Name: cutting procedures, tensile testing, and ageing of flexible unidirectional composite laminates
Uploaded: 2019-04-27T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cutting Procedures, Tensile Testing, and Ageing of Flexible Unidirectional Composite Laminates at JoVE.com

The authors would like to acknowledge Stuart Leigh Phoenix for his helpful discussions, Mike Riley for his assistance with the mechanical test setup, and Honeywell for donating some of the materials. Funding for Amy Engelbrecht-Wiggans was provided under grant 70NANB17H337. Funding for Ajay Krishnamurthy was provided under grant 70NANB15H272. Funding for Amanda L. Forster was provided from the Department of Defense through interagency agreement R17-643-0013.

1. Cutting procedure for warp-direction specimens that are cut perpendicular to the axis of the roll
<ol>
	<li>Identify a bolt of unidirectional material to be tested. 
	NOTE: There is no warp (used to describe the direction perpendicular to the axis of the roll) and weft (used to describe the direction parallel to the axis of the roll) in the traditional textile sense, as the material used here is not woven, but these terms are borrowed for clarity.</li>
	<li>Manually unroll the bolt to expose the precursor mater...

<ol>
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L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+Soft+Armor+Conditioning+Protocols+for+{NIJ--0101.06}:+Analytical+Results.">Development of Soft Armor Conditioning Protocols for {NIJ--0101.06}: Analytical Results.</a> NISTIR 7627. , (2009).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> NIJ Standard 0101.06- Ballistic Resistance of Personal Body Armor. , (2008).</li><li>Forster, A. L., Chin, J., Peng, J. -. S., Kang, K. -. 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(Reapproved). , 1-8 (2017).</li><li>ASTM D3950. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Standard+Specification+for+Strapping,+Nonmetallic+(and+Joining+Methods).">Standard Specification for Strapping, Nonmetallic (and Joining Methods).</a> Annual Book of ASTM Standards. , 1-7 (2017).</li><li>Weibull, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Statistical+Distribution+Function+of+Wide+applicability.">A Statistical Distribution Function of Wide applicability.</a> Journal of applied mechanics. 18 (4), 293-297 (1951).</li><li>Coleman, B. 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The Power Law Breakdown Rule.</a> Journal of Rheology. 2 (1), 195 (1958).</li><li>Coleman, B. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+the+theory+of+absolute+reaction+rates+to+the+creep+failure+of+polymeric+filaments.">Application of the theory of absolute reaction rates to the creep failure of polymeric filaments.</a> Journal of Polymer Sciences. 20, 447-455 (1956).</li><li>Coleman, B. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+stochastic+process+model+for+mechanical+breakdown.">A stochastic process model for mechanical breakdown.</a> Transaction of the Society of Rheology. 1 (1957), 153-168 (1957).</li><li>Phoenix, S. L., Beyerlein, I. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Statistical+Strength+Theory+for+Fibrous+Composite+Materials.">Statistical Strength Theory for Fibrous Composite Materials.</a> Comprehensive Composite Materials. , 559-639 (2000).</li><li>Newman, W. I., Phoenix, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time-dependent+fiber+bundles+with+local+load+sharing.">Time-dependent fiber bundles with local load sharing.</a> Physical Review E - Statistical Physics, Plasmas, Fluids, and Related Interdisciplinary Topics. 63 (2), 20 (2001).</li><li>Phoenix, S. L., Newman, W. 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Proper determination of the fiber direction is critical. The advantage of the method described in steps 1.4&#8211;1.6 of the protocol is that there is complete control over how many fibers are used to start the separation process. However, this does not mean that there is a complete control over the final separated region&#8217;s width, as the fibers are not fully parallel and can cross over each other. In the process of separating one batch of fibers, frequently, fibers neighboring those being separated will also be sep...

