Name: a flow cytometry-based cytotoxicity assay for the assessment of human nk cell activity
Uploaded: 2017-08-09T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Flow Cytometry-Based Cytotoxicity Assay for the Assessment of Human NK Cell Activity at JoVE.com

We would like to thank Jill Narciso, UCLA Immunogenetics Center, for her assistance with manuscript preparation.

Samples were collected according to the ethical guidelines established by the UCLA Human Research Protection Program and IRB approved.
1. Preparation of reagents
NOTE: Unless otherwise stated, all reagents should be allowed to equilibrate at room temperature prior to use. All reagents must remain sterile.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a 2x working solution of Tween-20 (i.e., 0.2%) by adding 10&#160;&#181;L of Tween-20 solution to 5 mL of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) withou...

<ol>
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D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+natural+killer+cell+function+by+flow+cytometry.">Determination of natural killer cell function by flow cytometry.</a> Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 3 (3), 295-300 (1996).</li><li>Jang, Y. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+flow+cytometry-based+natural+killer+cytotoxicity+assay+involving+calcein+AM+staining+of+effector+cells.">An improved flow cytometry-based natural killer cytotoxicity assay involving calcein AM staining of effector cells.</a> Ann Clin Lab Sci. 42 (1), 42-49 (2012).</li><li>Korzeniewski, C., Callewaert, D. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+enzyme-release+assay+for+natural+cytotoxicity.">An enzyme-release assay for natural cytotoxicity.</a> J Immunol Methods. 64 (3), 313-320 (1983).</li><li>Karimi, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+cytotoxicity+by+bioluminescence+imaging+outperforms+the+standard+chromium-51+release+assay.">Measuring cytotoxicity by bioluminescence imaging outperforms the standard chromium-51 release assay.</a> PLoS One. 9 (2), e89357 (2014).</li><li>Oppenheim, D. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glyco-engineered+anti-EGFR+mAb+elicits+ADCC+by+NK+cells+from+colorectal+cancer+patients+irrespective+of+chemotherapy.">Glyco-engineered anti-EGFR mAb elicits ADCC by NK cells from colorectal cancer patients irrespective of chemotherapy.</a> Br J Cancer. 110 (5), 1221-1227 (2014).</li><li>West, W. H., Cannon, G. B., Kay, H. D., Bonnard, G. D., Herberman, R. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Natural+cytotoxic+reactivity+of+human+lymphocytes+against+a+myeloid+cell+line:+characterization+of+effector+cells.">Natural cytotoxic reactivity of human lymphocytes against a myeloid cell line: characterization of effector cells.</a> J Immunol. 118 (1), 355-361 (1977).</li><li>Jedema, I., van der Werff, N. M., Barge, R. M., Willemze, R., Falkenburg, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+CFSE-based+assay+to+determine+susceptibility+to+lysis+by+cytotoxic+T+cells+of+leukemic+precursor+cells+within+a+heterogeneous+target+cell+population.">New CFSE-based assay to determine susceptibility to lysis by cytotoxic T cells of leukemic precursor cells within a heterogeneous target cell population.</a> Blood. 103 (7), 2677-2682 (2004).</li><li>Lecoeur, H., Fevrier, M., Garcia, S., Riviere, Y., Gougeon, M. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+flow+cytometric+assay+for+quantitation+and+multiparametric+characterization+of+cell-mediated+cytotoxicity.">A novel flow cytometric assay for quantitation and multiparametric characterization of cell-mediated cytotoxicity.</a> J Immunol Methods. 253 (1-2), 177-187 (2001).</li><li>Carotta, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+NK+Cells+for+Anticancer+Immunotherapy:+Clinical+and+Preclinical+Approaches.">Targeting NK Cells for Anticancer Immunotherapy: Clinical and Preclinical Approaches.</a> Front Immunol. 7, 152 (2016).</li><li>Mandal, A., Viswanathan, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Natural+killer+cells:+In+health+and+disease.">Natural killer cells: In health and disease.</a> Hematol Oncol Stem Cell Ther. 8 (2), 47-55 (2015).</li><li>Rezvani, K., Rouce, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Application+of+Natural+Killer+Cell+Immunotherapy+for+the+Treatment+of+Cancer.">The Application of Natural Killer Cell Immunotherapy for the Treatment of Cancer.</a> Front Immunol. 6, 578 (2015).</li><li>Angelo, L. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Practical+NK+cell+phenotyping+and+variability+in+healthy+adults.">Practical NK cell phenotyping and variability in healthy adults.</a> Immunol Res. 62 (3), 341-356 (2015).</li><li>Zons, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+europium+and+chromium+release+assays:+cytotoxicity+in+healthy+individuals+and+patients+with+cervical+carcinoma.">Comparison of europium and chromium release assays: cytotoxicity in healthy individuals and patients with cervical carcinoma.</a> Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 4 (2), 202-207 (1997).</li><li>Yovel, G., Shakhar, K., Ben-Eliyahu, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+sex,+menstrual+cycle,+and+oral+contraceptives+on+the+number+and+activity+of+natural+killer+cells.">The effects of sex, menstrual cycle, and oral contraceptives on the number and activity of natural killer cells.</a> Gynecol Oncol. 81 (2), 254-262 (2001).</li><li>Laue, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Altered+NK+cell+function+in+obese+healthy+humans.">Altered NK cell function in obese healthy humans.</a> BMC Obes. 2, 1 (2015).</li><li>Hazeldine, J., Lord, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+ageing+on+natural+killer+cell+function+and+potential+consequences+for+health+in+older+adults.">The impact of ageing on natural killer cell function and potential consequences for health in older adults.</a> Ageing Res Rev. 12 (4), 1069-1078 (2013).</li></ol>

