Work in the authors' laboratory is supported by a grant from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (GM41628) and by a grant to the Stowers Institute for Medical Research from the Helen Nelson Medical Research Fund at the Greater Kansas City Community Foundation.

1 ATP依存性ヌクレオソームリフォームアッセイ ATP依存性ヌクレオソームのリモデリング活性を測定するために、INO80またはINO80のsubcomplexesは、ATPおよび216塩基対、32 P-標識DNA断片の一端に配置された単一のヌクレオソームが含まmononucleosomal基質と共にインキュベートされる免疫精製。反応生成物は、ネイティブポリアクリルアミドゲルでの電気泳動に供される。 <ol><li> 32 P-標識された、「601」DNA断片を生成すること、などのオリゴヌクレオチド5&#39;-ACAGGATGTATATATCTGACACGTGCCTGGおよび5&#39;-AATACTCAAGCTTGGATGCCTGCAGを使用して、をpGEM-3Z-601 4から末端に位置する601ヌクレオソームの位置配列を含む216 bpのDNA断片を増幅フォワードおよびリバースプライマー。 <ol><li> 表1に記載したように100μlのPCR反応をセットアップします。 </li><li>以下のプログラムを使用して、サーマルサイクラー中でPCR反応を実行します。1分96℃、followeで94°C、57°Cで30秒、30サイクル、72℃で60秒で45秒間によってD; 72℃で7分で終わる。 </li><li> PCR反応が完了した後、ヌクレアーゼフリースピンカラムを二度反応生成物を通過させることによって、取り込まれなかったヌクレオチドを​​除去する。 </li><li> PCR反応は、所望の〜216 bpのDNA断片を生成したことを確認するために、1.2％アガロースゲル中で精製されたPCR産物5μlを実行する。 </li><li>精製したPCR産物5μlの20倍に希釈し、UV分光光度計を用いてDNA濃度を測定する。平均収量は約40 ngの/μlです。 </li><li>シンチレーションカウンターでの精製したPCR産物1μlの放射能を測定します。 CPM / NGを算出することにより、標識効率を推定します。成功した標識反応は、601 DNA断片の〜15000のcpm / ngのをもたらすことが期待される。 </li></ol></li><li>連続希釈法5を用いて標識601のDNA上にHeLa細胞ヌクレオソームを転送します。 <ol><li>の2ピコモルを混ぜる1.0 MのNaCl、10 mMトリス塩酸、pH 8.0、1 mMのEDTA、0.1mMのPMSF、及び1mMを含有する緩衝液50μl中のHelaヌクレオソーム（後述5のように調製した）6μgの32 P-標識された601のDNA断片DTTおよび30分間30℃でインキュベートする。 </li><li>順次10mMトリス塩酸（pH8.0）を12.5μlの20.8μlを、および41.6μlを、、、1mMのEDTA、0.1mMのPMSFで希釈して0.8 M、0.6 M、0.4 MのNaClの混合物を希釈し、そして1mMのDTT、各希釈後、30℃で30分間のインキュベーションである。 </li><li>さらに0.2 Mに混合物を希釈した後、0.1MのNaClを125μlに添加することによって、その後、0.1％のNonidet P-40、30分のインキュベーションで20％グリセロール、および200μg/ mlのBSAを含有する同じ緩衝液を250μl最後の二つの希釈液は30℃で。最大3ヶ月間4℃でモノヌクレオソーム基質を保管してください。 </li></ol></li><li>総容量10μlでの反応をスライドATP依存性ヌクレオソームを実行します。レアINO80ヌクレオソームのリモデリング活性のための最適なNaCl濃度であるためctionコンポーネントは、〜50mMのNaCl（未発表の結果） 表2に記載されている、考慮中に含まれる食塩の量を考慮して、50 mMの各反応中のNaClの総濃度を調整するヌクレオソームと酵素の調製。 <ol><li>アッセイをセットアップするために開始する前に、ネイティブのポリアクリルアミドゲル（18×16 cm）のキャスト。 5％のアクリルアミドを含む単一のゲルを調製するために（アクリルアミド：37.5ビスアクリルアミド：1）、0.5×TBE（45 mMトリス、ホウ酸、1mMのEDTA）、0.01％の過硫酸アンモニウム（APS）、および0.001％N、N、N&#39;、 N&#39;の -tetramethylethylenediamine（TEMED）、 表3に列挙した成分を混合する。ゲルは、室温で少なくとも2時間重合することができるようにします。 </li><li> EB100バッファの量がまた、各反応を実行するために、予備冷却シリコン処理1.5mlのマイクロチューブに組み合わせる〜20 nMのINO80またはINO80のサブコンプレックス（3記載のように調製した）（ <strオング&gt;十分表4）4.75μlの容量を得た。すぐに粉末ドライアイスや液体窒素中で残っているINO80含有画分を再凍結する。 </li><li> &#39;X&#39;（ここで、X =反応3の合計数）倍にスケールアップ、食材の残りの部分とマスターカクテルを設定します。 1つの10μlの反応に必要な各成分の量を表5に記載されている。レシピは、実行される反応の数に応じてスケールアップされるべきである。チューブをタップして、またはピペッティングでよく混合し、ダウンピペットマンとし、卓上型微量数秒間チューブをスピン。 </li><li>ステップ1.3.2で設定反応管のそれぞれにマスターカクテルの5.25μLを分注する。ピペッティングでよく混ぜる。 30℃のヒートブロックまたはウォーターバスに反応管を転送することにより反応を開始し、2時間インキュベートする。 </li><li>一方、競合DNAを含むカクテル」のミックスを削除する」の準備とX（X =反応+ 4の合計数）倍にスケールアップヌクレオソーム、。