tocando el tubo o pipeta hacia arriba y hacia abajo con un Pipetman y hacer girar el tubo durante unos segundos en una microcentrífuga de sobremesa. </li><li> Dispensar 5,25 l de cóctel de maestro a cada uno de los tubos de reacción preparada en el paso 1.3.2. Mezclar bien pipeteando arriba y abajo. Iniciar las reacciones mediante la transferencia de los tubos de reacción a un baño de 30 ° C o bloque de calor de agua y se incuba durante 2 hr. </li><li> Mientras tanto, preparar &#39;la eliminación de mezcla&#39; cóctel que contiene ADN competidory nucleosomas, la ampliación por un factor de X (X = número total de reacciones + 4). La cantidad de cada ingrediente necesario para preparar 1,5 l de la mezcla para la eliminación de una sola reacción se enumera en la Tabla 6; la receta debe ser ampliado en función del número de ensayos a realizar. </li><li> Terminar reacciones mediante la adición de 1,5 l de la mezcla de la eliminación. Mezclar bien, girar hacia abajo, y se incuba a 30 ° C durante 30 min. </li><li> Mientras tanto, pre-ejecutar el gel de poliacrilamida nativo en una unidad de electroforesis vertical en 100 V durante 30 min a 4 ° C, utilizando TBE 0.5x como tampón con una barra de agitación magnética dentro de la cámara inferior para mantener la circulación de tampón constante. </li><li> Para cargar la muestra, añadir 2,5 l de colorante de carga que contiene 3x TBE, 30% de glicerol, 0,25% azul de bromofenol, y 0,25% de xileno cianol FF. Mezclar bien, girar brevemente las muestras, y la carga en el gel usando puntas de carga. </li><li> Correr el gel a 200 V durante 4,5 horas a 4 ° C con circulación de buffer.</li><li> Para detectar la señal, transferir el gel a una pila de dos hojas de papel de filtro. Envuelva el papel de filtro con el gel en la parte superior mediante una envoltura de plástico transparente, y luego exponerlo a una pantalla de fósforo de almacenamiento a 4 ° C durante el tiempo deseado. </li><li> Busque en la pantalla con un sistema de escáner de imágenes de isótopos y analizar los datos utilizando un software adecuado. </li></ol></li></ol> 2. Mononucleosome ensayos de unión Para ensayar la afinidad de unión de un complejo INO80 dado para mononucleosomes, realice un cambio de movilidad electroforética de ensayo (EMSA) utilizando el sustrato mononucleosomal generada en el paso 1.2. <ol><li> Configurar la reacción de mezclas para ensayos de unión como se ha descrito para los ensayos de remodelación de nucleosomas, pero omitir la ATP y la eliminación de la mezcla de las reacciones; incubar a 30 ° C durante 30 min. </li><li> Añadir 2,5 l de colorante de carga a cada mezcla de reacción, y se aplican a un gel de poliacrilamida nativo que contiene 3,5% de acrilamida (acrilamida: bis 37.5: 1), 1% de glicerol, TBE 0,5 x, 0,01% de APS, 0,001% y TEMED. </li><li> El uso de TBE 0.5x como tampón, ejecute el gel a 200 V durante 2,5 horas a 4 ° C con circulación de tampón y se exponga a una pantalla de fósforo de almacenamiento. </li></ol> 3. ADN y Nucleosoma-ATPasa dependiente Ensayos Realizar ensayos de ATPasa en las mezclas de reacción 5 l que contenía 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7,5), NaCl 60 mM, 6,6 mM de MgCl2, 0,8 mM EDTA, 0,015% de Nonidet P-40, 2,5% de glicerol, 0,1 mg / ml de BSA, 1 mM DTT, 0,1 mM PMSF, 2 mM ATP, 2 Ci de [α- 32 P] ATP (3000 Ci / mmol). Para cada complejo INO80 o cantidad de complejo INO80 a ensayar establecer tres reacciones paralelas, una memoria intermedia que contiene EB100 para medir ADN o nucleosoma-ATPasa independiente, uno que contiene ADN plásmido circular cerrado (5.000 pb, ~ 30 nM) para medir el ADN ATPasa dependiente, y una que contiene Hela oligonucleosomas (~ 185 nm) para medir-nucleosoma ATPasa dependiente. Configure todas las reacciones en hielo. <ol&gt; <li> Para cada reacción, se combinan 10-50 nm de la INO80 o INO80 subcomplexes inmunopurificados con una cantidad de tampón EB100 suficiente para dar un volumen de 2,2 l en 1,5 ml tubos de microcentrífuga lubricados pre-refrigerados. Inmediatamente vuelva a congelar las fracciones que contiene INO80-en hielo seco en polvo o nitrógeno líquido. </li><li> Establecer un cóctel maestro. La cantidad de cada ingrediente necesario para una sola reacción se enumera en la Tabla 7. Escala la receta por la ampliación por un factor de 3 (X + 2) 1, donde X = el número de preparaciones INO80 a ensayar. </li><li> Para preparar conteniendo buffer &#39;sub-cócteles&#39; solamente, ADN, o nucleosomas, dispensan 2.5 (X + 2) l del cocktail master en tres tubos separados. Añadir 0,3 (X + 2) l de cualquiera de EB100, el ADN plásmido circular cerrado (1,5 g / l), o Hela oligonucleosomas (1,5 g / l) y mezclar bien. </li><li> Prescindir de 2,8 l de la sub-cóctel apropiado para los tubos de reacción que contienen enzimas con base en St.ep 3.1. Pipetear suavemente hacia arriba y hacia abajo para mezclar; evitar la introducción de burbujas. </li><li> Para iniciar reacciones, transferir los tubos de reacción a un bloque de calor a 30 ° C. </li><li> Después de 5, 15, 30, y 60 min de incubación, detectar 0,5 l de cada mezcla de reacción en una cromatografía de polietilenimina celulosa de capa fina (TLC) placa (20 x 10 cm) en una línea recta al menos 1,5 cm del borde inferior . Devolver inmediatamente tubos de reacción a la 30 ° bloque de calor C por lo que múltiples puntos de tiempo se pueden tomar de un solo tubo. Después de las salpicaduras, seque las placas de TLC utilizando un secador de pelo. </li><li> Transferir las placas de TLC a una cámara de vidrio que contiene suficiente fosfato de potasio 0,375 M (pH 3,5) para permitir que la parte inferior 0,5 cm de la placa de TLC se sumergieron en la solución. </li><li> Cubra la cámara, y esperar que el frente de la fase líquida alcanza la parte superior de las placas de TLC. Inmediato secar las placas a fondo con un secador de pelo. </li><li> Exponga las placas de TLC secas a una pantalla de fósforo de almacenamiento a temperatura ambiente.Busque en la pantalla con un sistema de escáner de imágenes de isótopos y determinar la cantidad de sustrato ATP radiactivo y producto ADP. </li><li> Para calcular la cantidad de ATP hidrolizado, multiplique el ATP% hidrolizado por la cantidad de ATP presente en la mezcla de reacción de partida utilizando la siguiente fórmula: ATP hidrolizado pmol = 10 ATP pmol en el inicio de la reacción x [ADP / (ATP + ADP)] </li></ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Para asegurarse de que la remodelación nucleosoma y actividades de ATPasa se observa en los ensayos dependen de la actividad catalítica de complejos INO80, y no en la contaminación de la remodelación y / o enzimas ATPasa, que nucleosoma ensayo de forma rutinaria la remodelación y la actividad ATPasa de versiones catalíticamente inactivos de Ino80, purificado en en paralelo con el tipo salvaje INO80 utilizando el mismo procedimiento. Una reacción de control negativo que carece de ATP también se debe realizar cuan...