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) helps law enforcement and criminal justice agencies ensure that the equipment they purchase and the technologies that they use are safe, dependable, and highly effective, through a research program addressing the long-term stability of high-strength fibers used in body armor. Prior work1,2has focused on the field failure of a body armor made from the material poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole), or PBO, which led to a major revision to the National Institute of Justice&#8217;s (NIJ&#8217;s) body armor standard3. Since the release of this revised standard, work has continued at NIST to examine mechanisms of ageing in other commonly used fibers such as ultra-high-molar-mass polyethylene (UHMMPE)4 and poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide), or PPTA, commonly known as aramid. However, all of this work has focused on the ageing of yarns and single fibers, which is most relevant for woven fabrics. However, many body armor designs incorporate UD laminates. UD laminates are constructed of thin fiber layers (&#60;0.05 mm) where the fibers in each layer are parallel to each other5,6,7 and the armor is constructed by stacking the thin sheets in alternating orientations, as depicted in Supplemental Figure 1a. This design relies heavily on a binder resin to hold the fibers in each layer generally parallel, as seen in Supplemental Figure 1b, and maintain the nominally 0&#176;/90&#176; orientation of the stacked fabrics. Like woven fabrics, UD laminates are typically constructed out of two major fiber variations: aramid or UHMMPE. UD laminates provide several advantages to body armor designers: they allow for a lower-weight armor system compared to those using woven fabrics (due to strength loss during weaving), eliminate the need for woven construction, and utilize smaller diameter fibers to provide a similar performance to woven fabrics but at a lower weight. PPTA has previously been shown to be resistant to degradation caused by temperature and humidity1,2, but the binder may play a significant role in the performance of the UD laminate. Thus, the overall effects of the use environment on PPTA-based armor are unknown8.
To date, only very preliminary work has been performed to characterize the aging of the binder resins used in these UD laminates and the effects of binder aging on the ballistic performance of the UD laminate. For example, during the development of the conditioning protocol used in NIJ Standard-0101.06, UD laminates showed visual signs of delamination and reductions in V50 after ageing1,2,8. These results demonstrate the need for a thorough understanding of the material properties with ageing, in order to evaluate the material&#8217;s long-term structural performance. This, in turn, necessitates the development of standardized methods to interrogate the failure properties of these materials. The primary goals of this work are to explore methods and best practices for accurately testing the mechanical properties of UD laminate materials and to propose a new test methodology for these materials. Best practices for ageing UD laminate materials are also described in this work.
The literature contains several examples of testing the mechanical properties of UD laminates after hot-pressing multiple layers into a hard sample9,10,11. For rigid composite laminates, ASTM D303912 can be used; however, in this study, the material is approximately 0.1 mm thick and not rigid. Some UD laminate materials are used as precursors to make rigid ballistic protective articles such as helmets or ballistic-resistant plates. However, the thin, flexible UD laminate can also be used to make body armor9,13.
The objective of this work is to develop methods for exploring the performance of the materials in soft body armor, so methods involving hot pressing were not explored because they are not representative of the way the material is used in soft body armor. ASTM International has several test-method standards relating to testing strips of fabric, including ASTM D5034-0914 Standard Test Method for Breaking Strength and Elongation of Textile Fabrics (Grab Test), ASTM D5035-1115 Standard Test Method for Breaking Force and Elongation of Textile Fabrics (Strip Method), ASTM D6775-1316 Standard Test Method for Breaking Strength and Elongation of Textile Webbing, Tape and Braided Material, and ASTM D395017 Standard Specification for Strapping, Nonmetallic (and Joining Methods). These standards have several key differences in terms of the testing grips used and the specimen size, as mentioned below.
Methods described in ASTM D5034-0914 and ASTM D5035-1115 are very similar and focus on testing standard fabrics rather than high-strength composites. For the tests in these two standards, the jaw faces of the grips are smooth and flat, although modifications are allowed for specimens with a failure stress greater than 100 N/cm to minimize the role of stick-slip-based failure. Suggested modifications to prevent slipping are to pad the jaws, coat the fabric under the jaws, and modify the jaw face. In the case of this study, the specimen failure stress is approximately 1,000&#160;N/cm, and thus, this style of grips results in excessive sample slippage. ASTM D6775-1316 and ASTM D395017 are intended for much stronger materials, and both rely on capstan grips. Thus, this study focused on the use of capstan grips.
Further, the specimen size varies considerably among these four ASTM standards. The webbing and strapping standards, ASTM D6775-1316 and ASTM D395017, specify to test the full width of the material. ASTM D677516 specifies a maximum width of 90 mm. In contrast, the fabric standards14,15 expect the specimen to be cut widthwise and specify either a 25 mm or 50 mm width. The overall length of the specimen varies between 40 cm and 305 cm, and the gauge length varies between 75 mm and 250 mm across these ASTM standards. Since the ASTM standards vary considerably regarding specimen size, three different widths and three different lengths were considered for this study.
The terminology referring to specimen preparation in the protocol is as follows: bolt &#62; precursor material &#62; material &#62; specimen, where the term bolt refers to a roll of UD laminate, precursor material refers to an unwound amount of UD fabric still attached to the bolt, material refers to a separated piece of UD laminate, and specimen refers to an individual piece to be tested.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:865px;" width="866">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="65">
			<td height="65" style="height:66px;width:247px;">Capstan Grips</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Universal grip company</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">20kN wrap grips</td>
			<td style="width:388px;">Capstan grips used in testing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:247px;">Ceramic knife</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Slice</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">10558</td>
			<td style="width:388px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:247px;">Ceramic precision blade</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Slice</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">00116</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="45">
			<td height="45" style="height:45px;width:247px;">Clamp</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Irwin</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">quick grip mini bar clamp</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Confocal Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:247px;">Cutting Mat</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Rotatrim&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td style="width:388px;">A0 metric self healing cutting mat</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Denton Desktop sputter coater&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:95px;"></td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td>sputter coater</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;">FEI Helios 660 Dual Beam FIB/SEM</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">FEI Helios</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td>Scanning electron microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:247px;">Motorized rotary cutter</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Chickadee</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:247px;">Rotary Cutter</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Fiskars</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">49255A84</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;">Stereo Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">National</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">DC4-456H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="45">
			<td height="45" style="height:45px;width:247px;">Straight edge</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">McMaster Carr</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">1935A74</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="45">
			<td height="45" style="height:45px;width:247px;">Surgical Scalpel Blade</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Sklar Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td style="width:388px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="45">
			<td height="45" style="height:45px;width:247px;">Surgical Scalpel Handle</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Swann Morton</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:247px;">Universal Test Machine</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Instron</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">4482</td>
			<td>Universal test machine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:247px;">Utility knife</td>
			<td style="width:95px;">Stanley</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">99E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