単一の反応用混合物を除去する1.5μlの準備に必要な各成分の量を表6に記載されている。レシピは、実行されるアッセイの数に応じてスケールアップされるべきである。 </li><li>取り外しミックス1.5を添加することにより反応を終了します。よく混合し、スピンダウンし、そしてさらに30分間30℃でインキュベートする。 </li><li>一方、定数バッファの循環を維持するために、下部チャンバー内の磁気攪拌棒をランニング緩衝液として0.5×TBEを使用して、4℃で30分間、100Vで垂直電気泳動装置におけるネイティブポリアクリルアミドゲルを予め実行します。 </li><li>サンプルをロードするには、3倍のTBE、30％グリセロール、0.25％ブロモフェノールブルー、0.25％キシレンシアノールFFを含むローディング色素の2.5μlを添加する。簡単にサンプルをスピン、よく混ぜ、ロードのヒントを使用してゲルにロードします。 </li><li>バッファーの循環で、4℃で4.5時間、200Vでゲルを実行します。</li><li>信号を検出するために、濾紙の二枚のスタックにゲルを移す。透明なプラスチックのラップを使用して、上にゲルをろ紙をラップしてから、所望の時間、4℃で貯蔵燐光体スクリーンに公開。 </li><li>同位体イメージングスキャナシステムで画面をスキャンし、適切なソフトウェアを用いてデータを分析する。 </li></ol></li></ol> 2モノヌクレオソーム結合アッセイモノヌクレオソームの指定されたINO80複合体の結合親和性をアッセイするために、ステップ1.2で生成されたmononucleosomal基板を用いた電気泳動移動度シフトアッセイ（EMSA）を行う。 <ol><li>セットアップ反応はヌクレオソームのリモデリングアッセイのために説明したが、ATPを省略して、反応からミックスを削除するなどの結合アッセイのためのミックス。 30分間30℃でインキュベートする。 </li><li>各反応混合物にローディング色素の2.5μlを加えて、3.5％のアクリルアミド（アクリルアミドを含む未変性ポリアクリルアミドゲルに適用されます。3ビス7.5：1）、1％グリセロール、0.5×TBE、0.01％APS、および0.001％TEMED。 </li><li>ランニング緩衝液として0.5×TBEを使用して、バッファの循環で、4℃で2.5時間、200Vでゲルを実行し、ストレージ蛍光スクリーンに公開。 </li></ol> 3 DNA-とヌクレオソーム依存ATPアーゼアッセイ 20mMトリス塩酸（pH7.5）、60mMのNaClを、6.6のMgCl 2、0.8mMのEDTA、0.015％のNonidet P-40、2.5％グリセロール、0.1 mg / mlのBSA、1を含む5μlの反応混合物中でATPアーゼアッセイを行うのDTT、0.1mMのPMSF、2mMのATP、[α-32 P] ATP（3,000 Ciを/ミリモル）の2μCiの。 INO80複合体の各INO80複合体または量は、3つの並列反応、DNA-またはヌクレオソームに依存しないATPアーゼを測定するための1を含むEB100バッファー、測定するために閉環状プラスミドDNA（5000塩基対、約30 nM）を含有するものを設定してアッセイするために、DNA依存ATPアーゼ、およびヌクレオソーム依存ATPアーゼを測定するために、ヒーラオリゴヌクレオソーム（〜185 nM）を含有するもの。全ての反応は氷上でセットアップします。 <oL&gt; <li>各反応について、予備冷却潤滑1.5mlのマイクロチューブに2.2μlの容量を与えるのに十分なEB100バッファーの量と免疫精製INO80またはINO80 subcomplexesの10-50 nMのを兼ね備えています。すぐに粉末ドライアイスや液体窒素の任意のINO80含有画分を再凍結する。 </li><li>マスターカクテルを設定します。単一反応のために必要な各成分の量を表7にリストされている。XはINO80の準備の数がアッセイされる= 3（X + 2）1、倍にスケールアップすることによりレシピをスケールアップ。 </li><li> 「サブカクテル」を含むバッファを準備するためにのみ、DNA、またはヌクレオソームは、3つの個別のチューブにマスターカクテルの2.5（X + 2）μLを分注する。 0.3どちらEB100の（X + 2）μlを、閉じた環状プラスミドDNA（1.5μgの/μl）を、またはヒーラオリゴヌクレオソーム（1.5μgの/μl）を加え、よく混ぜる。 </li><li> STに設定された酵素を含む反応チューブに適切なサブカクテルの2.8μlを分注EP 3.1。穏やかにピペッティングしてミックスダウンする。気泡を導入することを避ける。 </li><li>反応を開始するには、30℃のヒートブロックに反応チューブを移す。 </li><li> 5後に、15分、30分、インキュベーションの60分、1.5センチ以上の距離下端から直線セルロース、ポリエチレンイミン、薄層クロマトグラフィー（TLC）プレート（20×10cm）に上に各反応混合物0.5μlのスポット。直ちにので、複数の時間点は、単一のチューブから取り出すことができる30℃のヒートブロックに反応管を返す。スポッティングの後、ブロードライヤーを使用してTLCプレートを乾燥する。 </li><li> TLCプレートの底0.5センチメートルを溶液中に浸漬されるように十分に0.375 Mリン酸カリウム（pHは3.5）を含有するガラスチャンバーにTLCプレートに移す。 </li><li>チャンバを覆い、かつ、液相の前面がTLCプレートの最上部に達するまで発達する。即時徹底的にブロードライヤーを使用して、プレートを乾燥させる。 </li><li> RTで貯蔵燐光体スクリーンになるまで乾燥したTLCプレートを公開します。同位体イメージングスキャナシステムで画面をスキャンし、放射性のATP基質とADP生成物の量を決定する。 </li><li>加水分解されたATPの量を計算するには、次の式を使用して、出発反応混合物中に存在するATPの量により加水分解％のATPを掛け：ピコモルATP加水分解= 10ピコモルATPを反応xを開始する際に、[ADP /（ATP + ADP）] </li></ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