Complejos remodeladores de cromatina familia SNF2 incluyen una SNF2 como ATPasa subunidad central de 1,2. Algunos ATPasas función como SNF2 como enzimas de subunidades individuales, mientras que otros funcionan como la subunidad catalítica de complejos de múltiples subunidades más grandes. Dilucidar los mecanismos moleculares por los cuales cada una de las subunidades de la cromatina complejos remodeladores de contribuir a sus actividades requiere la capacidad de realizar ensayos bioquímicos que diseccionan el proceso de remodelación. Remodelación nucleosoma dependiente de ATP por el complejo INO80 humana y otras enzimas remodelación de la cromatina puede ser concebido como un proceso de múltiples pasos que comienza con la unión de la enzima a la remodelación nucleosomas, seguido por la activación de su ADN y / o nucleosoma-ATPasa dependiente, translocación de la enzima sobre el ADN nucleosomal remodelación, y la eventual reposicionamiento de los nucleosomas 1,2. La comprensión de los detalles moleculares de la ATP-dependiente proceso de remodelación de la cromatina requiere disección de la reacción de remodelación en sus pasos individuales y definición de las contribuciones de las subunidades individuales del complejo de remodelación de la cromatina a cada etapa de la reacción. Tales análisis requieren la capacidad de analizar la remodelación nucleosoma y otras actividades utilizando sustratos moleculares definidos in vitro. En un protocolo JOVE anterior, describimos los procedimientos utilizados para generar complejos remodeladores de cromatina INO80 y subcomplexes con composiciones de subunidades definidas 3. A continuación, presentamos tres ensayos bioquímicos que permiten el análisis cuantitativo de la unión, ADN y-nucleosoma activado ATPasa, y actividades de remodelación de nucleosomas asociados con tales complejos de nucleosomas.