cutting procedures, tensile testing, and ageing of flexible unidirectional composite laminates

Many body armor designs incorporate unidirectional (UD) laminates. UD laminates are constructed of thin (&#60;0.05 mm) layers of high-performance yarns, where the yarns in each layer are oriented parallel to each other and held in place using binder resins and thin polymer films. The armor is constructed by stacking the unidirectional layers in different orientations. To date, only very preliminary work has been performed to characterize the ageing of the binder resins used in unidirectional laminates and the effects on their performance. For example, during the development of the conditioning protocol used in the National Institute of Justice Standard-0101.06, UD laminates showed visual signs of delamination and reductions in V50, which is the velocity at which half of the projectiles are expected to perforate the armor, after ageing. A better understanding of the material property changes in UD laminates is necessary to comprehend the long-term performance of armors constructed from these materials. There are no current standards recommended for mechanically interrogating unidirectional (UD) laminate materials. This study explores methods and best practices for accurately testing the mechanical properties of these materials and proposes a new test methodology for these materials. Best practices for ageing these materials are also described.

Many iterations of cutting and testing were performed to investigate several different variables. Some variables that were examined include the cutting technique and cutting instrument, the testing rate, the specimen dimension, and the grips. One critical finding was the importance of aligning the specimens with the fiber direction. Data analysis procedures (consistency analysis, Weibull techniques, outlier determination, etc.) are discussed below, as are considerations for ageing.
<p...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cutting Procedures, Tensile Testing, and Ageing of Flexible Unidirectional Composite Laminates at JoVE.com

Cutting Procedures, Tensile Testing, and Ageing of Flexible Unidirectional Composite Laminates

The goal of the study was to develop protocols to prepare consistent specimens for accurate mechanical testing of high-strength aramid or ultra-high-molar-mass polyethylene-based flexible unidirectional composite laminate materials and to describe protocols for performing artificial ageing on these materials.