確実にするために私たちはアッセイで観察することがヌクレオソームのリモデリングおよびATPアーゼ活性はINO80複合体の触媒活性にではなく、中で精製INO80複合体の触媒的に不活性なバージョンの改造を汚染し、および/またはATPアーゼの酵素、私たちは日常的にアッセイヌクレオソームのリモデリングとATPase活性に依存同じ手順を使用して、野生型INO80と平行である。 INO80複合体またはsubcomple...

SNF2家族のクロマチンリモデリング複合体は、中央SNF2様ATPアーゼサブユニット1,2を含む。単一のサブユニットの酵素など、一部SNF2様ATPアーゼ機能、他の人がより大きなマルチサブユニット複合体の触媒サブユニットとして機能している。クロマチンリモデリング複合体のサブユニットのそれぞれが自分の活動に貢献する分子メカニズムを解明することリモデリングプロセスを分析生化学的アッセイを行う能力が必要です。 人間INO80複合体および他のクロマチンリモデリング酵素によるATP依存ヌクレオソームのリモデリングは、その、DNAおよび/またはヌクレオソーム依存ATPaseの活性化に続いて、ヌクレオソームのリモデリング酵素の結合で始まる多段階のプロセスとして考えることができるヌクレオソームDNA上のリモデリング酵素の転座、およびヌクレオソーム1,2の最終的な再配置。 ATP依存性クロマチンリモデリングプロセスrの分子の詳細を理解するその個別のステップや反応の各ステップにクロマチンリモデリング複合体の各サブユニットの寄与の定義にリモデリング反応の解剖をequires。このような分析は、 インビトロで規定された分子基質を用いてヌクレオソームのリモデリングおよび他の活動を分析する能力を必要とする。 以前JOVEプロトコルでは、定義されたサブユニット組成物3とINO80クロマチンリモデリング複合体とsubcomplexesを生成するために使用される手順を説明した。ここでは、3ヌクレオソーム結合、DNAおよびヌクレオソーム活性化ATPアーゼの定量分析を可能にする生化学的アッセイ、およびこのような複合体に関連したヌクレオソームのリモデリング活動を紹介します。