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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">Name of Reagent/Material</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Protease Inhibitor Cocktail</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">P8340</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">10x PCR reaction buffer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Roche Applied Science&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">11435094001</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Roche Taq DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Roche Applied Science&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">11435094001</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NucAway Nuclease-free Spin Columns&#160;</td>
			<td>Ambion</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Cat. # AM10070</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ultrapure ATP&#160;</td>
			<td>USB/Affymetrix</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">77241 25 UM</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">bovine serum albumin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">A9418&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">N,N,N&#180;,N&#180;-tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED)</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">17919</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">40% Acrylamide/Bis 37.5:1</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Amresco</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">0254-500ML</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sonicated salmon sperm DNAs&#160;</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">27-4565-01</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">10% ammonium persulfate (APS)</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">17874</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">benzonase&#160;</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Cat. No. 70664</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">[&#945;-32P] ATP (3000 Ci/mmol)</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">PerkinElmer</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">BLU003H250UC</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">dCTP, [&#945;-32P]- 6000Ci/mmol</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">PerkinElmer</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">BLU013Z250UC</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;"></td>
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			<td style="width:147px;"></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">Equipment</td>
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			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PCR thermal cycler PTC 200</td>
			<td>MJ Research</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">PTC 200</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Hoefer vertical electrophoresis unit</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Hoefer</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">SE600X-15-1.5</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">lubricated 1.5ml microcentrifuge tubes&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Costar</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">3207</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Storage Phosphor Screen&#160;</td>
			<td>Molecular Dynamics</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">63-0034-79</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">3MM filter paper</td>
			<td>Whatman&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">28458-005</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">VWR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Typhoon PhosphorImager&#160;</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">8600</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ImageQuant software</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">ver2003.02</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">TLC Glass Plates, PEI-Cellulose F</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">5725-7</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">Immobilon-FL Transfer Membrane 7 x 8.4</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">IPFL07810</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:359px;">General purpose survey meter with end-window or pancake GM (Geiger-Mueller) probe</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Biodex</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Model 14C</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
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biochemical assays for analyzing activities of atp-dependent chromatin remodeling enzymes

Members of the SNF2 family of ATPases often function as components of multi-subunit chromatin remodeling complexes that regulate nucleosome dynamics and DNA accessibility by catalyzing ATP-dependent nucleosome remodeling. Biochemically dissecting the contributions of individual subunits of such complexes to the multi-step ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling reaction requires the use of assays that monitor the production of reaction products and measure the formation of reaction intermediates. This JOVE protocol describes assays that allow one to measure the biochemical activities of chromatin remodeling complexes or subcomplexes containing various combinations of subunits. Chromatin remodeling is measured using an ATP-dependent nucleosome sliding assay, which monitors the movement of a nucleosome on a DNA molecule using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA)-based method. Nucleosome binding activity is measured by monitoring the formation of remodeling complex-bound mononucleosomes using a similar EMSA-based method, and DNA- or nucleosome-dependent ATPase activity is assayed using thin layer chromatography (TLC) to measure the rate of conversion of ATP to ADP and phosphate in the presence of either DNA or nucleosomes. Using these assays, one can examine the functions of subunits of a chromatin remodeling complex by comparing the activities of the complete complex to those lacking one or more subunits. The human INO80 chromatin remodeling complex is used as an example; however, the methods described here can be adapted to the study of other chromatin remodeling complexes.