Many body armor designs incorporate unidirectional (UD) laminates. UD laminates are constructed of thin (&#60;0.05 mm) layers of high-performance yarns, ...

This protocol can help answer key questions in the field of body armor development by defining a repeatable procedure to test the mechanical properties of flexible unidirectional composite fabrics. A straight, clean cut well oriented with the fiber direction is critical for the accurate measurement of failure stress by preventing additional sources of error. This technique fills a gap in current testing by allowing interrogation of a material's properties without hot pressing, which is more representative of its use in soft body armor.Unroll a bolt of unidirectional material to be tested to a work surface. The unwound portion is the precursor material. Visually verify that the principle fiber direction is parallel to the width of the bolt.Next, get a scalpel to isolate the precursor material. Create a tab by making a cut parallel to the fiber direction. Then make another parallel cut about three millimeters away.Manually grasp the tab and tear it away to expose the fibers on the layer underneath. Pull until the two layers have been separated across the whole length of the precursor material. Remove any loose fibers from the edge of the tab that neighbor the exposed cross fibers.These may be up to one to two millimeters away from the tab path. Continue by separating the piece of precursor material from the bolt. Turn over the material so the new principle fiber direction is the warp direction.Now, mark the grip lines on the material aligned in the weft direction. These lines are a set distance from and parallel to the cut edges of the material. Once again, cut a tab in the material, then pull the tab to determine the principle fiber direction for the specimen to be cut from the material.The fiber direction should be perpendicular to the grip lines. Take the material to an appropriate self healing gridded cutting mat. Carefully align the fiber direction with the grid lines on the mat.Ensure that the fiber direction in the material is aligned with the grid lines. Avoid damaging the material and secure it to the cutting mat by taping its corners. Use a medical blade and a straight edge to cut specimens from the material.Place the straight edge at the desired specimen width and align it with the grid on the cutting mat. Clamp the ends of the straight edge in place and check that it is still correctly positioned. Cut the specimen along the straight edge with a constant velocity and pressure.Unclamp the straight edge, taking care not to move the material. Then, remove the specimen. These are all of the specimens obtained after repeating the cutting steps to maximize specimen production.Prepare to mark points to track on a specimen for use with a video extensometer. For consistency, use a template placed over the specimen. Mark the gauge points with a permanent marker.Ensure the marks are visible on the specimen to allow measurement of strain. Next, take the specimen to the universal testing machine. There, insert the end of the specimen through the gap in the capstan and bring it around to the grip line, forming a loop.Center the specimen on the capstan grips. While keeping the specimen centered, turn the capstan to the desired position. Use a tensioning device to hold the sample in place before locking the capstan in place.Complete mounting the specimen by repeating the same steps with the other end. When done, apply a small preload of two newtons and record the actual gauge length. Now set up the instrument to perform a tensile test at a constant 10 millimeters per minute and begin the test.For the test, the testing machine applies a constant rate of extension to the sample while the load and displacement are recorded. The test continues until a break occurs in the sample. This plot is a typical load versus displacement curve for these experiments.When monitoring the display, a 90%reduction in the observed load indicates a break in the specimen. Record maximum stress and corresponding failure strain. After making a plan for the study, cut the material needed for each condition to be tested.The strips should be wide enough to yield the required specimens and have an additional 10 millimeters or more. Place the strips for the environmental exposure in a tray. At the environmental chamber, set its program for dry room temperature conditions and allow it to stabilize.Once the chamber has stabilized, place the sample tray inside away from the walls or any points of condensation. Next program the chamber to reach the target temperature for the environmental study. When the temperature is stable, program the chamber to reach the target humidity.When it is time to extract aged material, program the chamber to decrease the relative humidity to approximately that of the lab. After the humidity has stabilized, program the temperature to drop to room temperature, or about 25 degrees celsius. To retrieve the material, be prepared with an appropriately labeled container.With the humidity and temperature stable, open the chamber, remove the required material, and place it in the labeled container. Return any remaining material to the environmental chamber and reestablish the chosen conditions. Next, take the aged material to create aged specimens.This aged material is aligned on a self healing cutting surface. Its grip lines have been marked as before. Set up the straight edge to remove five millimeters from one side of the specimen.Trim this amount to remove any damage from handling during the aging process. Continue to create the specimens in the same manner as the unaged material. When done, the specimens are ready for use in tensile testing experiments.For load tests performed with a fixed capstan, the load versus extension plots of several samples show the samples slipped. This reflects the difficulty of securing the material. By contrast, with a rotating capstan the curves are smooth and consistent.The material is an ultra-high molecular mass polyethylene unidirectional laminate. This failure stress distribution is plotted using Weibull scaling. The data are for PPTA unidirectional laminate specimens which a gauge length of 300 millimeters and width of 30 millimeters cut along the warp direction with a load of 10 millimeters per minute.There is a low strength outlier that should be investigated. For comparison, the same data are plotted except with the outlier excluded. Note the change in the horizontal axis.Following this procedure, molecular spectroscopy could be employed to answer questions about the chemical changes in the material due to the exposure to heat and humidity. Please remember that the medical scalpel is extremely sharp and appropriate care must be taken to avoid injury.