The method described here provides a straightforward and cost-effective alternative to the traditional 51Cr release assay to assess NK cell cytotoxic activity. This method is sensitive, reproducible, and less time-consuming than previous standard methods, like CRA, and can be used for both clinical and research applications.
While the assay works with both total PBMCs and enriched NK cells, the option to use PBMCs without the need to purify cell populations is a great benefit when d...

An erratum was issued for: <a href="https://www.jove.com/video/56191/a-flow-cytometry-based-cytotoxicity-assay-for-assessment-human-nk">A Flow Cytometry-Based Cytotoxicity Assay for the Assessment of Human NK Cell Activity</a>. Figure 4 has been corrected to show background-corrected data.
Figure 4 was updated from:
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/56191/56191fig4v1.jpg" />
to:
<img alt="Figure 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/56191/56191fig4v2.jpg" />

An erratum was issued for: <a href="https://www.jove.com/video/56191/a-flow-cytometry-based-cytotoxicity-assay-for-assessment-human-nk">A Flow Cytometry-Based Cytotoxicity Assay for the Assessment of Human NK Cell Activity</a>. Figure 4 has been corrected to show background-corrected data.

Erratum: A Flow Cytometry-Based Cytotoxicity Assay for the Assessment of Human NK Cell Activity

Natural killer (NK) cells are a sophisticated subset of human innate lymphocytes critically involved in the elimination of virally infected cells, transformed cells, and other pathogenic threats 1,2. NK cell lytic granules house cytotoxic proteins, such as perforin and granzymes. Upon activation, NK cells form a complex interaction with their targets known as immunological synapse, whereby these cytolytic molecules are locally released, resulting in direct target cell lysis and apoptosis, together with cytokine and chemokine release and ultimately in the induction of an inflammatory state 1,3,4.
NK cell activation involves a complex string of activating and inhibitory interactions between NK cell receptors and ligands expressed on the surface of target cells, forming a tightly regulated system. One of the most studied mechanisms of NK cell activation is the &#34;missing self&#34;. Indeed, lack of detection of class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC), or human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules, on infected or transformed cells triggers NK cell cytotoxicity. Tumor and virus-infected cells generally downregulate these antigens to escape T cell-mediated immunity, thus becoming primary NK cell targets 1,3,4.
Assessment of NK cell function is primarily categorized into degranulation or cytotoxicity assays. However, degranulation assays, such as flow cytometric detection of the degranulation-associated marker CD107a, are only indicative of NK cell activation and not of their ultimate function, the direct killing of target cells 5,6,7,8. Hence, this limitation has drawn investigators to cytotoxicity assays as a more telling and more direct alternative.
The long-time &#34;gold standard&#34; for assessing cell-mediated cytotoxic activity of both T and NK cells is the chromium release assay (CRA). CRA involves radioactively labeling of target cells with 51Cr and co-incubating them with effector cells. This assay is steeped in the principle that cell lysis results in the release of protein-bound 51Cr into the supernatant, which can be measured by gamma counting. This assay, while effective, is problematic for a variety of reasons: high material costs, handling and disposal of radioactive 51Cr, spontaneous release of 51Cr, and difficult standardization - making it altogether impractical 9,10.
A number of non-radioactive assays, involving fluorescent labeling, enzyme release, and even bioluminescence, have since been developed as alternatives to CRA 11,12,13,14. We describe here a flow cytometry-based method for measurement of NK cell cytotoxic activity on K562 target cells that is simple, sensitive, and reproducible. K562 cells are a human erythroleukemic cell line with reduced expression of HLA class I and heightened expression of ligands for activatory NK receptors, which makes them particularly susceptible to NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity 15. In this assay, K562 cells are pre-labeled with carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE) and co-cultured at various ratios with either peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or purified NK cells 1. CFSE is a stable, protein-binding fluorescent dye that allows discrimination of target cells from effector NK cells 16,17. After the co-incubation, a nucleic acid stain, specifically permeating the membrane of dead cells, is used to identify killed target cells (see table of materials). The samples are then acquired on a flow cytometer to determine the percentage of dead (i.e., stain+) CFSE+ target cells.