Las cifras muestran resultados representativos de ensayos bioquímicos utilizados para caracterizar las actividades INO80, incluyendo nucleosoma deslizamiento (Figura 1) y vinculante (Figura 2) y ensayos de ADN o ATPasa ensayos nucleosomas dependiente (Figura 3). El experimento mostrado en la Figura 1 compara la capacidad de los complejos de INO80 intactas purificó a través de FLAG-NIF N ° 2 o FLAG-INO80E y de INO80 subco...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Biochemical Assays for Analyzing Activities of ATP-dependent Chromatin Remodeling Enzymes at JoVE.com

Biochemical Assays for Analyzing Activities of ATP-dependent Chromatin Remodeling Enzymes

Here we describe biochemical assays that can be used to characterize ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling enzymes for their abilities to 1) catalyze ATP-dependent nucleosome sliding, 2) engage with nucleosome substrates, and 3) hydrolyze ATP in a nucleosome- or DNA-dependent manner.

Los ensayos bioquímicos para Actividades Analizando de ATP-dependientes remodelación de la cromatina enzimas

Members of the SNF2 family of ATPases often function as components of multi-subunit chromatin remodeling complexes that regulate nucleosome dynamics and ...

biochemical-assays-for-analyzing-activities-atp-dependent-chromatin

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

14.7K vistas.  Stowers Institute for Medical Research. Here we describe biochemical assays that can be used to characterize ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling enzymes for their abilities to 1) catalyze ATP-dependent nucleosome sliding, 2) engage with nucleosome substrates, and 3) hydrolyze ATP in a nucleosome- or DNA-dependent manner.

Video: Biochemical Assays for Analyzing Activities of ATP-dependent Chromatin Remodeling Enzymes

A Chromatin Assay for Human Brain Tissue

Chronic neuropsychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disease and autism are thought to result from a combination of genetic and environmental factors that might result in epigenetic alterations of gene expression and other molecular pathology. Traditionally, however, expression studies in postmortem brain were confined to quantification of mRNA or protein. The limitations encountered in postmortem brain research   such as variabilities in autolysis time and tissue integrities   are also likely to impact any studies of higher order chromatin structures. However, the nucleosomal organization of genomic DNA   including DNA:core histone binding - appears to be largely preserved in representative samples provided by various brain banks. Therefore, it is possible to study the methylation pattern and other covalent modifications of the core histones at defined genomic loci in postmortem brain. Here, we present a simplified native chromatin immunoprecipitation (NChIP) protocol for frozen (never-fixed) human brain specimens. Starting with micrococcal nuclease digestion of brain homogenates, NChIP followed by qPCR can be completed within three days. The methodology presented here should be useful to elucidate epigenetic mechanisms of gene expression in normal and diseased human brain.

Until recently, expression studies on human brain were limited to quantification of RNA or protein. With the chromatin immunoprecipitation techniques described in this paper, it will be possible to map histone methylation and other epigenetic regulators of gene expression in postmortem brain.

Un ensayo de la cromatina de tejido cerebral humano

Chronic neuropsychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disease and autism are thought to result from a combination of genetic and environmental ...

Investigación

Biología

Zebrafish Brain Ventricle Injection

Proper brain ventricle formation during embryonic brain development is required for normal brain function.  Brain ventricles are the highly conserved cavities within the brain that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.  In zebrafish, after neural tube formation, the neuroepithelium undergoes a series of constrictions and folds while it fills with fluid resulting in brain ventricle formation.  In order to understand the process of ventricle formation, and the neuroepithelial shape changes that occur at the same time, we needed a way to visualize the ventricle space in comparison to the brain tissue.  However, the nature of transparent zebrafish embryos makes it difficult to differentiate the tissue from the ventricle space.  Therefore, we developed a brain ventricle injection technique where the ventricle space is filled with a fluorescent dye and imaged by brightfield and fluorescent microscopy.  The brightfield and the fluorescent images are then processed and superimposed in Photoshop.  This technique allows for visualization of the ventricle space with the fluorescent dye, in comparison to the shape of the neuroepithelium in the brightfield image.  Brain ventricle injection in zebrafish can be employed from 18 hours post fertilization through early larval stages.  We have used this technique extensively in our studies of brain ventricle formation and morphogenesis as well as in characterizing brain morphogenesis mutants (1-3).