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Shearing Stresses in Beams and Thin-Walled Members

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Ultrasonic Welding of Thermoplastic Composite Coupons for Mechanical Characterization of Welded Joints through Single Lap Shear Testing

This paper presents a novel straightforward method for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic-composite coupons in optimum processing conditions. The ultrasonic welding process described in this paper is based on three main pillars. Firstly, flat energy directors are used for preferential heat generation at the joining interface during the welding process. A flat energy director is a neat thermoplastic resin film that is placed between the parts to be joined prior to the welding process and heats up preferentially owing to its lower compressive stiffness relative to the composite substrates. Consequently, flat energy directors provide a simple solution that does not require molding of resin protrusions on the surfaces of the composite substrates, as opposed to ultrasonic welding of unreinforced plastics. Secondly, the process data provided by the ultrasonic welder is used to rapidly define the optimum welding parameters for any thermoplastic composite material combination. Thirdly, displacement control is used in the welding process to ensure consistent quality of the welded joints. According to this method, thermoplastic-composite flat coupons are individually welded in a single lap configuration. Mechanical testing of the welded coupons allows determining the apparent lap shear strength of the joints, which is one of the properties most commonly used to quantify the strength of thermoplastic composite welded joints.

A straightforward procedure for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic composite coupons for basic mechanical testing is described. Key characteristics of this ultrasonic welding process are the use of flat energy directors for simplified process preparation and the use of process data for the fast definition of optimum processing conditions.

This paper presents a novel straightforward method for ultrasonic welding of thermoplastic-composite coupons in optimum processing conditions. The ...

Testing of Nanoparticle Release from a Composite Containing Nanomaterial Using a Chamber System

With the rapid development of nanotechnology as one of the most important technologies in the 21st century, interest in the safety of consumer products containing nanomaterials is also increasing. Evaluating the nanomaterial release from products containing nanomaterials is a crucial step in assessing the safety of these products, and has resulted in several international efforts to develop consistent and reliable technologies for standardizing the evaluation of nanomaterial release. In this study, the release of nanomaterials from products containing nanomaterials is evaluated using a chamber system that includes a condensation particle counter, optical particle counter, and sampling ports to collect filter samples for electron microscopy analysis. The proposed chamber system is tested using an abrasor and disc-type nanocomposite material specimens to determine whether the nanomaterial release is repeatable and consistent within an acceptable range. The test results indicate that the total number of particles in each test is within 20% from the average after several trials. The release trends are similar and they show very good repeatability. Therefore, the proposed chamber system can be effectively used for nanomaterial release testing of products containing nanomaterials.

Nanoparticle release is tested using a chamber system that includes a condensation particle counter, an optical particle counter and sampling ports to collect filter samples for microscopy analysis. The proposed chamber system can be effectively used for nanomaterial release testing with a repeatable and consistent data range.

With the rapid development of nanotechnology as one of the most important technologies in the 21st century, interest in the safety of consumer products ...

