Name: multiplexing focused ultrasound stimulation with fluorescence microscopy
Uploaded: 2019-01-07T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Multiplexing Focused Ultrasound Stimulation with Fluorescence Microscopy at JoVE.com

We thank Drs. Mikhail Shapiro and Nikita Reznik for fruitful discussions. This work was supported by start-up funds from Western University of Health Sciences and NIH grant R21NS101384.

1. Growing Cells on Acoustically-Transparent Polyester Film
<ol>
	<li>Drill a 12 mm hole size at the bottom of a standard 35 mm culture dish using a vertical press-drill. Move the drill slowly and wear eye protection. Remove pieces of plastic attached to the bottom of the dish using a blade to create a smooth surface on the external side (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Apply a thin layer of marine-grade epoxy or glue at the external bottom surface of the dish.</li>
	<li>Place a film of polyester (2....

<ol>
	<li>Elhelf, I. A. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+intensity+focused+ultrasound:+The+fundamentals,+clinical+applications+and+research+trends.">High intensity focused ultrasound: The fundamentals, clinical applications and research trends.</a> Diagnostic and Interventional Imaging. 99 (6), 349-359 (2018).</li><li>Toccaceli, G., Delfini, R., Colonnese, C., Raco, A., Peschillo, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Emerging strategies and future perspective in neuro-oncology using Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Technology. , (2018).</li><li>Duck, F. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Medical+and+non-medical+protection+standards+for+ultrasound+and+infrasound.">Medical and non-medical protection standards for ultrasound and infrasound.</a> Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology. 93 (1-3), 176-191 (2007).</li><li>Legon, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+focused+ultrasound+modulates+the+activity+of+primary+somatosensory+cortex+in+humans.">Transcranial focused ultrasound modulates the activity of primary somatosensory cortex in humans.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 17 (2), 322-329 (2014).</li><li>Tyler, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mechanobiology+of+brain+function.">The mechanobiology of brain function.</a> Nature Reviews: Neuroscience. 13 (12), 867-878 (2012).</li><li>Tyler, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noninvasive+neuromodulation+with+ultrasound?+A+continuum+mechanics+hypothesis.">Noninvasive neuromodulation with ultrasound? A continuum mechanics hypothesis.</a> Neuroscientist. 17 (1), 25-36 (2011).</li><li>Tufail, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+pulsed+ultrasound+stimulates+intact+brain+circuits.">Transcranial pulsed ultrasound stimulates intact brain circuits.</a> Neuron. 66 (5), 681-694 (2010).</li><li>Tyler, W. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Remote+excitation+of+neuronal+circuits+using+low-intensity,+low-frequency+ultrasound.">Remote excitation of neuronal circuits using low-intensity, low-frequency ultrasound.</a> PloS One. 3 (10), e3511 (2008).</li><li>Suarez Castellanos, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calcium-dependent+ultrasound+stimulation+of+secretory+events+from+pancreatic+beta+cells.">Calcium-dependent ultrasound stimulation of secretory events from pancreatic beta cells.</a> Journal of Therapeutic Ultrasound. 5, 30 (2017).</li><li>Suarez Castellanos, I., Jeremic, A., Cohen, J., Zderic, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+Stimulation+of+Insulin+Release+from+Pancreatic+Beta+Cells+as+a+Potential+Novel+Treatment+for+Type+2+Diabetes.">Ultrasound Stimulation of Insulin Release from Pancreatic Beta Cells as a Potential Novel Treatment for Type 2 Diabetes.</a> Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology. 43 (6), 1210-1222 (2017).</li><li>Ibsen, S., Tong, A., Schutt, C., Esener, S., Chalasani, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sonogenetics+is+a+non-invasive+approach+to+activating+neurons+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Sonogenetics is a non-invasive approach to activating neurons in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Nature Communications. 6, 8264 (2015).</li><li>Prieto, M. L., Firouzi, K., Khuri-Yakub, B. T., Maduke, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+Piezo1+but+Not+NaV1.2+Channels+by+Ultrasound+at+43+MHz.">Activation of Piezo1 but Not NaV1.2 Channels by Ultrasound at 43 MHz.</a> Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology. 44 (6), 1217-1232 (2018).</li><li>Kubanek, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+modulates+ion+channel+currents.">Ultrasound modulates ion channel currents.</a> Scientific Reports. 6, 24170 (2016).</li><li>Prieto, M. L., Omer, O., Khuri-Yakub, B. T., Maduke, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+response+of+model+lipid+membranes+to+ultrasonic+radiation+force.">Dynamic response of model lipid membranes to ultrasonic radiation force.</a> PloS One. 8 (10), e77115 (2013).</li><li>Sato, T., Shapiro, M. G., Tsao, D. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasonic+Neuromodulation+Causes+Widespread+Cortical+Activation+via+an+Indirect+Auditory+Mechanism.">Ultrasonic Neuromodulation Causes Widespread Cortical Activation via an Indirect Auditory Mechanism.</a> Neuron. 98 (5), 1031-1041 (2018).</li><li>O'Brien, W. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound-biophysics+mechanisms.">Ultrasound-biophysics mechanisms.</a> Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology. 93 (1-3), 212-255 (2007).</li><li>Shapiro, M. G., Homma, K., Villarreal, S., Richter, C. P., Bezanilla, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Corrigendum:+Infrared+light+excites+cells+by+changing+their+electrical+capacitance.">Corrigendum: Infrared light excites cells by changing their electrical capacitance.</a> Nature Communications. 8, 16148 (2017).</li><li>Shapiro, M. G., Homma, K., Villarreal, S., Richter, C. P., Bezanilla, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infrared+light+excites+cells+by+changing+their+electrical+capacitance.">Infrared light excites cells by changing their electrical capacitance.</a> Nature Communications. 3, 736 (2012).</li><li>Shapiro, M. G., Priest, M. F., Siegel, P. H., Bezanilla, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+mechanisms+of+millimeter+wave+stimulation+of+excitable+cells.">Thermal mechanisms of millimeter wave stimulation of excitable cells.</a> Biophysical Journal. 104 (12), 2622-2628 (2013).</li><li>Hwang, J. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigating+contactless+high+frequency+ultrasound+microbeam+stimulation+for+determination+of+invasion+potential+of+breast+cancer+cells.">Investigating contactless high frequency ultrasound microbeam stimulation for determination of invasion potential of breast cancer cells.</a> Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 110 (10), 2697-2705 (2013).</li><li>Nakano, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetically+encoded+ratiometric+fluorescent+thermometer+with+wide+range+and+rapid+response.">Genetically encoded ratiometric fluorescent thermometer with wide range and rapid response.</a> PloS One. 12 (2), e0172344 (2017).</li><li>Donner, J. S., Thompson, S. A., Kreuzer, M. P., Baffou, G., Quidant, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mapping+intracellular+temperature+using+green+fluorescent+protein.">Mapping intracellular temperature using green fluorescent protein.</a> Nano Letters. 12 (4), 2107-2111 (2012).</li></ol>