After neural tube formation, the neuroepithelium constricts and folds while the tube fills with embryonic cerebrospinal fluid (eCSF) to form the embryonic brain ventricles. We developed this ventricle injection technique to better visualize the fluid filled space in contrast to the neuroepithelial shape in a live embryo.

Cerebro del pez cebra ventrículo inyección

Proper brain ventricle formation during embryonic brain development is required for normal brain function.  Brain ventricles are the highly conserved ...

Photobleaching Assays (FRAP &amp; FLIP) to Measure Chromatin Protein Dynamics in Living Embryonic Stem Cells

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) enable the study of protein dynamics in living cells with good spatial and temporal resolution. Here we describe how to perform FRAP and FLIP assays of chromatin proteins, including H1 and HP1, in mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells. In a FRAP experiment, cells are transfected, either transiently or stably, with a protein of interest fused with the green fluorescent protein (GFP) or derivatives thereof (YFP, CFP, Cherry, etc.). In the transfected, fluorescing cells, an intense focused laser beam bleaches a relatively small region of interest (ROI). The laser wavelength is selected according to the fluorescent protein used for fusion. The laser light irreversibly bleaches the fluorescent signal of molecules in the ROI and, immediately following bleaching, the recovery of the fluorescent signal in the bleached area - mediated by the replacement of the bleached molecules with the unbleached molecules - is monitored using time lapse imaging. The generated fluorescence recovery curves provide information on the protein's mobility. If the fluorescent molecules are immobile, no fluorescence recovery will be observed. In a complementary approach, Fluorescence Loss in Photobleaching (FLIP), the laser beam bleaches the same spot repeatedly and the signal intensity is measured elsewhere in the fluorescing cell. FLIP experiments therefore measure signal decay rather than fluorescence recovery and are useful to determine protein mobility as well as protein shuttling between cellular compartments. Transient binding is a common property of chromatin-associated proteins. Although the major fraction of each chromatin protein is bound to chromatin at any given moment at steady state, the binding is transient and most chromatin proteins have a high turnover on chromatin, with a residence time in the order of seconds. These properties are crucial for generating high plasticity in genome expression1. Photobleaching experiments are therefore particularly useful to determine chromatin plasticity using GFP-fusion versions of chromatin structural proteins, especially in ES cells, where the dynamic exchange of chromatin proteins (including heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1), linker histone H1 and core histones) is higher than in differentiated cells2,3.

Photobleaching Assays FRAP &amp; FLIP to Measure Chromatin Protein Dynamics in Living Embryonic Stem Cells

We describe photobleaching methods including Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) to monitor chromatin protein dynamics in embryonic stem (ES) cells. Chromatin protein dynamics, which is considered to be one of the means to study chromatin plasticity, is enhanced in pluripotent cells.

Photobleaching ensayos (FRAP y FLIP) para medir la dinámica de la cromatina de proteínas en células vivas madre embrionarias

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) enable the study of protein dynamics in living cells with ...

Quantitative Comparison of cis-Regulatory Element (CRE) Activities in Transgenic Drosophila melanogaster