Wicking Tests for Unidirectional Fabrics: Measurements of Capillary Parameters to Evaluate Capillary Pressure in Liquid Composite Molding Processes

During impregnation of a fibrous reinforcement in liquid composite molding (LCM) processes, capillary effects have to be understood in order to identify their influence on void formation in composite parts. Wicking in a fibrous medium described by the Washburn equation was considered equivalent to a flow under the effect of capillary pressure according to the Darcy law. Experimental tests for the characterization of wicking were conducted with both carbon and flax fiber reinforcement. Quasi-unidirectional fabrics were then tested by means of a tensiometer to determine the morphological and wetting parameters along the fiber direction. The procedure was shown to be promising when the morphology of the fabric is unchanged during capillary wicking. In the case of carbon fabrics, the capillary pressure can be calculated. Flax fibers are sensitive to moisture sorption and swell in water. This phenomenon has to be taken into account to assess the wetting parameters. In order to make fibers less sensitive to water sorption, a thermal treatment was carried out on flax reinforcements. This treatment enhances fiber morphological stability and prevents swelling in water. It was shown that treated fabrics have a linear wicking trend similar to those found in carbon fabrics, allowing for the determination of capillary pressure.

An experimental method to measure geometrical parameters and the apparent advancing contact angles describing capillary wicking in unidirectional synthetic and natural fabrics is proposed. These parameters are mandatory for the determination of the capillary pressures that must be taken into account for liquid composite molding (LCM) applications.

During impregnation of a fibrous reinforcement in liquid composite molding (LCM) processes, capillary effects have to be understood in order to identify ...

Magnet Assisted Composite Manufacturing: A Flexible New Technique for Achieving High Consolidation Pressure in Vacuum Bag/Lay-Up Processes

This work demonstrates a protocol to improve the quality of composite laminates fabricated by wet lay-up vacuum bag processes using the recently developed magnet assisted composite manufacturing (MACM) technique. In this technique, permanent magnets are utilized to apply a sufficiently high consolidation pressure during the curing stage. To enhance the intensity of the magnetic field, and thus, to increase the magnetic compaction pressure, the magnets are placed on a magnetic top plate. First, the entire procedure of preparing the composite lay-up on a magnetic bottom steel plate using the conventional wet lay-up vacuum bag process is described. Second, placement of a set of Neodymium-Iron-Boron permanent magnets, arranged in alternating polarity, on the vacuum bag is illustrated. Next, the experimental procedures to measure the magnetic compaction pressure and volume fractions of the composite constituents are presented. Finally, methods used to characterize microstructure and mechanical properties of composite laminates are discussed in detail. The results prove the effectiveness of the MACM method in improving the quality of wet lay-up vacuum bag laminates. This method does not require large capital investment for tooling or equipment and can also be used to consolidate geometrically complex composite parts by placing the magnets on a matching top mold positioned on the vacuum bag.

A new technique for applying consolidation pressure on the vacuum bag lay-up to fabricate composite laminates is described. The goal of this protocol is to develop a simple, cost-effective technique to improve the quality of laminates fabricated by the wet lay-up vacuum bag method.

This work demonstrates a protocol to improve the quality of composite laminates fabricated by wet lay-up vacuum bag processes using the recently developed ...

Artificial Thermal Ageing of Polyester Reinforced and Polyvinyl Chloride Coated Technical Fabric

Architectural fabric AF9032 has been subjected to artificial thermal ageing to determine changes of the material parameters of the fabric. The proposed method is based on the accelerated ageing approach proposed by Arrhenius. 300 mm x 50 mm samples were cut in the warp and fill directions and placed in a thermal chamber at 80 &#176;C for up to 12 weeks or at 90 &#176;C for up to 6 weeks. Then after one week of conditioning at ambient temperature, the samples were uniaxially tensioned at a constant strain rate. Experimentally, the parameters were determined for the non-linear elastic (linear piecewise) and viscoplastic (Bodner&#8211;Partom) models. Changes in these parameters were studied with respect to the ageing temperature and ageing period. In both cases, the linear approximation function was successfully applied using the simplified methodology of Arrhenius. A correlation was obtained for the fill direction between experimental results and the results from the Arrhenius approach. For the warp direction, the extrapolation results exhibited some differences. Increasing and decreasing tendencies have been observed at both temperatures. The Arrhenius law was confirmed by the experimental results only for the fill direction. The proposed method makes it possible to predict real fabric behavior during long term exploitation, which is a critical issue in the design process.