A main advantage of focused ultrasound is its ability to non-invasively deliver mechanical and/or thermal energy to biological samples with high spatio-temporal precision. Other techniques intended to mechanically stimulate cells usually employ invasive physical probes (e.g., cell-poking) or requires the interaction of high energy laser beams with foreign objects (e.g., optical tweezers). Magnetic heating can heat specific spatial locations inside biological samples but requires the presence of foreign ...

Many diseases require some form of invasive medical intervention. These procedures are often expensive, risky, require recovery periods and thus add a burden to health care systems. Non-invasive therapeutic modalities have the potential to provide safer and cheaper alternatives to conventional surgical procedures. However, current non-invasive approaches such as pharmacotherapy or transcranial magnetic stimulation are often limited by trade-offs between tissue penetration, spatiotemporal resolution and unwanted off-target effects. In this context, a focused ultrasound constitutes a promising non-invasive technology with the potential to manipulate biological functions deep inside tissues with high spatiotemporal accuracy and limited off-target effects.
Focused ultrasound stimulation consists of delivering acoustic energy at precise locations deep inside living organisms. Depending on acoustic pulse parameters, this energy can have a variety of medical uses. For instance, the Food and Drug Administration has approved the use of High-intensity Focused Ultrasound (HiFU) for thermal ablation of prostate tumors, tremor-causing brain regions, uterine fibroids and pain-causing nerve endings in bone metastases1. HiFu-mediated microbubble cavitation is also used to transiently open the blood-brain barrier for the targeted delivery of systemically-administered therapeutics2. The spatial-peak pulse-average intensity (Isppa) and spatial-peak temporal-average intensity (Ispta) used for HiFU applications are typically above several kW cm-2 and produce pulse pressure of several tens of MPa. These intensity values are far above the FDA-approved Isppa and Ispta limits for diagnostic ultrasound, 190 W cm-2 and 720 mW cm-2, respectively3. In contrast, recent studies have shown that non-destructive pulsed ultrasound stimulation that are within or near the range of diagnostic ultrasound intensity limits (LIPUS) can be effective to remotely and safely manipulate neural firing4,5,6,7,8, hormonal secretion9,10 and bioengineered cells11. Yet, the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which cells sense and respond to ultrasound remain unclear, precluding clinical translation of LIPUS. Hence, in the past few years, studies of artificial membranes, cultured cells and animals stimulated with ultrasound have gained momentum to reveal biophysical and physiological processes modulated by LIPUS12,13,14,15.
Sound consists of a vibration propagating through a physical medium. An ultrasound is a sound with a frequency above the human audible range (i.e., above 20 kHz). In a laboratory setting, ultrasound waves are generally produced by piezoelectric transducers that contain a material that vibrates in response to an electrical field oscillating in a specific high-frequency bandwidth. Two types of transducers exist: single element transducers and transducer arrays. Single element piezoelectric transducers possess a curved surface which acts as a focusing lens and hence concentrates acoustic energy into a defined region called the focal zone. Single element transducers are much cheaper and easier to operate than transducer arrays. This article will focus on single element transducers.
The size of the focal zone of a focused single element transducer depends on the geometric properties of the acoustic lens and on its acoustic frequency. To achieve a millimeter-size focal zone with a single element transducer, ultrasound frequencies in the MHz range are generally required. Unfortunately, acoustic waves at such frequency are very rapidly attenuated when propagated in a tenuous medium such as air. Thus, MHz ultrasound waves need to be generated and propagated to the sample in a denser material such as water. This constitutes the first challenge in integrating LIPUS modality to a microscope.
A second challenge is to minimize physical interfaces between materials with different acoustic impedances (which is a product of material density and the acoustic velocity) along the acoustic path. These interfaces can reflect, refract, scatter and absorb acoustic waves, making it difficult to quantify the amount of acoustic energy effectively delivered to a sample. They may also create unwanted mechanical artefacts. For instance, reflections produced perpendicular to acoustic mismatch impedance interfaces create backpropagating waves that interfere with forward-propagating ones. Along the interference path, the waves cancel each other at fixed regions of spaces called nodes and sum up at alternating regions called anti-nodes, creating so-called standing waves (Figure 1). It is important for the experimentalist to be able to control or eliminate these experimental interfaces in vitro as they may not exist in vivo.
Fluorescence measurement of optical reporters is a well-known method to interrogate transparent biological samples in real-time and with no physical disturbance. This approach is thus ideal for LIPUS studies as any physical probes present in the sonicated area will introduce mechanical artefacts. This protocol describes the implementation and operation of LIPUS to a commercial epi-fluorescence microscope.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>upright microscope with large working volume</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>CERNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>upright microscope with large working volume</td>
			<td>Scientifica</td>
			<td>SliceScope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>optomechanical components</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>needle hydrophone</td>
			<td>ONDA Corporation</td>
			<td>HNP/C/R/A/T series + AH/G pre-amplifier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>needle hydrophone</td>
			<td>Precision Acoustics</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fiber optic hydrophone</td>
			<td>ONDA Corporation</td>
			<td>HFO series</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fiber optic hydrophone</td>
			<td>Precision Acoustics</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>oscilloscope</td>
			<td>Keysight Technology</td>
			<td>DSOX2004A (4-channels 70MHz)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>function generator</td>
			<td>Keysight Technology</td>
			<td>33500B (20MHz single-channel)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RF power amplifier</td>
			<td>Electronic Navigation Industries (ENI)</td>
			<td rowspan="2">325LA, 525LA, 240L, 350L, A075, 2100L, 3100LA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RF power amplifier</td>
			<td>Electronics &#38; Innovation (E&#38;I)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>immersion ultrasound transducer</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>focused immersion transdcuers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>immersion ultrasound transducer</td>
			<td>Benthowave Instrument</td>
			<td>HiFu transducer BII-76 series</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>immersion ultrasound transducer</td>
			<td>Precision Acoustics</td>
			<td>Piezo-ceramic or HiFu transducers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>immersion ultrasound transducer</td>
			<td>Ultrasonic-S-lab</td>
			<td>HiFu transducers made to order</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>high-density Matrigel</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>VWR 80094-330</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mylar film 2.5 microns</td>
			<td>Chemplex</td>
			<td>CAT.NO:107</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