Gene expression patterns are specified by cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences, which are also called enhancers or cis-regulatory modules. A typical CRE possesses an arrangement of binding sites for several transcription factor proteins that confer a regulatory logic specifying when, where, and at what level the regulated gene(s) is expressed. The full set of CREs within an animal genome encodes the organism&prime;s program for development1, and empirical as well as theoretical studies indicate that mutations in CREs played a prominent role in morphological evolution2-4. Moreover, human genome wide association studies indicate that genetic variation in CREs contribute substantially to phenotypic variation5,6. Thus, understanding regulatory logic and how mutations affect such logic is a central goal of genetics. 
Reporter transgenes provide a powerful method to study the in vivo function of CREs. Here a known or suspected CRE sequence is coupled to heterologous promoter and coding sequences for a reporter gene encoding an easily observable protein product. When a reporter transgene is inserted into a host organism, the CRE&prime;s activity becomes visible in the form of the encoded reporter protein. P-element mediated transgenesis in the fruit fly species Drosophila (D.) melanogaster7 has been used for decades to introduce reporter transgenes into this model organism, though the genomic placement of transgenes is random. Hence, reporter gene activity is strongly influenced by the local chromatin and gene environment, limiting CRE comparisons to being qualitative. In recent years, the phiC31 based integration system was adapted for use in D. melanogaster to insert transgenes into specific genome landing sites8-10. This capability has made the quantitative measurement of gene and, relevant here, CRE activity11-13 feasible. The production of transgenic fruit flies can be outsourced, including phiC31-based integration, eliminating the need to purchase expensive equipment and/or have proficiency at specialized transgene injection protocols. 
Here, we present a general protocol to quantitatively evaluate a CRE&prime;s activity, and show how this approach can be used to measure the effects of an introduced mutation on a CRE&prime;s activity and to compare the activities of orthologous CREs. Although the examples given are for a CRE active during fruit fly metamorphosis, the approach can be applied to other developmental stages, fruit fly species, or model organisms. Ultimately, a more widespread use of this approach to study CREs should advance an understanding of regulatory logic and how logic can vary and evolve.

Quantitative Comparison of cis-Regulatory Element CRE Activities in Transgenic Drosophila melanogaster

Phenotypic variation for traits can result from mutations in cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences that control gene expression patterns. Methods derived for use in Drosophila melanogaster can quantitatively compare the levels of spatial and temporal patterns of gene expression mediated by modified or naturally occurring CRE variants.

Comparación cuantitativa de Cis-Elemento regulador (CRE) Las actividades de transgénicos Drosophila melanogaster</em

Gene expression patterns are specified by cis-regulatory element (CRE) sequences, which are also called enhancers or cis-regulatory modules. A typical CRE ...

Blood Collection for Biochemical Analysis in Adult Zebrafish

The zebrafish has been used as an animal model for studies of several human diseases. It can serve as a powerful preclinical platform for studies of molecular events and therapeutic strategies as well as for evaluating the physiological mechanisms of some pathologies1. 
There are relatively few publications related to adult zebrafish physiology of organs and systems2, which may lead researchers to infer that the basic techniques needed to allow the exploration of zebrafish systems are lacking3. Hematologic biochemical values of zebrafish were first reported in 2003 by Murtha and colleagues4 who employed a blood collection technique first described by Jagadeeswaran and colleagues in 1999. Briefly, blood was collected via a micropipette tip through a lateral incision, approximately 0.3 cm in length, in the region of the dorsal aorta5. Because of the minute dimensions involved, this is a high-precision technique requiring a highly skilled practitioner. The same technique was used by the same group in another publication in that same year6. In 2010, Eames and colleagues assessed whole blood glucose levels in zebrafish7. They gained access to the blood by performing decapitations with scissors and then inserting a heparinized microcapillary collection tube into the pectoral articulation. They mention difficulties with hemolysis that were solved with an appropriate storage temperature based on the work Kilpatrick et al.8. When attempting to use Jagadeeswaran's technique in our laboratory, we found that it was difficult to make the incision in precisely the right place as not to allow a significant amount of blood to be lost before collection could be started. 
Recently, Gupta et al.9 described how to dissect adult zebrafish organs, Kinkle et al.10 described how to perform intraperitoneal injections, and Pugach et al.11 described how to perform retro-orbital injections. However, more work is needed to more fully explore basic techniques for research in zebrafish.
The small size of zebrafish presents challenges for researchers using it as an experimental model. Furthermore, given this smallness of scale, it is important that simple techniques are developed to enable researchers to explore the advantages of the zebrafish model.

This paper presents a technique for collection of blood from the dorsal aorta of Zebrafish. It also provides instructions for obtaining serum for use in biochemical analyses, such as tests for determining cholesterol and triglyceride levels.

Extracción de sangre para análisis bioquímicos en adultos de pez cebra

The zebrafish has been used as an animal model for studies of several human diseases. It can serve as a powerful preclinical platform for studies of ...