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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">Name of Reagent/Material</td>
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			<td style="width:123px;">Comments</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Protease Inhibitor Cocktail</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">P8340</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">10x PCR reaction buffer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Roche Applied Science&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">11435094001</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Roche Taq DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Roche Applied Science&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">11435094001</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NucAway Nuclease-free Spin Columns&#160;</td>
			<td>Ambion</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Cat. # AM10070</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">N,N,N&#180;,N&#180;-tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED)</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">17919</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">40% Acrylamide/Bis 37.5:1</td>
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			<td style="width:147px;">0254-500ML</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sonicated salmon sperm DNAs&#160;</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">27-4565-01</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">10% ammonium persulfate (APS)</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">17874</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">benzonase&#160;</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Cat. No. 70664</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
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		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">[&#945;-32P] ATP (3000 Ci/mmol)</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">PerkinElmer</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">dCTP, [&#945;-32P]- 6000Ci/mmol</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">PerkinElmer</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">BLU013Z250UC</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">PCR thermal cycler PTC 200</td>
			<td>MJ Research</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">PTC 200</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Hoefer vertical electrophoresis unit</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Hoefer</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">SE600X-15-1.5</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">lubricated 1.5ml microcentrifuge tubes&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Costar</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">3207</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Storage Phosphor Screen&#160;</td>
			<td>Molecular Dynamics</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">63-0034-79</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">3MM filter paper</td>
			<td>Whatman&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">28458-005</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">VWR</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Typhoon PhosphorImager&#160;</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">8600</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ImageQuant software</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">ver2003.02</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">TLC Glass Plates, PEI-Cellulose F</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">5725-7</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:359px;">Immobilon-FL Transfer Membrane 7 x 8.4</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">IPFL07810</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:359px;">General purpose survey meter with end-window or pancake GM (Geiger-Mueller) probe</td>
			<td style="width:212px;">Biodex</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Model 14C</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

biochemical assays for analyzing activities of atp-dependent chromatin remodeling enzymes

Members of the SNF2 family of ATPases often function as components of multi-subunit chromatin remodeling complexes that regulate nucleosome dynamics and DNA accessibility by catalyzing ATP-dependent nucleosome remodeling. Biochemically dissecting the contributions of individual subunits of such complexes to the multi-step ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling reaction requires the use of assays that monitor the production of reaction products and measure the formation of reaction intermediates. This JOVE protocol describes assays that allow one to measure the biochemical activities of chromatin remodeling complexes or subcomplexes containing various combinations of subunits. Chromatin remodeling is measured using an ATP-dependent nucleosome sliding assay, which monitors the movement of a nucleosome on a DNA molecule using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA)-based method. Nucleosome binding activity is measured by monitoring the formation of remodeling complex-bound mononucleosomes using a similar EMSA-based method, and DNA- or nucleosome-dependent ATPase activity is assayed using thin layer chromatography (TLC) to measure the rate of conversion of ATP to ADP and phosphate in the presence of either DNA or nucleosomes. Using these assays, one can examine the functions of subunits of a chromatin remodeling complex by comparing the activities of the complete complex to those lacking one or more subunits. The human INO80 chromatin remodeling complex is used as an example; however, the methods described here can be adapted to the study of other chromatin remodeling complexes.

図面は、ヌクレオソームスライド（ 図1）との結合（ 図2）アッセイおよびDNA-またはヌクレオソーム依存性ATPアーゼアッセイ（ 図3）を含むINO80活動を特徴付けるために使用される生化学アッセイの代表的結果を示す。 図1に示されている実験は、完全なINO80複合体の能力は、FLAG-Ies2またはFLAG-INO80Eを通して精製し、INO80が2...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Biochemical Assays for Analyzing Activities of ATP-dependent Chromatin Remodeling Enzymes at JoVE.com

Biochemical Assays for Analyzing Activities of ATP-dependent Chromatin Remodeling Enzymes

Here we describe biochemical assays that can be used to characterize ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling enzymes for their abilities to 1) catalyze ATP-dependent nucleosome sliding, 2) engage with nucleosome substrates, and 3) hydrolyze ATP in a nucleosome- or DNA-dependent manner.

ATP依存性クロマチンリモデリング酵素の活性を分析するための生化学的アッセイ

Members of the SNF2 family of ATPases often function as components of multi-subunit chromatin remodeling complexes that regulate nucleosome dynamics and ...

biochemical-assays-for-analyzing-activities-atp-dependent-chromatin

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

14.7K ビュー.  Stowers Institute for Medical Research. Here we describe biochemical assays that can be used to characterize ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling enzymes for their abilities to 1) catalyze ATP-dependent nucleosome sliding, 2) engage with nucleosome substrates, and 3) hydrolyze ATP in a nucleosome- or DNA-dependent manner.