multiplexing focused ultrasound stimulation with fluorescence microscopy

By focusing low-intensity ultrasound pulses that penetrate soft tissues, LIPUS represents a promising biomedical technology to remotely and safely manipulate neural firing, hormonal secretion and genetically-reprogrammed cells. However, the translation of this technology for medical applications is currently hampered by a lack of biophysical mechanisms by which targeted tissues sense and respond to LIPUS. A suitable approach to identify these mechanisms would be to use optical biosensors in combination with LIPUS to determine underlying signaling pathways. However, implementing LIPUS to a fluorescence microscope may introduce undesired mechanical artefacts due to the presence of physical interfaces that reflect, absorb and refract acoustic waves. This article presents a step-by-step procedure to incorporate LIPUS to commercially-available upright epi-fluorescence microscopes while minimizing the influence of physical interfaces along the acoustic path. A simple procedure is described to operate a single-element ultrasound transducer and to bring the focal zone of the transducer into the objective focal point. The use of LIPUS is illustrated with an example of LIPUS-induced calcium transients in cultured human glioblastoma cells measured using calcium imaging.

Figure 5 is an example of LIPUS experiment multiplexed with calcium imaging. Glioblastoma cells (A-172) were grown on EMPM coated polyester film in standard culture medium (supplemented with 10% serum and 1% antibiotics) and incubated with the calcium-sensitive fluorescent reporter Fluo-4 AM. Cells were imaged using a 10X immersion lens and illuminated with a white LED light source and fluorescence light was collected using a standard GFP filter set. LIPUS wa...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Multiplexing Focused Ultrasound Stimulation with Fluorescence Microscopy at JoVE.com

Multiplexing Focused Ultrasound Stimulation with Fluorescence Microscopy

Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound Stimulation (LIPUS) is a modality for non-invasive mechanical stimulation of endogenous or engineered cells with high spatial and temporal resolution. This article describes how to implement LIPUS to an epi-fluorescence microscope and how to minimize acoustic impedance mismatch along the ultrasound path to prevent unwanted mechanical artefacts.

By focusing low-intensity ultrasound pulses that penetrate soft tissues, LIPUS represents a promising biomedical technology to remotely and safely ...

This method can help answer key questions in mechanobiology, such as how biological samples respond to mechanical forces produced by low intensity ultrasound stimulation. The main advantage of this technique is that it allows an experimentalist to noninvasively apply mechanical forces to a sample and measure various biological perimeters in realtime. To begin, slowly drill a 12 millimeter hole at the bottom of a standard 35 millimeter culture dish using a vertical press drill.Once drilled, remove pieces of plastic attached to the bottom of the dish using a blade, to create a smooth surface on the external side. Next, apply a thin layer of marine-grade epoxy or glue at the external bottom surface of the dish. On top of the adhesive, place a two-point-five-micron thick film of polyester, pressing firmly to make sure the adhesive spreads evenly between the film and the thick plastic surface.Gently pull the film in a centrifugal manner with fingers, to create a flat surface. Once the adhesive has dried, briefly rinse the polyester bottom dish with 95%ethanol. Then, UV sterilize the dish by placing it under a strong 254 nanometer UV excitation source.Adjust duration and intensity to deliver a UV dose of approximately 330 millijoules per square centimeter. Next, dilute a commercially available extracellular matrix protein mixture with the desired culture medium at a ratio of one to 100. Work on ice to prevent matrix polymerization, and quickly apply 100 microliters of the medium mixture onto the polyester film.Place the lid back on the dish to maintain sterility. Once covered, incubate the matrix-coated, polyester bottom dishes in a cell culture, carbon dioxide-buffered incubator at 37 degrees Celsius for six to 12 hours. After incubation, aspirate the excess medium and directly seed the surface with cells at the desired density.Place a water tank underneath the objective of an upright