This assay can be used as a routine diagnostic screening for monogenic defects affecting the NK cell compartment, of which there are approximately 30 known defects causing either functional or classic NK cell deficiency, and for primary or secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. It is also useful to investigate NK cell activity in patients with recurrent, severe herpes viral infections, to evaluate immune reconstitution following hematopoietic cell transplantation or post immunomodulatory therapy 18,19,20, and for a host of basic research applications.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate-buffered Saline (1x, w/o Ca2+ and Mg2+)</td>
			<td>Corning (Cellgro)</td>
			<td>21-040-CM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ficoll-Paque PLUS</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>17-1440-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween-20</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>BP337-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPMI 1640 Media</td>
			<td>Corning (Cellgro)</td>
			<td>10-040-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heat-inactivated Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Omega Scientific</td>
			<td>FB-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15140-163</td>
			<td>Stock solution at 10,000 U/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IL-2</td>
			<td>R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td>202-IL-050</td>
			<td>Lyophilized from a 0.2 &#956;m filtered solution in Acetonitrile and TFA with BSA as a carrier protein. Reconstitute with 500 ul at 100 &#956;g/mL in sterile 100 mM Acetic Acid containing at least 0.1% bovine serum albumin (2.1x10E6 IU/ml)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K562 Cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CCL-243</td>
			<td>Cancer cell line&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T-75 cell culture flasks</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>431464</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CFSE cell proliferation kit</td>
			<td>Life Technologies (CellTrace)</td>
			<td>C34554</td>
			<td>Reconstitute I vial with 18 ul DMSO to prepare a 5mM stock solution. Do not freeze/thaw.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sytox Red</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>S34859</td>
			<td>Stock solution is provided at 5 &#956;M in 1 mL DMSO. The DMSO solution may be subjected to multiple freeze-thaw cycles without reagent degradation.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium/lithium heparin blood collection tubes</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>02-687-95</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U-bottom 96-well plate</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>CLS3897</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serological pipettes</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polystyrene round-bottom tubes (5mL)</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>14959-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL polypropylene conical tube</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>352070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL polypropylene conical tube</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>352097</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagent reservoir</td>
			<td>USA Scientific</td>
			<td>2321-2230</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human NK cell enrichment cocktail</td>
			<td>StemCell Technologies (RosetteSep)</td>
			<td>15065</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a flow cytometry-based cytotoxicity assay for the assessment of human nk cell activity

Within the innate immune system, effector lymphocytes known as natural killer (NK) cells play an essential role in host defense against aberrant cells, specifically eliminating tumoral and virally infected cells. Approximately 30 known monogenic defects, together with a host of other pathological conditions, cause either functional or classic NK cell deficiency, manifesting in reduced or absent cytotoxic activity. Historically, cytotoxicity has been investigated with radioactive methods, which are cumbersome, expensive and potentially hazardous. This article describes a streamlined, clinically applicable flow cytometry-based method to quantify NK cell cytotoxic activity. In this assay, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or purified NK cell preparations are co-incubated at different ratios with a target tumor cell line known to be sensitive to NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity (NKCC). The target cells are pre-labeled with a fluorescent dye to allow their discrimination from the effector cells (NK cells). After the incubation period, killed target cells are identified by a nucleic acid stain, which specifically permeates dead cells. This method is amenable to both diagnostic and research applications and, thanks to the multi-parameter capabilities of flow cytometry, has the added advantage of potentially enabling a deeper analysis of NK cell phenotype and function.