ビデオ: Biochemical Assays for Analyzing Activities of ATP-dependent Chromatin Remodeling Enzymes

A Chromatin Assay for Human Brain Tissue

Chronic neuropsychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disease and autism are thought to result from a combination of genetic and environmental factors that might result in epigenetic alterations of gene expression and other molecular pathology. Traditionally, however, expression studies in postmortem brain were confined to quantification of mRNA or protein. The limitations encountered in postmortem brain research   such as variabilities in autolysis time and tissue integrities   are also likely to impact any studies of higher order chromatin structures. However, the nucleosomal organization of genomic DNA   including DNA:core histone binding - appears to be largely preserved in representative samples provided by various brain banks. Therefore, it is possible to study the methylation pattern and other covalent modifications of the core histones at defined genomic loci in postmortem brain. Here, we present a simplified native chromatin immunoprecipitation (NChIP) protocol for frozen (never-fixed) human brain specimens. Starting with micrococcal nuclease digestion of brain homogenates, NChIP followed by qPCR can be completed within three days. The methodology presented here should be useful to elucidate epigenetic mechanisms of gene expression in normal and diseased human brain.

Until recently, expression studies on human brain were limited to quantification of RNA or protein. With the chromatin immunoprecipitation techniques described in this paper, it will be possible to map histone methylation and other epigenetic regulators of gene expression in postmortem brain.

人間の脳組織のためのクロマチンアッセイ

Chronic neuropsychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disease and autism are thought to result from a combination of genetic and environmental ...

生物学

Zebrafish Brain Ventricle Injection

Proper brain ventricle formation during embryonic brain development is required for normal brain function.  Brain ventricles are the highly conserved cavities within the brain that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.  In zebrafish, after neural tube formation, the neuroepithelium undergoes a series of constrictions and folds while it fills with fluid resulting in brain ventricle formation.  In order to understand the process of ventricle formation, and the neuroepithelial shape changes that occur at the same time, we needed a way to visualize the ventricle space in comparison to the brain tissue.  However, the nature of transparent zebrafish embryos makes it difficult to differentiate the tissue from the ventricle space.  Therefore, we developed a brain ventricle injection technique where the ventricle space is filled with a fluorescent dye and imaged by brightfield and fluorescent microscopy.  The brightfield and the fluorescent images are then processed and superimposed in Photoshop.  This technique allows for visualization of the ventricle space with the fluorescent dye, in comparison to the shape of the neuroepithelium in the brightfield image.  Brain ventricle injection in zebrafish can be employed from 18 hours post fertilization through early larval stages.  We have used this technique extensively in our studies of brain ventricle formation and morphogenesis as well as in characterizing brain morphogenesis mutants (1-3).

After neural tube formation, the neuroepithelium constricts and folds while the tube fills with embryonic cerebrospinal fluid (eCSF) to form the embryonic brain ventricles. We developed this ventricle injection technique to better visualize the fluid filled space in contrast to the neuroepithelial shape in a live embryo.

ゼブラフィッシュの脳室注入

Proper brain ventricle formation during embryonic brain development is required for normal brain function.  Brain ventricles are the highly conserved ...

Photobleaching Assays (FRAP &amp; FLIP) to Measure Chromatin Protein Dynamics in Living Embryonic Stem Cells

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) enable the study of protein dynamics in living cells with good spatial and temporal resolution. Here we describe how to perform FRAP and FLIP assays of chromatin proteins, including H1 and HP1, in mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells. In a FRAP experiment, cells are transfected, either transiently or stably, with a protein of interest fused with the green fluorescent protein (GFP) or derivatives thereof (YFP, CFP, Cherry, etc.). In the transfected, fluorescing cells, an intense focused laser beam bleaches a relatively small region of interest (ROI). The laser wavelength is selected according to the fluorescent protein used for fusion. The laser light irreversibly bleaches the fluorescent signal of molecules in the ROI and, immediately following bleaching, the recovery of the fluorescent signal in the bleached area - mediated by the replacement of the bleached molecules with the unbleached molecules - is monitored using time lapse imaging. The generated fluorescence recovery curves provide information on the protein's mobility. If the fluorescent molecules are immobile, no fluorescence recovery will be observed. In a complementary approach, Fluorescence Loss in Photobleaching (FLIP), the laser beam bleaches the same spot repeatedly and the signal intensity is measured elsewhere in the fluorescing cell. FLIP experiments therefore measure signal decay rather than fluorescence recovery and are useful to determine protein mobility as well as protein shuttling between cellular compartments. Transient binding is a common property of chromatin-associated proteins. Although the major fraction of each chromatin protein is bound to chromatin at any given moment at steady state, the binding is transient and most chromatin proteins have a high turnover on chromatin, with a residence time in the order of seconds. These properties are crucial for generating high plasticity in genome expression1. Photobleaching experiments are therefore particularly useful to determine chromatin plasticity using GFP-fusion versions of chromatin structural proteins, especially in ES cells, where the dynamic exchange of chromatin proteins (including heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1), linker histone H1 and core histones) is higher than in differentiated cells2,3.

Photobleaching Assays FRAP & FLIP to Measure Chromatin Protein Dynamics in Living Embryonic Stem Cells

We describe photobleaching methods including Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) to monitor chromatin protein dynamics in embryonic stem (ES) cells. Chromatin protein dynamics, which is considered to be one of the means to study chromatin plasticity, is enhanced in pluripotent cells.