microscope. Then, using commercially available optomechanical components, position the sample holder between the objective and the transducer. Make sure that the moving parts and the actuators of the translation stages are either outside the tank or above the water line to avoid water damage.Then, fill the tank with deionized and degassed water up to the horizontal plane of the sample holder, before utilizing the immersion transducer. Using noncorrosive, commercially available optomechanical components, make sure that the transducer in an oblique position with respect to the optical path. This will ensure that any reflected waves will be directed away from the sample.Adjust the frequency of the function generator to the nominal peak frequency of the transducer. Then, create a sinusoidal voltage pulse of the desired duration and repetition frequency, using the burst mode of the function generator. Next, adjust peak-to-peak voltage to a desired value.Make sure that the pulse duration is shorter than the elapsed time between two consecutive pulses. Connect the output of the function generator to the input of an oscilloscope. Use the oscilloscope to confirm that the waveform corresponds to the desired signal.Then, connect the output of the function generator to the input of a power of a properly-sized RF amplifier. Using a hydrophone probe that operates with a frequency range and acoustic intensity compatible with that of the ultrasound transducer, carefully bring the probe's tip into focus within the objective's field of view at the position of the sample. Make sure that both probe and transducer are immersed in the water bath and perform a gross pre-alignment of the transducer by visually positioning its acoustic axis toward the hydrophone probe.Make sure that the distance between the two correspond to the transducer's focal length. Do not bump the tip of the hydrophone with any physical object other than water, as this will alter its coating and affect the measurement. Next, connect the hydrophone output to one of the oscilloscope's signal input.Then, connect the synchronization trigger from the function generator to another oscilloscope input. Visualize both signals simultaneously on the oscilloscope. Next, drive the transducer with few ultrasound cycles at a low duty cycle and low amplitude to avoid damaging the probe.Check with the hydrophone's manufacturer safe operation conditions to avoid damaging the hydrophone tip. Adjust the S-division knob according to the travel time of the ultrasound from the transducer's surface to the hydrophone. Look for a hydrophone signal on the oscilloscope after the synchronization trigger.Next, slowly actuate the transducer using a motorized or manual XYZ stage. Position the transducer in the position that correlates with the maximal hydrophone signal. With the beam now aligned, measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of the hydrophone output at the oscilloscope for various voltages driving the transducer.Make sure not to exceed the pressure limit of the hydrophone. Replace the cell's culture medium with the desired imaging buffer containing five micromolar of a cell-permeant, calcium-sensitive dye, such as Fluo-4 AM.Then, incubate the culture dish in a carbon dioxide-buffered incubator at 37 degrees Celsius for one hour. Following incubation, carefully wash cells with the same buffer free of dye.Then, place the dish in the sample holder. Excite the cells using blue light illumination at 490 nanometers. Adjust the excitation intensity and camera exposure to avoid excessive bleaching or pixel saturation.Perform time-lapse imaging using an immersion objective with a long working distance for better image quality, and to reduce undesired reflections. Here, glioblastoma cells are shown on extracellular matrix-coated polyester film in standard culture medium. These cells have been incubated with a calcium-sensitive fluorescent reporter.In this image, the red dots represent individual fluorescent cells, identified using an image processing software. Upon stimulation for 10 seconds with ultrasound, robust calcium elevations were visualized in many regions of interest. The number of activated regions of interest are shown here over time.Following the 10-second activation with ultrasound, approximately 70%of the regions were found to be above user-defined threshold values. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember to align the ultrasound beam before doing fluorescence measurement.