Before setting up the assay, it is highly recommended that NK cell content be assessed in the effector population of choice. Figure 1 shows a typical CD56 staining before (light blue) and after (red) NK cell enrichment. NK cells comprise up to 15% of PBMCs and should be at least 80% pure after enrichment.
Flow cytometric analysis in this assay involves detection of two parameters: CFSE, detectable i...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Flow Cytometry-Based Cytotoxicity Assay for the Assessment of Human NK Cell Activity at JoVE.com

A Flow Cytometry-Based Cytotoxicity Assay for the Assessment of Human NK Cell Activity

A flow cytometry-based method to quantitatively determine the cytotoxic activity of human natural killer cells is shown here.

Within the innate immune system, effector lymphocytes known as natural killer (NK) cells play an essential role in host defense against aberrant cells, ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to assess the cytotoxic activity of human NK cells. This method can be used to monitor patients with either functional or classic NK cell deficiency. The main advantages of this flow cytometry based technique are that it's sensitive, reproducible, and faster than standard NK cell function assessment methods such as the radioactive chromium release assay.This method can be used to test novel NK cell targeted therapies as well as previously unachievable in depth multi-parameter flow cytometric analysis of NK cell biology. Begin by using density gradient separation to isolate the peripheral blood mononuclear cells, or PBMC's from whole blood samples according to standard protocols. Using PBMC's instead of purified NK cells is greatly beneficial when dealing with clinical specimens.Dilute the isolated cells to a five times 10 to the sixth cells per milliliter concentration in complete medium and immediately collect K562 target cells by centrifugation. Re-suspend five times 10 to the fifth 562 cells in 500 microliters of fresh medium supplemented with one percent FBS. Next label the target cells with 500 microliters of CFSE working solution and gently mix the cell solution by pipetting three to five times.After 10 minutes at 37 degrees Celsius protected from light, quench the labeling reaction with 10 milliliters of complete medium for 10 minutes in the dark at room temperature. At the end of the quenching incubation collect the cells by centrifugation and re-suspend the labeled target cell palette in one milliliter of complete medium for counting. Then dilute the cells to one times 10 to the fifth cells per milliliter of fresh complete medium concentration and place the target cells in a humidified 37 degree Celsius and five percent carbon dioxide incubator.For a successful assay, reduce the target cell stress to a minimum and test the effector cell as soon as possible after collection. Within 30 minutes of the target cell labeling, label a 96 well U bottom tissue culture treated plate according to the table. Next add 100 microliters of complete medium to the 25 to one, 12.5 to one, and 6.25 to one effector to target cell ratio wells, the target cells only wells, and the effector cells only wells.Add 100 microliters of effector cells to the cytotoxcity control wells and the 50 to one, and 25 to one effector cell to target cell ratio wells. Then starting with the 25 to one effector cell to target cell ratio well, transfer 100 microliters of cells to the well with the next lowest cell ratio concentration for the next two wells, skipping the target cell only wells, mixing well between each cell transfer and adding the last 100 microliters of cells the the effector cells only wells. Add 100 microliters of 2X 0.2 percent Tween working solution to the Tween only K562 death positive control wells.Add 30 microliters of vial two working solution to the NK cell cytotoxicity positive control wells. Then add one times 10 to the fifth labeled K562 target cells per milliliter in 100 microliters of complete medium to all of the wells except the effector cells only wells. When all the cells have been plated mix all the wells with the multi channel pipette.Settle the cells with a brief centrifugation and place the plate in the cell culture incubator for four hours. At the end of the incubation place the plate on ice or on a cold platform, and add 50 microliters of freshly prepared dead cell stain to each well. Then gently mix all of the wells and analyze the cells by flow cytometry.Flow cytometric analysis of CSFE and dead cell stain after four hours of cold culture as just demonstrated reveals that the cells in the target cells only wells experience 15%cell death or less. No CSFE signal is detected in the effector cells only wells if less than five percent cell death observed in these wells. While the cell death in the Tween mediated target cell killing wells is typically over 85%In patients with a defect in NK cell function a reduced killing activity is observed at most or all of the tested ratios compared to healthy individuals demonstrating that the NK cells from these patients exhibit a differential reduction in cytotoxicity that correlates with a decreasing effector target cell ratio.Once mastered this technique can be completed in six and a half hours, including the two hours of preparation and plating, four hours of incubation, and 30 minutes of acquisition. While attempting this procedure it's important to remember to prepare the target and effector cells in parallel to minimize the lag time between the cell preparation and the start of the co-incubation. After watching this video you should have a good understanding of how to measure the cytotoxic activity of human NK cells against fluorescently labeled target cells by flow cytometry.