Here, we simulate accelerated thermal ageing of technical fabric and see how this ageing process influences the mechanical properties of the fabric.

Architectural fabric AF9032 has been subjected to artificial thermal ageing to determine changes of the material parameters of the fabric. The proposed ...

Calibration Procedures for Orthogonal Superposition Rheology

Orthogonal superposition (OSP) rheology is an advanced rheological technique that involves superimposing a small-amplitude oscillatory shear deformation orthogonal to a primary shear flow. This technique allows the measurement of structural dynamics of complex fluids under non-linear flow conditions, which is important for the understanding and prediction of the performance of a wide range of complex fluids. The OSP rheological technique has a long history of development since the 1960s, mainly through the custom-built devices that highlighted the power of this technique. The OSP technique is now commercially available to the rheology community. Given the complicated design of the OSP geometry and the non-ideal flow field, users should understand the magnitude and sources of measurement error. This study presents calibration procedures using Newtonian fluids that includes recommendations for best practices to reduce measurement errors. Specifically, detailed information on the end-effect factor determination method, sample filling procedure, and identification of the appropriate measurement range (e.g., shear rate, frequency, etc.) are provided.

We present a detailed calibration protocol for a commercial orthogonal superposition rheology technique using Newtonian fluids including end-effect correction factor determination methods and recommendations for best practices to reduce experimental error.

Orthogonal superposition (OSP) rheology is an advanced rheological technique that involves superimposing a small-amplitude oscillatory shear deformation ...

Performing Microscope-Mounted Y-Shaped Cutting Tests

Y-shaped cutting has recently been shown to be a promising method by which to understand the threshold length scale and failure energy of a material, as well as its failure response in the presence of excess deformation energy. The experimental apparatus used in these studies was vertically oriented and required cumbersome steps to adjust the angle between the Y-shaped legs. The vertical orientation prohibits visualization in standard optical microscopes. This protocol presents a Y-shaped cutting apparatus that mounts horizontally over an existing inverted microscope stage, can be adjusted in three dimensions (X-Y-Z) to fall within the objective&#39;s field of view, and allows easy modification of the angle between the legs. The latter two features are new for this experimental technique. The presented apparatus measures the cutting force within 1 mN accuracy. When testing polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), the reference material for this technique, a cutting energy of 132.96 J/m2 was measured (32&#176; leg angle, 75 g preload) and found to fall within the error of previous measurements taken with a vertical setup (132.9 J/m2 &#177; 3.4 J/m2). The approach applies to soft synthetic materials, tissues, or bio-membranes and may provide new insights into their behavior during failure. The list of parts, CAD files, and detailed instructions in this work provide a roadmap for the easy implementation of this powerful technique.

Y-shaped cutting measures fracture-relevant length scales and energies in soft materials. Previous apparatuses were designed for benchtop measurements. This protocol describes the fabrication and use of an apparatus that orients the setup horizontally and provides the fine positioning capabilities necessary for in situ viewing, plus failure quantification, via an optical microscope.

Y-shaped cutting has recently been shown to be a promising method by which to understand the threshold length scale and failure energy of a material, as ...

Fabrication and Mechanical Property Assessment of Fiber Composite Laminates

Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Glass Fiber Reinforcement Polymer Composite Laminates Obtained by Different Fabrication Processes

The traditional wet hand lay-up process (WL) has been widely applied in the manufacturing of fiber composite laminates. However, due insufficiency in the forming pressure, the mass fraction of fiber is reduced and lots of air bubbles are trapped inside, resulting in low-quality laminates (low stiffness and strength). The wet hand lay-up/vacuum bag (WLVB) process for the fabrication of composite laminates is based on the traditional wet hand lay-up process, using a vacuum bag to remove air bubbles and provide pressure, and then carrying out the heating and curing process. 
Compared with the traditional hand lay-up process, laminates manufactured by the WLVB process show superior mechanical properties, including better strength and stiffness, higher fiber volume fraction, and lower void volume fraction, which are all benefits for composite laminates. This process is completely manual, and it is greatly influenced by the skills of the preparation personnel. Therefore, the products are prone to defects such as voids and uneven thickness, leading to unstable qualities and mechanical properties of the laminate. Hence, it is necessary to finely describe the WLVB process, finely control steps, and quantify material ratios, in order to ensure the mechanical properties of laminates. 
This paper describes the meticulous process of the WLVB process for preparing woven plain patterned glass fiber reinforcement composite laminates (GFRPs). The fiber volume content of laminates was calculated using the formula method, and the calculated results showed that the fiber volume content of WL laminates was 42.04%, while that of WLVB laminates was 57.82%, increasing by 15.78%. The mechanical properties of the laminates were characterized using tensile and impact tests. The experimental results revealed that with the WLVB process, the strength and modulus of the laminates were enhanced by 17.4% and 16.35%, respectively, and the specific absorbed energy was increased by 19.48%.