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Synthesis of Phase-shift Nanoemulsions with Narrow Size Distributions for Acoustic Droplet Vaporization and Bubble-enhanced Ultrasound-mediated Ablation

High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) is used clinically to thermally ablate tumors. To enhance localized heating and improve thermal ablation in tumors, lipid-coated perfluorocarbon droplets have been developed which can be vaporized by HIFU. The vasculature in many tumors is abnormally leaky due to their rapid growth, and nanoparticles are able to penetrate the fenestrations and passively accumulate within tumors. Thus, controlling the size of the droplets can result in better accumulation within tumors. In this report, the preparation of stable droplets in a phase-shift nanoemulsion (PSNE) with a narrow size distribution is described. PSNE were synthesized by sonicating a lipid solution in the presence of liquid perfluorocarbon. A narrow size distribution was obtained by extruding the PSNE multiple times using filters with pore sizes of 100 or 200 nm. The size distribution was measured over a 7-day period using dynamic light scattering. Polyacrylamide hydrogels containing PSNE were prepared for in vitro experiments. PSNE droplets in the hydrogels were vaporized with ultrasound and the resulting bubbles enhanced localized heating. Vaporized PSNE enables more rapid heating and also reduces the ultrasound intensity needed for thermal ablation. Thus, PSNE is expected to enhance thermal ablation in tumors, potentially improving therapeutic outcomes of HIFU-mediated thermal ablation treatments.

Phase-shift nanoemulsions (PSNE) can be vaporized using high intensity focused ultrasound to enhance localized heating and improve thermal ablation in tumors. In this report, the preparation of stable PSNE with a narrow size distribution is described. Furthermore, the impact of vaporized PSNE on ultrasound-mediated ablation is demonstrated in tissue-mimicking phantoms.

High-intensity  focused ultrasound (HIFU) is used clinically to thermally ablate tumors. To  enhance localized heating and improve thermal ablation in ...