a-flow-cytometry-based-cytotoxicity-assay-for-assessment-human-nk

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Expansion, Purification, and Functional Assessment of Human Peripheral Blood NK Cells

Natural killer (NK) cells play an important role in immune surveillance against a variety of infectious microorganisms and tumors. Limited availability of NK cells and ability to expand in vitro has restricted development of NK cell immunotherapy. Here we describe a method to efficiently expand vast quantities of functional NK cells ex vivo using K562 cells expressing membrane-bound IL21, as an artificial antigen-presenting cell (aAPC).
NK cell adoptive therapies to date have utilized a cell product obtained by steady-state leukapheresis of the donor followed by depletion of T cells or positive selection of NK cells. The product is usually activated in IL-2 overnight and then administered the following day 1. Because of the low frequency of NK cells in peripheral blood, relatively small numbers of NK cells have been delivered in clinical trials.
The inability to propagate NK cells in vitro has been the limiting factor for generating sufficient cell numbers for optimal clinical outcome. Some expansion of NK cells (5-10 fold over 1-2 weeks) has be achieved through high-dose IL-2 alone 2. Activation of autologous T cells can mediate NK cell expansion, presumably also through release of local cytokine 3. Support with mesenchymal stroma or artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs) can support the expansion of NK cells from both peripheral blood and cord blood 4. Combined NKp46 and CD2 activation by antibody-coated beads is currently marketed for NK cell expansion (Miltenyi Biotec, Auburn CA), resulting in approximately 100-fold expansion in 21 days.
Clinical trials using aAPC-expanded or -activated NK cells are underway, one using leukemic cell line CTV-1 to prime and activate NK cells5 without significant expansion. A second trial utilizes EBV-LCL for NK cell expansion, achieving a mean 490-fold expansion in 21 days6. The third utilizes a K562-based aAPC transduced with 4-1BBL (CD137L) and membrane-bound IL-15 (mIL-15)7, which achieved a mean NK expansion 277-fold in 21 days. Although, the NK cells expanded using K562-41BBL-mIL15 aAPC are highly cytotoxic in vitro and in vivo compared to unexpanded NK cells, and participate in ADCC, their proliferation is limited by senescence attributed to telomere shortening8. More recently a 350-fold expansion of NK cells was reported using K562 expressing MICA, 4-1BBL and IL159.
Our method of NK cell expansion described herein produces rapid proliferation of NK cells without senescence achieving a median 21,000-fold expansion in 21 days.

Here we describe a method to efficiently expand and purify large numbers of human NK cells and assess their function.

Natural killer (NK) cells play an important role in immune surveillance against a variety of infectious microorganisms and tumors. Limited availability of ...

Human In Vitro Suppression as Screening Tool for the Recognition of an Early State of Immune Imbalance

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are critical mediators of immune tolerance to self-antigens. In addition, they are crucial regulators of the immune response following an infection. Despite efforts to identify unique surface marker on Tregs, the only unique feature is their ability to suppress the proliferation and function of effector T cells. While it is clear that only in vitro assays can be used in assessing human Treg function, this becomes problematic when assessing the results from cross-sectional studies where healthy cells and cells isolated from subjects with autoimmune diseases (like Type 1 Diabetes-T1D) need to be compared. There is a great variability among laboratories in the number and type of responder T cells, nature and strength of stimulation, Treg:responder ratios and the number and type of antigen-presenting cells (APC) used in human in vitro suppression assays. This variability makes comparison between studies measuring Treg function difficult. The Treg field needs a standardized suppression assay that will work well with both healthy subjects and those with autoimmune diseases. We have developed an in vitro suppression assay that shows very little intra-assay variability in the stimulation of T cells isolated from healthy volunteers compared to subjects with underlying autoimmune destruction of pancreatic &beta;-cells. The main goal of this piece is to describe an in vitro human suppression assay that allows comparison between different subject groups. Additionally, this assay has the potential to delineate a small loss in nTreg function and anticipate further loss in the future, thus identifying subjects who could benefit from preventive immunomodulatory therapy1. Below, we provide thorough description of the steps involved in this procedure. We hope to contribute to the standardization of the in vitro suppression assay used to measure Treg function. In addition, we offer this assay as a tool to recognize an early state of immune imbalance and a potential functional biomarker for T1D.