胚性幹細胞を生体内でクロマチン蛋白質のダイナミクスを測定するアッセイ（FRAP＆FLIP）を光退色

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) and Fluorescence Loss In Photobleaching (FLIP) enable the study of protein dynamics in living cells with ...

Two Types of Assays for Detecting Frog Sperm Chemoattraction

Sperm chemoattraction in invertebrates can be sufficiently robust that one can place a pipette containing the attractive peptide into a sperm suspension and microscopically visualize sperm accumulation around the pipette1. Sperm chemoattraction in vertebrates such as frogs, rodents and humans is more difficult to detect and requires quantitative assays. Such assays are of two major types - assays that quantitate sperm movement to a source of chemoattractant, so-called sperm accumulation assays, and assays that actually track the swimming trajectories of individual sperm.
Sperm accumulation assays are relatively rapid allowing tens or hundreds of assays to be done in a single day, thereby allowing dose response curves and time courses to be carried out relatively rapidly. These types of assays have been used extensively to characterize many well established chemoattraction systems - for example, neutrophil chemotaxis to bacterial peptides and sperm chemotaxis to follicular fluid. Sperm tracking assays can be more labor intensive but offer additional data on how chemoattractancts actually alter the swimming paths that sperm take. This type of assay is needed to demonstrate the orientation of sperm movement relative to the chemoattrractant gradient axis and to visualize characteristic turns or changes in orientation that bring the sperm closer to the egg.
Here we describe methods used for each of these two types of assays. The sperm accumulation assay utilized is called a "two-chamber" assay. Amphibian sperm are placed in a tissue culture plate insert with a polycarbonate filter floor having 12 &mu;m diameter pores. Inserts with sperm are placed into tissue culture plate wells containing buffer and a chemoatttractant carefully pipetted into the bottom well where the floor meets the wall (see Fig. 1). After incubation, the top insert containing the sperm reservoir is carefully removed, and sperm in the bottom chamber that have passed through the membrane are removed, pelleted and then counted by hemocytometer or flow cytometer.
The sperm tracking assay utilizes a Zigmond chamber originally developed for observing neutrophil chemotaxis and modified for observation of sperm by Giojalas and coworkers2,3. The chamber consists of a thick glass slide into which two vertical troughs have been machined. These are separated by a 1 mm wide observation platform. After application of a cover glass, sperm are loaded into one trough, the chemoattractant agent into the other and movement of individual sperm visualized by video microscopy. Video footage is then analyzed using software to identify two-dimensional cell movements in the x-y plane as a function of time (xyt data sets) that form the trajectory of each sperm.

Eggs and the extracellular coatings around eggs frequently release peptides, proteins and small molecules that communicate with sperm to guide them to the egg thereby promoting fertilization. Using frog sperm we describe and compare two classes of assays used to detect sperm chemoattraction &#x2013; sperm accumulation assays and sperm tracking assays.

カエル精子の化学誘引を検出するためのアッセイの二種類

Sperm chemoattraction in invertebrates can be sufficiently robust that one can place a pipette containing the attractive peptide into a sperm suspension ...

Chromatin Interaction Analysis with Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET) for Mapping Chromatin Interactions and Understanding Transcription Regulation

Genomes are organized into three-dimensional structures, adopting higher-order conformations inside the micron-sized nuclear spaces 7, 2, 12. Such architectures are not random and involve interactions between gene promoters and regulatory elements 13. The binding of transcription factors to specific regulatory sequences brings about a network of transcription regulation and coordination 1, 14. 
Chromatin Interaction Analysis by Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET) was developed to identify these higher-order chromatin structures 5,6. Cells are fixed and interacting loci are captured by covalent DNA-protein cross-links. To minimize non-specific noise and reduce complexity, as well as to increase the specificity of the chromatin interaction analysis, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is used against specific protein factors to enrich chromatin fragments of interest before proximity ligation. Ligation involving half-linkers subsequently forms covalent links between pairs of DNA fragments tethered together within individual chromatin complexes. The flanking MmeI restriction enzyme sites in the half-linkers allow extraction of paired end tag-linker-tag constructs (PETs) upon MmeI digestion. As the half-linkers are biotinylated, these PET constructs are purified using streptavidin-magnetic beads. The purified PETs are ligated with next-generation sequencing adaptors and a catalog of interacting fragments is generated via next-generation sequencers such as the Illumina Genome Analyzer. Mapping and bioinformatics analysis is then performed to identify ChIP-enriched binding sites and ChIP-enriched chromatin interactions 8. 
We have produced a video to demonstrate critical aspects of the ChIA-PET protocol, especially the preparation of ChIP as the quality of ChIP plays a major role in the outcome of a ChIA-PET library. As the protocols are very long, only the critical steps are shown in the video.