Time Multiplexing Super Resolving Technique for Imaging from a Moving Platform

We propose a method for increasing the resolution of an object and overcoming the diffraction limit of an optical system installed on top of a moving imaging system, such as an airborne platform or satellite. The resolution improvement is obtained in a two-step process. First, three low resolution differently defocused images are being captured and the optical phase is retrieved using an improved iterative Gerchberg-Saxton based algorithm. The phase retrieval allows to numerically back propagate the field to the aperture plane. Second, the imaging system is shifted and the first step is repeated. The obtained optical fields at the aperture plane are combined and a synthetically increased lens aperture is generated along the direction of movement, yielding higher imaging resolution. The method resembles a well-known approach from the microwave regime called the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) in which the antenna size is synthetically increased along the platform propagation direction. The proposed method is demonstrated through laboratory experiment.

A method for overcoming the optical diffraction limit is presented. The method includes a two-step process: optical phase retrieval using iterative Gerchberg-Saxton algorithm, and imaging system shifting followed by repetition of the first step. A synthetically increased lens aperture is generated along the direction of movement, yielding higher imaging resolution.

We propose a method for increasing the resolution of an object and overcoming the diffraction limit of an optical system installed on top of a moving ...

Fabrication of Gate-tunable Graphene Devices for Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Studies with Coulomb Impurities

Owing to its relativistic low-energy charge carriers, the interaction between graphene and various impurities leads to a wealth of new physics and degrees of freedom to control electronic devices. In particular, the behavior of graphene&#8217;s charge carriers in response to potentials from charged Coulomb impurities is predicted to differ significantly from that of most materials. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) can provide detailed information on both the spatial and energy dependence of graphene&#39;s electronic structure in the presence of a charged impurity.&#160;The design of a hybrid impurity-graphene device, fabricated using controlled deposition of impurities onto a back-gated graphene surface, has enabled several novel methods for controllably tuning graphene&#8217;s electronic properties.1-8 Electrostatic gating enables control of the charge carrier density in graphene and the ability to reversibly tune the charge2 and/or molecular5 states of an impurity. This paper outlines the process of fabricating a gate-tunable graphene device decorated with individual Coulomb impurities for combined STM/STS studies.2-5 These studies provide valuable insights into the underlying physics, as well as signposts for designing hybrid graphene devices.

This paper details the fabrication process of a gate-tunable graphene device, decorated with Coulomb impurities for scanning tunneling microscopy studies. Mapping the spatially dependent electronic structure of graphene in the presence of charged impurities unveils the unique behavior of its relativistic charge carriers in response to a local Coulomb potential.

Owing to its relativistic low-energy charge carriers, the interaction between graphene and various impurities leads to a wealth of new physics and degrees ...

Ohmic Contact Fabrication Using a Focused-ion Beam Technique and Electrical Characterization for Layer Semiconductor Nanostructures

Layer semiconductors with easily processed two-dimensional (2D) structures exhibit indirect-to-direct bandgap transitions and superior transistor performance, which suggest a new direction for the development of next-generation ultrathin and flexible photonic and electronic devices. Enhanced luminescence quantum efficiency has been widely observed in these atomically thin 2D crystals. However, dimension effects beyond quantum confinement thicknesses or even at the micrometer scale are not expected and have rarely been observed. In this study, molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2) layer crystals with a thickness range of 6-2,700 nm were fabricated as two- or four-terminal devices. Ohmic contact formation was successfully achieved by the focused-ion beam (FIB) deposition method using platinum (Pt) as a contact metal. Layer crystals with various thicknesses were prepared through simple mechanical exfoliation by using dicing tape. Current-voltage curve measurements were performed to determine the conductivity value of the layer nanocrystals. In addition, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, selected-area electron diffractometry, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy were used to characterize the interface of the metal&#8211;semiconductor contact of the FIB-fabricated MoSe2 devices. After applying the approaches, the substantial thickness-dependent electrical conductivity in a wide thickness range for the MoSe2-layer semiconductor was observed. The conductivity increased by over two orders of magnitude from 4.6 to 1,500 &#937;&#8722;1 cm&#8722;1, with a decrease in the thickness from 2,700 to 6 nm. In addition, the temperature-dependent conductivity indicated that the thin MoSe2 multilayers exhibited considerably weak semiconducting behavior with activation energies of 3.5-8.5 meV, which are considerably smaller than those (36-38 meV) of the bulk. Probable surface-dominant transport properties and the presence of a high surface electron concentration in MoSe2 are proposed. Similar results can be obtained for other layer semiconductor materials such as MoS2 and WS2.

We describe the approaches for the device fabrication and electrical characterization of molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2) layer semiconductor nanostructures with different thicknesses. In addition, the fabrication of ohmic contacts for MoSe2-layer nanocrystals by the focused-ion beam deposition method using platinum (Pt) as a contact metal is described.