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as it relates to human obesity and its associated pathologies. Several previous methodologies developed for the visualization of C. elegans triglyceride-rich fat stores have proven to be erroneous, highlighting cellular compartments other than lipid droplets. Other methods require specialized equipment, are time-consuming, or yield inconsistent results. We introduce a rapid, reproducible, fixative-based Nile red staining method for the accurate and rapid detection of neutral lipid droplets in C. elegans. A short fixation step in 40% isopropanol makes animals completely permeable to Nile red, which is then used to stain animals. Spectral properties of this lipophilic dye allow it to strongly and selectively fluoresce in the yellow-green spectrum only when in a lipid-rich environment, but not in more polar environments. Thus, lipid droplets can be visualized on a fluorescent microscope equipped with simple GFP imaging capability after only a brief Nile red staining step in isopropanol. The speed, affordability, and reproducibility of this protocol make it ideally suited for high throughput screens. We also demonstrate a paired method for the biochemical determination of triglycerides and phospholipids using gas chromatography mass-spectrometry. This more rigorous protocol should be used as confirmation of results obtained from the Nile red microscopic lipid determination. We anticipate that these techniques will become new standards in the field of C. elegans metabolic research.

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

We present robust biochemical and microscopic methods for studying Caenorhabditis elegans lipid stores. A rapid, simple, fixing-staining procedure for fluorescent lipid droplet imaging leverages the spectral properties of the lipophilic dye Nile red. We then present biochemical measurement of triglycerides and phospholipids using solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Bioquímica y de Evaluación de Rendimiento microscópica de masa grasa en<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important  model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as  it relates to human ...

Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

Glycogen is the main energetic polymer of glucose in vertebrate animals and plays a crucial role in whole body metabolism as well as in cellular metabolism. Many methods to detect glycogen already exist but only a few are quantitative. We describe here a method using the Abcam Glycogen assay kit, which is based on specific degradation of glycogen to glucose by glucoamylase. Glucose is then specifically oxidized to a product that reacts with the OxiRed probe to produce fluorescence. Titration is accurate, sensitive and can be achieved on cell extracts or tissue sections. However, in contrast to other techniques, it does not give information about the distribution of glycogen in the cell. As an example of this technique, we describe here the titration of glycogen in two cell lines, Chinese hamster lung fibroblast CCL39 and human colon carcinoma LS174, incubated in normoxia (21% O2) versus hypoxia (1% O2). We hypothesized that hypoxia is a signal that prepares cells to synthesize and store glycogen in order to survive1.

Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

We describe here an accurate, reproducible and convenient biochemical method for titration of glycogen in vitro. This technique uses the Abcam Glycogen assay kit and is based on successive hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose and glucose titration by fluorescence.

Titulación bioquímica de glucógeno<em&gt; In vitro</em

Glycogen is the main energetic polymer of glucose in vertebrate animals and plays a crucial role in whole body metabolism as well as in cellular ...

Generation and Purification of Human INO80 Chromatin Remodeling Complexes and Subcomplexes

INO80 chromatin remodeling complexes regulate nucleosome dynamics and DNA accessibility by catalyzing ATP-dependent nucleosome remodeling. Human INO80 complexes consist of 14 protein subunits including Ino80, a SNF2-like ATPase, which serves both as the catalytic subunit and the scaffold for assembly of the complexes. Functions of the other subunits and the mechanisms by which they contribute to the INO80 complex&#39;s chromatin remodeling activity remain poorly understood, in part due to the challenge of generating INO80 subassemblies in human cells or heterologous expression systems. This JOVE protocol describes a procedure that allows purification of human INO80 chromatin remodeling subcomplexes that are lacking a subunit or a subset of subunits. N-terminally FLAG epitope tagged Ino80 cDNA are stably introduced into human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cell lines using Flp-mediated recombination. In the event that a subset of subunits of the INO80 complex is to be deleted, one expresses instead mutant Ino80 proteins that lack the platform needed for assembly of those subunits. In the event an individual subunit is to be depleted, one transfects siRNAs targeting this subunit into an HEK 293 cell line stably expressing FLAG tagged Ino80 ATPase. Nuclear extracts are prepared, and FLAG immunoprecipitation is performed to enrich protein fractions containing Ino80 derivatives. The compositions of purified INO80 subcomplexes can then be analyzed using methods such as immunoblotting, silver staining, and mass spectrometry. The INO80 and INO80 subcomplexes generated according to this protocol can be further analyzed using various biochemical assays, which are described in the accompanying JOVE protocol. The methods described here can be adapted for studies of the structural and functional properties of any mammalian multi-subunit chromatin remodeling and modifying complexes.