Chromatin Interaction Analysis with Paired-End Tag Sequencing ChIA-PET for Mapping Chromatin Interactions and Understanding Transcription Regulation

Chromatin Interaction Analysis by Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET) is a method for de novo detection of chromatin interactions, for better understanding of transcriptional control.

クロマチンの相互作用のマッピングと転写調節を理解するためのペアエンドタグシーケンシング（CHIA-PET）によるクロマチンの相互作用の解析

Genomes are organized into three-dimensional structures, adopting higher-order conformations inside the micron-sized nuclear spaces 7, 2, 12. Such ...

Blood Collection for Biochemical Analysis in Adult Zebrafish

The zebrafish has been used as an animal model for studies of several human diseases. It can serve as a powerful preclinical platform for studies of molecular events and therapeutic strategies as well as for evaluating the physiological mechanisms of some pathologies1. 
There are relatively few publications related to adult zebrafish physiology of organs and systems2, which may lead researchers to infer that the basic techniques needed to allow the exploration of zebrafish systems are lacking3. Hematologic biochemical values of zebrafish were first reported in 2003 by Murtha and colleagues4 who employed a blood collection technique first described by Jagadeeswaran and colleagues in 1999. Briefly, blood was collected via a micropipette tip through a lateral incision, approximately 0.3 cm in length, in the region of the dorsal aorta5. Because of the minute dimensions involved, this is a high-precision technique requiring a highly skilled practitioner. The same technique was used by the same group in another publication in that same year6. In 2010, Eames and colleagues assessed whole blood glucose levels in zebrafish7. They gained access to the blood by performing decapitations with scissors and then inserting a heparinized microcapillary collection tube into the pectoral articulation. They mention difficulties with hemolysis that were solved with an appropriate storage temperature based on the work Kilpatrick et al.8. When attempting to use Jagadeeswaran's technique in our laboratory, we found that it was difficult to make the incision in precisely the right place as not to allow a significant amount of blood to be lost before collection could be started. 
Recently, Gupta et al.9 described how to dissect adult zebrafish organs, Kinkle et al.10 described how to perform intraperitoneal injections, and Pugach et al.11 described how to perform retro-orbital injections. However, more work is needed to more fully explore basic techniques for research in zebrafish.
The small size of zebrafish presents challenges for researchers using it as an experimental model. Furthermore, given this smallness of scale, it is important that simple techniques are developed to enable researchers to explore the advantages of the zebrafish model.

This paper presents a technique for collection of blood from the dorsal aorta of Zebrafish. It also provides instructions for obtaining serum for use in biochemical analyses, such as tests for determining cholesterol and triglyceride levels.

大人のゼブラフィッシュの生化学的解析のための採血

The zebrafish has been used as an animal model for studies of several human diseases. It can serve as a powerful preclinical platform for studies of ...

Extraction of Tissue Antigens for Functional Assays

Many of the antigen targets of adaptive immune response, recognized by B and T cells, have not been defined 1. This is particularly true in autoimmune diseases and cancer2. Our aim is to investigate the antigens recognized by human T cells in the autoimmune disease type 1 diabetes 1,3,4,5. To analyze human T-cell responses against tissue where the antigens recognized by T cells are not identified we developed a method to extract protein antigens from human tissue in a format that is compatible with functional assays 6. Previously, T-cell responses to unpurified tissue extracts could not be measured because the extraction methods yield a lysate that contained detergents that were toxic to human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Here we describe a protocol for extracting proteins from human tissues in a format that is not toxic to human T cells. The tissue is homogenized in a mixture of butan-1-ol, acetonitrile and water (BAW). The protein concentration in the tissue extract is measured and a known mass of protein is aliquoted into tubes. After extraction, the organic solvents are removed by lyophilization. Lyophilized tissue extracts can be stored until required. For use in assays of immune function, a suspension of immune cells, in appropriate culture media, can be added directly to the lyophilized extract. Cytokine production and proliferation by PBMC, in response to extracts prepared using this method, were readily measured. Hence, our method allows the rapid preparation of human tissue lysates that can be used as a source of antigens in the analysis of T-cell responses. We suggest that this method will facilitate the analysis of adaptive immune responses to tissues in transplantation, cancer and autoimmunity.

A simple protocol for preparing extracts of human tissue to be used as a source of antigens in functional T-cell assays is described. This method allows T-cell responses to tissue-derived antigens to be measured in vitro.

機能アッセイのための組織抗原の抽出

Many of the antigen targets of adaptive immune response, recognized by B and T cells, have not been defined 1. This is particularly true in autoimmune ...