Layer semiconductors with easily processed two-dimensional (2D) structures exhibit indirect-to-direct bandgap transitions and superior transistor ...

In Depth Analyses of LEDs by a Combination of X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) and Light Microscopy (LM) Correlated with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

In failure analysis, device characterization and reverse engineering of light emitting diodes (LEDs), and similar electronic components of micro-characterization, plays an important role. Commonly, different techniques like X-ray computed tomography (CT), light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are used separately. Similarly, the results have to be treated for each technique independently. Here a comprehensive study is shown which demonstrates the potentials leveraged by linking CT, LM and SEM. In depth characterization is performed on a white emitting LED, which can be operated throughout all characterization steps. Major advantages are: planned preparation of defined cross sections, correlation of optical properties to structural and compositional information, as well as reliable identification of different functional regions. This results from the breadth of information available from identical regions of interest (ROIs): polarization contrast, bright and dark-field LM images, as well as optical images of the LED cross section in operation. This is supplemented by SEM imaging techniques and micro-analysis using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.

In Depth Analyses of LEDs by a Combination of X-ray Computed Tomography CT and Light Microscopy LM Correlated with Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM

A workflow for comprehensive micro-characterization of active optical devices is outlined. It contains structural as well as functional investigations by means of CT, LM and SEM. The method is demonstrated for a white LED which can be still be operated during characterization.

In failure analysis, device characterization and reverse engineering of light emitting diodes (LEDs), and similar electronic components of ...

Sub-nanometer Resolution Imaging with Amplitude-modulation Atomic Force Microscopy in Liquid

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has become a well-established technique for nanoscale imaging of samples in air and in liquid. Recent studies have shown that when operated in amplitude-modulation (tapping) mode, atomic or molecular-level resolution images can be achieved over a wide range of soft and hard samples in liquid. In these situations, small oscillation amplitudes (SAM-AFM) enhance the resolution by exploiting the solvated liquid at the surface of the sample. Although the technique has been successfully applied across fields as diverse as materials science, biology and biophysics and surface chemistry, obtaining high-resolution images in liquid can still remain challenging for novice users. This is partly due to the large number of variables to control and optimize such as the choice of cantilever, the sample preparation, and the correct manipulation of the imaging parameters. Here, we present a protocol for achieving high-resolution images of hard and soft samples in fluid using SAM-AFM on a commercial instrument. Our goal is to provide a step-by-step practical guide to achieving high-resolution images, including the cleaning and preparation of the apparatus and the sample, the choice of cantilever and optimization of the imaging parameters. For each step, we explain the scientific rationale behind our choices to facilitate the adaptation of the methodology to every user's specific system.

We present a method for achieving sub-nanometer resolution images with amplitude-modulation (tapping mode) atomic force microscopy in liquid. The method is demonstrated on commercial atomic force microscopes. We explain the rationale behind our choices of parameters and suggest strategies for resolution optimization.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has become a well-established technique for nanoscale imaging of samples in air and in liquid. Recent studies have shown ...

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries. However, a number of setbacks prevent their integration into commercial devices. The main limiting factor is due to nanoscale phenomena occurring at the electrode/electrolyte interfaces, ultimately leading to degradation of battery operation. These key problems are highly challenging to observe and characterize as these batteries contain multiple buried interfaces. One approach for direct observation of interfacial phenomena in thin film batteries is through the fabrication of electrochemically active nanobatteries by a focused ion beam (FIB). As such, a reliable technique to fabricate nanobatteries was developed and demonstrated in recent work. Herein, a detailed protocol with a step-by-step process is presented to enable the reproduction of this nanobattery fabrication process. In particular, this technique was applied to a thin film battery consisting of LiCoO2/LiPON/a-Si, and has further been previously demonstrated by in situ cycling within a transmission electron microscope.

Focused Ion Beam Fabrication of LiPON-based Solid-state Lithium-ion Nanobatteries for In Situ Testing

A protocol for the fabrication of electrochemically active LiPON-based solid-state lithium-ion nanobatteries using a focused ion beam is presented.

Solid-state electrolytes are a promising replacement for current organic liquid electrolytes, enabling higher energy densities and improved safety of ...