Human In Vitro Suppression as Screening Tool for the Recognition of an Early State of Immune Imbalance

Tregs are potent suppressors of the immune system. There is a lack of unique surface markers to define them, hence, definitions of Tregs are primarily functional. Here we describe an optimized in vitro assay capable of identifying immune imbalance in subjects at risk to develop T1D.

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are critical mediators of immune tolerance to self-antigens. In addition, they are crucial regulators of the immune response ...

Quantitative High-throughput Single-cell Cytotoxicity Assay For T Cells

Cancer immunotherapy can harness the specificity of immune response to target and eliminate tumors. Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) based on the adoptive transfer of T cells genetically modified to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) has shown considerable promise in clinical trials1-4. There are several advantages to using CAR+ T cells for the treatment of cancers including the ability to target non-MHC restricted antigens and to functionalize the T cells for optimal survival, homing and persistence within the host; and finally to induce apoptosis of CAR+ T cells in the event of host toxicity5.
Delineating the optimal functions of CAR+ T cells associated with clinical benefit is essential for designing the next generation of clinical trials. Recent advances in live animal imaging like multiphoton microscopy have revolutionized the study of immune cell function in vivo6,7. While these studies have advanced our understanding of T-cell functions in vivo, T-cell based ACT in clinical trials requires the need to link molecular and functional features of T-cell preparations pre-infusion with clinical efficacy post-infusion, by utilizing in vitro assays monitoring T-cell functions like, cytotoxicity and cytokine secretion. Standard flow-cytometry based assays have been developed that determine the overall functioning of populations of T cells at the single-cell level but these are not suitable for monitoring conjugate formation and lifetimes or the ability of the same cell to kill multiple targets8.
Microfabricated arrays designed in biocompatible polymers like polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) are a particularly attractive method to spatially confine effectors and targets in small volumes9. In combination with automated time-lapse fluorescence microscopy, thousands of effector-target interactions can be monitored simultaneously by imaging individual wells of a nanowell array. We present here a high-throughput methodology for monitoring T-cell mediated cytotoxicity at the single-cell level that can be broadly applied to studying the cytolytic functionality of T cells.

We describe a single-cell high-throughput assay to measure cytotoxicity of T cells when incubated with tumor target cells. This method employs a dense, elastomeric array of sub-nanoliter wells (~100,000 wells/array) to spatially confine the T cells and target cells at defined ratios and is coupled to fluorescence microscopy to monitor effector-target conjugation and subsequent apoptosis.

Cancer immunotherapy can harness the specificity of  immune response to target and eliminate tumors. Adoptive cell therapy (ACT)  based on the adoptive ...

Cell-based Flow Cytometry Assay to Measure Cytotoxic Activity

Cytolytic activity of CD8+ T cells is rarely evaluated. We describe here a new cell-based assay to measure the capacity of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells to kill CD4+ T cells loaded with their cognate peptide. Target CD4+ T cells are divided into two populations, labeled with two different concentrations of CFSE. One population is pulsed with the peptide of interest (CFSE-low) while the other remains un-pulsed (CFSE-high). Pulsed and un-pulsed CD4+ T cells are mixed at an equal ratio and incubated with an increasing number of purified CD8+ T cells. The specific killing of autologous target CD4+ T cells is analyzed by flow cytometry after coculture with CD8+ T cells containing the antigen-specific effector CD8+ T cells detected by peptide/MHCI tetramer staining. The specific lysis of target CD4+ T cells measured at different effector versus target ratios, allows for the calculation of lytic units, LU30/106 cells. This simple and straightforward assay allows for the accurate measurement of the intrinsic capacity of CD8+ T cells to kill target CD4+ T cells.

This protocol describes a sensitive, cell-based cytotoxicity assay. By enumerating the decrease in frequency of live target CD4+ T cells in the presence of an increasing number of effector CD8+ T cells, this assay allows for the direct assessment of cytolytic activity of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells.

Cytolytic activity of CD8+ T cells is rarely evaluated. We describe here a new cell-based assay to measure the capacity of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells ...