This protocol describes a procedure for generating and purifying wild type and mutant versions of the human INO80 chromatin remodeling complex. Epitope tagged versions of INO80 subunits are stably expressed in HEK293 cells, and complete complexes and complexes lacking specific sets of subunits are purified by immunoaffinity chromatography.

Generación y purificación de Humanos INO80 remodelación de la cromatina complejos y Subcomplejos

INO80 chromatin remodeling complexes regulate nucleosome dynamics and DNA accessibility by catalyzing ATP-dependent nucleosome remodeling. Human INO80 ...

Isolation of Specific Genomic Regions and Identification of Associated Molecules by enChIP

The identification of molecules associated with specific genomic regions of interest is required to understand the mechanisms of regulation of the functions of these regions. To enable the non-biased identification of molecules interacting with a specific genomic region of interest, we recently developed the engineered DNA-binding molecule-mediated chromatin immunoprecipitation (enChIP) technique. Here, we describe how to use enChIP to isolate specific genomic regions and identify the associated proteins and RNAs. First, a genomic region of interest is tagged with a transcription activator-like (TAL) protein or a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) complex consisting of a catalytically inactive form of Cas9 and a guide RNA. Subsequently, the chromatin is crosslinked and fragmented by sonication. The tagged locus is then immunoprecipitated and the crosslinking is reversed. Finally, the proteins or RNAs that are associated with the isolated chromatin are subjected to mass spectrometric or RNA sequencing analyses, respectively. This approach allows the successful identification of proteins and RNAs associated with a genomic region of interest.

The identification of molecules associated with specific genomic regions of interest is required to understand the mechanisms of regulation of the functions of these regions. This protocol describes procedures to perform engineered DNA-binding molecule-mediated chromatin imunoprecipitation (enChIP) for identification of proteins and RNAs associated with a specific genomic region.

El aislamiento de regiones genómicas específicas e identificación de moléculas asociadas por enChIP

The identification of molecules associated with specific genomic regions of interest is required to understand the mechanisms of regulation of the ...

Amplification, Next-generation Sequencing, and Genomic DNA Mapping of Retroviral Integration Sites

Retroviruses exhibit signature integration preferences on both the local and global scales. Here, we present a detailed protocol for (1) generation of diverse libraries of retroviral integration sites using ligation-mediated PCR (LM-PCR) amplification and next-generation sequencing (NGS), (2) mapping the genomic location of each virus-host junction using BEDTools, and (3) analyzing the data for statistical relevance. Genomic DNA extracted from infected cells is fragmented by digestion with restriction enzymes or by sonication. After suitable DNA end-repair, double-stranded linkers are ligated onto the DNA ends, and semi-nested PCR is conducted using primers complementary to both the long terminal repeat (LTR) end of the virus and the ligated linker DNA. The PCR primers carry sequences required for DNA clustering during NGS, negating the requirement for separate adapter ligation. Quality control (QC) is conducted to assess DNA fragment size distribution and adapter DNA incorporation prior to NGS. Sequence output files are filtered for LTR-containing reads, and the sequences defining the LTR and the linker are cropped away. Trimmed host cell sequences are mapped to a reference genome using BLAT and are filtered for minimally 97% identity to a unique point in the reference genome. Unique integration sites are scrutinized for adjacent nucleotide (nt) sequence and distribution relative to various genomic features. Using this protocol, integration site libraries of high complexity can be constructed from genomic DNA in three days. The entire protocol that encompasses exogenous viral infection of susceptible tissue culture cells to integration site analysis can therefore be conducted in approximately one to two weeks. Recent applications of this technology pertain to longitudinal analysis of integration sites from HIV-infected patients.

We describe a protocol for amplifying retroviral integration sites from the genomic DNA of infected cells, sequencing the amplified virus-host junctions, and then mapping these sequences to a reference genome. We also describe techniques to quantify the distribution of integration sites relative to various genomic annotations using BEDTools.

Amplificación, secuenciación de próxima generación, y Genómica Mapeo de ADN retrovirales sitios de integración

Retroviruses exhibit signature integration preferences on both the local and global scales. Here, we present a detailed protocol for (1) generation of ...