Three-Dimensional Ultrasonic Needle Tip Tracking with a Fiber-Optic Ultrasound Receiver

Ultrasound is frequently used for guiding minimally invasive procedures, but visualizing medical devices is often challenging with this imaging modality. When visualization is lost, the medical device can cause trauma to critical tissue structures. Here, a method to track the needle tip during ultrasound image-guided procedures is presented. This method involves the use of a fiber-optic ultrasound receiver that is affixed within the cannula of a medical needle to communicate ultrasonically with the external ultrasound probe. This custom probe comprises a central transducer element array and side element arrays. In addition to conventional two-dimensional (2D) B-mode ultrasound imaging provided by the central array, three-dimensional (3D) needle tip tracking is provided by the side arrays. For B-mode ultrasound imaging, a standard transmit-receive sequence with electronic beamforming is performed. For ultrasonic tracking, Golay-coded ultrasound transmissions from the 4 side arrays are received by the hydrophone sensor, and subsequently the received signals are decoded to identify the needle tip&#39;s spatial location with respect to the ultrasound imaging probe. As a preliminary validation of this method, insertions of the needle/hydrophone pair were performed in clinically realistic contexts. This novel ultrasound imaging/tracking method is compatible with current clinical workflow, and it provides reliable device tracking during in-plane and out-of-plane needle insertions.

Accurate and efficient visualization of invasive medical devices is extremely important in many ultrasound-guided minimally invasive procedures. Here, a method for localizing the spatial position of a needle tip relative to the ultrasound imaging probe is presented.

Ultrasound is frequently used for guiding minimally invasive procedures, but visualizing medical devices is often challenging with this imaging modality. ...

Controllable Nucleation of Cavitation from Plasmonic Gold Nanoparticles for Enhancing High Intensity Focused Ultrasound Applications

In this study, plasmonic gold nanoparticles were simultaneously exposed to pulsed near-infrared laser light and high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) for the controllable nucleation of cavitation in tissue-mimicking gel phantoms. This in vitro protocol was developed to demonstrate the feasibility of this approach, for both enhancement of imaging and therapeutic applications for cancer. The same apparatus can be used for both imaging and therapeutic applications by varying the exposure duration of the HIFU system. For short duration exposures (10 &#181;s), broadband acoustic emissions were generated through the controlled nucleation of inertial cavitation around the gold nanoparticles. These emissions provide direct localization of nanoparticles. For future applications, these particles may be functionalized with molecular-targeting antibodies (e.g. anti-HER2 for breast cancer) and can provide precise localization of cancerous regions, complementing routine diagnostic ultrasound imaging. For continuous wave (CW) exposures, the cavitation activity was used to increase the localized heating from the HIFU exposures resulting in larger thermal damage in the gel phantoms. The acoustic emissions generated from inertial cavitation activity during these CW exposures was monitored using a passive cavitation detection (PCD) system to provide feedback of cavitation activity. Increased localized heating was only achieved through the unique combination of nanoparticles, laser light and HIFU. Further validation of this technique in pre-clinical models of cancer is necessary.

This protocol demonstrates the controllable nucleation of cavitation in gel phantoms, through simultaneous exposure to both near-infrared pulsed laser light and high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). The cavitation activity can then be used for enhancing imaging and/or therapeutic uses of HIFU.

In this study, plasmonic gold nanoparticles were simultaneously exposed to pulsed near-infrared laser light and high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) ...

Evaluating Targeting Accuracy in the Focal Plane for an Ultrasound-guided High-intensity Focused Ultrasound Phased-array System

Phased arrays are increasingly used as high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) transducers in the existing extracorporeal ultrasound-guided HIFU (USgHIFU) systems. The HIFU transducers in such systems are usually spherical in shape with a central hole where a US imaging probe is mounted and can be rotated. The image on the plane of treatment can be reconstructed through the image sequence acquired during the rotation of the probe. Therefore, the treatment plan can be made on the reconstructed images. In order to evaluate the targeting accuracy in the focal plane of such systems, the protocol of a method using a bovine muscle and marker-embedded phantom is described. In the phantom, four solid balls at the corners of a square resin model serve as the reference markers in the reconstructed image. The target should be moved so that both its center and the center of the square model can coincide according to their relative positions in the reconstructed image. Swine muscle with a thickness of about 30 mm is placed above the phantom to mimic the beam path in clinical settings. After sonication, the treatment plane in the phantom is scanned and the boundary of the associated lesion is extracted from the scanned image. The targeting accuracy can be evaluated by measuring the distance between the centers of target and lesion, as well as three derivative parameters. This method cannot only evaluate the targeting accuracy of the target consisting of multiple focal spots rather than a single focal spot in a clinically relevant beam path of the USgHIFU phased-array system, but it can be also used in the preclinical evaluation or regular maintenance of USgHIFU systems configured with phased-array or self-focused HIFU transducer.

This study describes a protocol to evaluate the targeting accuracy in the focal plane of an ultrasound-guided high-intensity focused ultrasound phased-array system.