Fast and Specific Assessment of the Halogenating Peroxidase Activity in Leukocyte-enriched Blood Samples

In this paper a protocol for the quick and standardized enrichment of leukocytes from small whole blood samples is described. This procedure is based on the hypotonic lysis of erythrocytes and can be applied to human samples as well as to blood of non-human origin. The small initial sample volume of about 50 to 100 &#181;l makes this method applicable to recurrent blood sampling from small laboratory animals. Moreover, leukocyte enrichment is achieved within minutes and with low material efforts regarding chemicals and instrumentation, making this method applicable in multiple laboratory environments.
Standardized purification of leukocytes is combined with a highly selective staining method to evaluate halogenating peroxidase activity of the heme peroxidases, myeloperoxidase (MPO) and eosinophil peroxidase (EPO), i.e., the formation of hypochlorous and hypobromous acid (HOCl and HOBr). While MPO is strongly expressed in neutrophils, the most abundant immune cell type in human blood as well as in monocytes, the related enzyme EPO is exclusively expressed in eosinophils. The halogenating activity of these enzymes is addressed by using the almost HOCl- and HOBr-specific dye aminophenyl fluorescein (APF) and the primary peroxidase substrate hydrogen peroxide. Upon subsequent flow cytometry analysis all peroxidase-positive cells (neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils) are distinguishable and their halogenating peroxidase activity can be quantified. Since APF staining may be combined with the application of cell surface markers, this protocol can be extended to specifically address leukocyte sub-fractions. The method is applicable to detect HOCl and HOBr production both in human and in rodent leukocytes.
Given the widely and diversely discussed immunological role of these enzymatic products in chronic inflammatory diseases, this protocol may contribute to a better understanding of the immunological relevance of leukocyte-derived heme peroxidases.

This protocol describes the quick enrichment of leukocytes from small blood samples for a subsequent specific determination of the halogenating peroxidase activity within the cells. The method can be applied to human and non-human material and may contribute to the evaluation of new inflammatory markers.

In this paper a protocol for the quick and standardized enrichment of leukocytes from small whole blood samples is described. This procedure is based on ...

Flow Cytometry-based Assay for the Monitoring of NK Cell Functions

Natural killer (NK) cells are an important part of the human tumor immune surveillance system. NK cells are able to distinguish between healthy and virus-infected or malignantly transformed cells due to a set of germline encoded inhibitory and activating receptors. Upon virus or tumor cell recognition a variety of different NK cell functions are initiated including cytotoxicity against the target cell as well as cytokine and chemokine production leading to the activation of other immune cells. It has been demonstrated that accurate NK cell functions are crucial for the treatment outcome of different virus infections and malignant diseases. Here a simple and reliable method is described to analyze different NK cell functions using a flow cytometry-based assay. NK cell functions can be evaluated not only for the whole NK cell population, but also for different NK cell subsets. This technique enables scientists to easily study NK cell functions in healthy donors or patients in order to reveal their impact on different malignancies and to further discover new therapeutic strategies.

A simple and reliable method is described here to analyze a set of NK cell functions such as degranulation, cytokine and chemokine production within different NK cell subsets.

Natural killer (NK) cells are an important part of the human tumor immune surveillance system. NK cells are able to distinguish between healthy and ...

Assessing Retinal Microglial Phagocytic Function In Vivo Using a Flow Cytometry-based Assay

Microglia are the tissue resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) and they perform a variety of functions that support CNS homeostasis, including phagocytosis of damaged synapses or cells, debris, and/or invading pathogens. Impaired phagocytic function has been implicated in the pathogenesis of diseases such as Alzheimer's and age-related macular degeneration, where amyloid-&#946; plaque and drusen accumulate, respectively. Despite its importance, microglial phagocytosis has been challenging to assess in vivo. Here, we describe a simple, yet robust, technique for precisely monitoring and quantifying the in vivo phagocytic potential of retinal microglia. Previous methods have relied on immunohistochemical staining and imaging techniques. Our method uses flow cytometry to measure microglial uptake of fluorescently labeled particles after intravitreal delivery to the eye in live rodents. This method replaces conventional practices that involve laborious tissue sectioning, immunostaining, and imaging, allowing for more precise quantification of microglia phagocytic function in just under six hours. This procedure can also be adapted to test how various compounds alter microglial phagocytosis in physiological settings. While this technique was developed in the eye, its use is not limited to vision research.

Assessing Retinal Microglial Phagocytic Function In Vivo Using a Flow Cytometry-based Assay

Microglial phagocytosis is critical for the maintenance of tissue homeostasis and inadequate phagocytic function has been implicated in pathology. However, assessing microglia function in vivo is technically challenging. We have developed a simple but robust technique for precisely monitoring and quantifying the phagocytic potential of microglia in a physiological setting.