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as it relates to human obesity and its associated pathologies. Several previous methodologies developed for the visualization of C. elegans triglyceride-rich fat stores have proven to be erroneous, highlighting cellular compartments other than lipid droplets. Other methods require specialized equipment, are time-consuming, or yield inconsistent results. We introduce a rapid, reproducible, fixative-based Nile red staining method for the accurate and rapid detection of neutral lipid droplets in C. elegans. A short fixation step in 40% isopropanol makes animals completely permeable to Nile red, which is then used to stain animals. Spectral properties of this lipophilic dye allow it to strongly and selectively fluoresce in the yellow-green spectrum only when in a lipid-rich environment, but not in more polar environments. Thus, lipid droplets can be visualized on a fluorescent microscope equipped with simple GFP imaging capability after only a brief Nile red staining step in isopropanol. The speed, affordability, and reproducibility of this protocol make it ideally suited for high throughput screens. We also demonstrate a paired method for the biochemical determination of triglycerides and phospholipids using gas chromatography mass-spectrometry. This more rigorous protocol should be used as confirmation of results obtained from the Nile red microscopic lipid determination. We anticipate that these techniques will become new standards in the field of C. elegans metabolic research.

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

We present robust biochemical and microscopic methods for studying Caenorhabditis elegans lipid stores. A rapid, simple, fixing-staining procedure for fluorescent lipid droplet imaging leverages the spectral properties of the lipophilic dye Nile red. We then present biochemical measurement of triglycerides and phospholipids using solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

内脂肪量の生化学的および高スループット微視的評価<em&gt;線虫（Caenorhabditis elegans）</em

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important  model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as  it relates to human ...

Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

Glycogen is the main energetic polymer of glucose in vertebrate animals and plays a crucial role in whole body metabolism as well as in cellular metabolism. Many methods to detect glycogen already exist but only a few are quantitative. We describe here a method using the Abcam Glycogen assay kit, which is based on specific degradation of glycogen to glucose by glucoamylase. Glucose is then specifically oxidized to a product that reacts with the OxiRed probe to produce fluorescence. Titration is accurate, sensitive and can be achieved on cell extracts or tissue sections. However, in contrast to other techniques, it does not give information about the distribution of glycogen in the cell. As an example of this technique, we describe here the titration of glycogen in two cell lines, Chinese hamster lung fibroblast CCL39 and human colon carcinoma LS174, incubated in normoxia (21% O2) versus hypoxia (1% O2). We hypothesized that hypoxia is a signal that prepares cells to synthesize and store glycogen in order to survive1.

Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

We describe here an accurate, reproducible and convenient biochemical method for titration of glycogen in vitro. This technique uses the Abcam Glycogen assay kit and is based on successive hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose and glucose titration by fluorescence.

グリコーゲンの生化学的滴定<em&gt;インビトロ</em

Glycogen is the main energetic polymer of glucose in vertebrate animals and plays a crucial role in whole body metabolism as well as in cellular ...

Viability Assays for Cells in Culture

Manual cell counts on a microscope are a sensitive means of assessing cellular viability but are time-consuming and therefore expensive. Computerized viability assays are expensive in terms of equipment but can be faster and more objective than manual cell counts. The present report describes the use of three such viability assays. Two of these assays are infrared and one is luminescent. Both infrared assays rely on a 16&#160;bit Odyssey Imager. One infrared assay uses the DRAQ5 stain for nuclei combined with the Sapphire stain for cytosol and is visualized in the 700 nm channel. The other infrared assay, an In-Cell Western, uses antibodies against cytoskeletal proteins (&#945;-tubulin or microtubule associated protein 2) and labels them in the 800 nm channel. The third viability assay is a commonly used luminescent assay for ATP, but we use a quarter of the recommended volume to save on cost. These measurements are all linear and correlate with the number of cells plated, but vary in sensitivity. All three assays circumvent time-consuming microscopy and sample the entire well, thereby reducing sampling error. Finally, all of the assays can easily be completed within one day of the end of the experiment, allowing greater numbers of experiments to be performed within short timeframes. However, they all rely on the assumption that cell numbers remain in proportion to signal strength after treatments, an assumption that is sometimes not met, especially for cellular ATP. Furthermore, if cells increase or decrease in size after treatment, this might affect signal strength without affecting cell number. We conclude that all viability assays, including manual counts, suffer from a number of caveats, but that computerized viability assays are well worth the initial investment. Using all three assays together yields a comprehensive view of cellular structure and function.

Therapeutic compounds are often first examined in vitro with viability assays. Blind cell counts by a human observer can be highly sensitive to small changes in cell number but do not assess function. Computerized viability assays, as described here, can assess both structure and function in an objective manner.

培養中の細胞のための生存率アッセイ

Manual cell counts on a microscope are a sensitive means of assessing cellular viability but are time-consuming and therefore expensive. Computerized ...

ATP依存性クロマチンリモデリング酵素の活性を分析するための生化学的アッセイ

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