Author Spotlight: Enhancing Fiber Composite Laminate Quality with the Wet Hand Lay-Up/Vacuum Bag Process 

This paper describes a fabrication process for fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composite laminates obtained using the wet hand lay-up/vacuum bag method.

The traditional wet hand lay-up process (WL) has been widely applied in the manufacturing of fiber composite laminates. However, due insufficiency in the ...

Fabrication of Flexible Substrate for SERS Detection of R6G and Thiram

Fabrication of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-Based Flexible Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Substrate for Ultrasensitive Detection

This article presents a fabrication method for a flexible substrate designed for Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized through a complexation reaction involving silver nitrate (AgNO3) and ammonia, followed by reduction using glucose. The resulting AgNPs exhibited a uniform size distribution ranging from 20 nm to 50 nm. Subsequently, 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APTES) was employed to modify a PDMS substrate that had been surface-treated with oxygen plasma. This process facilitated the self-assembly of AgNPs onto the substrate. A systematic evaluation of the impact of various experimental conditions on substrate performance led to the development of a SERS substrate with excellent performance and an Enhanced Factor (EF). Utilizing this substrate, impressive detection limits of 10-10 M for R6G (Rhodamine 6G) and 10-8 M for Thiram were achieved. The substrate was successfully employed for detecting pesticide residues on apples, yielding highly satisfactory results. The flexible SERS substrate demonstrates great potential for real-world applications, including detection in complex scenarios.

Author Spotlight: Development and Application of SERS Flexible Substrates Using Synthesized AgNPs 

This protocol describes a fabrication method for a flexible substrate for surface-enhanced Raman scattering. This method has been used in the successful detection of low concentrations of R6G and Thiram.

This article presents a fabrication method for a flexible substrate designed for Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) ...

﻿Fabrication of Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composite Laminates by Wet Hand Lay-Up/Vacuum Bag (WLVB) Method

Fabrication of Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composite Laminates by Wet Hand Lay-Up/Vacuum Bag (WLVB) Method  

Begin by heating the glass fiber fabric at 60 degrees Celsius for eight hours. Then, paste an isolation film on the acrylic sheet to prevent the resin from bonding. Position the mold in the laying area.Gently mix the resin and hardener for five minutes before placing it in a vacuum chamber to remove air bubbles. Place a non-porous release film on the mold and secure it with tape. Then, lay one Peel Ply on the non-porous release film.Pour epoxy resin on the film and evenly distribute it throughout using a scraper. Next, ply the first fiber fabric on the resin. Roll the fabric with a naked roller to ensure bubble removal and complete resin infiltration into the fabric.Again, pour and evenly spread the resin on the fabric using a scraper and continue till all the fabric has been used. Place a Peel Ply on the fabric and manually remove air bubbles by scraping in one direction. Lay a perforated release film followed by a breather fabric.Position the suction channel and breathable pad to one side. Secure a circular heat-resistant tape with an acrylic sheet outside the mold and attach the vacuum bag at the top of the device to create a closed space. Apply vacuum for 10 hours at room temperature, then switch off the vacuum pump and maintain quiescence for 14 hours.Cure the laminates completely at 80 degrees Celsius for 16 hours before measuring the fiber volume fraction. Comparison of laminates fabricated by the wet hand layup method with and without the vacuum bag process revealed that the vacuum bag assistance, the fiber volume fraction of the laminates increased by 15.78%and their average thickness reduced to 2.11 millimeters.