Microglia are the tissue resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) and they perform a variety of functions that support CNS homeostasis, ...

Flow Cytometric Analysis of Natural Killer Cell Lytic Activity in Human Whole Blood

NK cell cytotoxicity is a widely used measure to determine the effect of outside intervention on NK cell function. However, the accuracy and reproducibility of this assay can be considered unstable, either because of user&#39;s errors or because of the sensitivity of NK cells to experimental manipulation. To eliminate these issues, a workflow that reduces them to a minimum was established and is presented here. To illustrate, we obtained blood samples, at various time points, from runners (n = 4) that were submitted to an intense bout of exercise. First, NK cells are simultaneously identified and isolated through CD56 tagging and magnetic-based sorting, directly from whole blood and from as little as one milliliter. The sorted NK cells are removed of any reagent or capping antibodies. They can be counted in order to establish an accurate NK cell count per milliliter of blood. Secondly, the sorted NK cells (effectors cells or E) can be mixed with 3,3&#39;-Diotadecyloxacarbocyanine Perchlorate (DiO) tagged K562 cells (target cells or T) at an assay-optimal 1:5 T:E ratio, and analyzed using an imaging flow-cytometer that allows for the visualization of each event and the elimination of any false positive or false negatives (such as doublets or effector cells). This workflow can be completed in about 4 h, and allows for very stable results even when working with human samples. When available, research teams can test several experimental interventions in human subjects, and compare measurements across several time points without compromising the data&#39;s integrity.

This work describes an advanced workflow for the accurate and fast determination of NK (Natural Killer) cell count and NK cell cytotoxicity in human blood samples.

NK cell cytotoxicity is a widely used measure to determine the effect of outside intervention on NK cell function. However, the accuracy and ...

Dextran Enhances the Lentiviral Transduction Efficiency of Murine and Human Primary NK Cells

The efficient transduction of specific genes into natural killer (NK) cells has been a major challenge. Successful transductions are critical to defining the role of the gene of interest in the development, differentiation, and function of NK cells. Recent advances related to chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) in cancer immunotherapy accentuate the need for an efficient method to deliver exogenous genes to effector lymphocytes. The efficiencies of lentiviral-mediated gene transductions into primary human or mouse NK cells remain significantly low, which is a major limiting factor. Recent advances using cationic polymers, such as polybrene, show an improved gene transduction efficiency in T cells. However, these products failed to improve the transduction efficiencies of NK cells. This work shows that dextran, a branched glucan polysaccharide, significantly improves the transduction efficiency of human and mouse primary NK cells. This highly reproducible transduction methodology provides a competent tool for transducing human primary NK cells, which can vastly improve clinical gene delivery applications and thus NK cell-based cancer immunotherapy.

The goal of this study was to formulate technologies that allow for successful gene transduction in primary natural killer (NK) cells. The dextran-mediated lentiviral transduction of human or mouse primary NK cells results in higher gene expression efficiencies. This method of gene transduction will vastly improve NK cell genetic manipulation.

The efficient transduction of specific genes into natural killer (NK) cells has been a major challenge. Successful transductions are critical to defining ...

Generation of Knock-out Primary and Expanded Human NK Cells Using Cas9 Ribonucleoproteins

CRISPR/Cas9 technology is accelerating genome engineering in many cell types, but so far, gene delivery and stable gene modification have been challenging in primary NK cells. For example, transgene delivery using lentiviral or retroviral transduction resulted in a limited yield of genetically-engineered NK cells due to substantial procedure-associated NK cell apoptosis. We describe here a DNA-free method for genome editing of human primary and expanded NK cells using Cas9 ribonucleoprotein complexes (Cas9/RNPs). This method allowed efficient knockout of the TGFBR2 and HPRT1 genes in NK cells. RT-PCR data showed a significant decrease in gene expression level, and a cytotoxicity assay of a representative cell product suggested that the RNP-modified NK cells became less sensitive to TGF&#946;. Genetically modified cells could be expanded post-electroporation by stimulation with irradiated mbIL21-expressing feeder cells.

Here, we present a protocol to genetically modify primary or expanded human natural killer (NK) cells using Cas9 Ribonucleoproteins (Cas9/RNPs). By using this protocol, we generated human NK cells deficient for transforming growth factor&#8211;b receptor 2 (TGFBR2) and hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase 1 (HPRT1).

CRISPR/Cas9 technology is accelerating genome engineering in many cell types, but so far, gene delivery and stable gene modification have been challenging ...