המחברים מבקשים להודות ג&#39;ון פריי ובן פיטרסון לגידול יתושים. אנו מודים גם כריסטין דייוויס גארי רדיס לעזרה עם micrographs hemocyte. מחקר זה מומן על ידי אוניברסיטת ריצ&#39;מונד אומנויות &amp; המילגה המדע הקיץ AA Qayum ואנשי סגל להעניק א טלנג.

1. Preparation in advance of hemocyte collection
<ol>
 <li>Prepare a hemolymph diluent solution that consists of 60% Schneider's Medium, 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), and 30% citrate buffer (anticoagulant; 98 mM NaOH, 186 mM NaCl, 1.7 mM EDTA, 41 mM citric acid, pH 4.5) 11. Make 1.0 mL aliquots that can be stored at -20&deg;C. Use each aliquot only once (see Materials).</li>
 <li>Prepare glass microscope slides (75 x 25 x 1 mm) by scoring a 1 cm diameter circle at one end using a glass-etching tool. Alternatively, microscope slides with two pre-etched circles can be purchased (e.g. Fisher Scientific or EMS sources). One glass slide per mosquito will be needed.</li>
 <li>Prepare a set of glass needles (see Materials) pulled according to the following suggested settings (Sutter Instruments, Model P-87): 
<table border="1"><tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Heat Ramp+5 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Pull: 45</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Vel: 75</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Time: 175</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Pressure 580</td>
 </tr>
</tbody></table> 
Using the suggested settings on this puller, we construct needles that are around 500 mm in overall length with shank lengths of around 3 mm. Pre-pulled needles can also be purchased (e.g. Tritech Research).</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of microinjector in advance of hemocyte collection
<ol>
 <li>Insert a pulled needle into the microinjector needle holder according to manufacturer's instructions. Backfill the microinjector (see Materials) tubing, syringe and pulled glass needle with mineral oil according to manufacturer's instructions.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of female mosquitoes in advance of hemocyte collection
<ol>
 <li>Aspirate 15 adult females into small solid cage containers that can be in contact with ice. Immerse cage with mosquitoes in ice deep enough so that entire height of cage and all sides are in contact with ice. This will ensure that all the mosquitoes will be exposed to the cold. 
 Cold anesthetize mosquitoes for about 8 minutes or until they are no longer mobile.</li>
 <li>Place one mosquito onto a depression slide. This slide will serve as the site for injections.</li>
</ol>
4. Hemocyte collection 
<ol>
 <li>Set the microinjector to take up 12 &mu;l of hemolymph diluent into pulled glass needle and inject solution into the mosquito between the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. About 3 mosquitoes can be injected with 3-3.5 &mu;l of the total 12 &mu;l volume taken up. The mosquito should be gently held in place with forceps while injection is performed. A small volume of diluent should remain at the tip of the needle so as to prevent mineral oil from being injected. After injection the abdomen should look "filled" or bloated.</li>
 <li>Place injected mosquitoes in a separate clean container on ice to recover for 5 min. The incubation of the anticoagulant diluent solution inside the mosquito will help dislodge hemocytes adhering to internal tissue. On average 3 to 5 fresh mosquitoes can be injected during each 5 min recovery period.</li>
 <li>After 5 minutes of recovery, snip off legs, wings, and the tip of the abdomen (at the eighth segment) of each mosquito one at a time using micro scissors. This should be done in the recovery cup placed on ice. Cutting off the legs and wings reduces the likelihood of scales being transferred to collection slides. Note: do not cut legs and wings too close to thoracic attachment sites or you risk creating other openings for hemolymph to escape. Hemolymph should only be collected through the opening created at the tip of the abdomen.</li>
 <li>Wash one glass etched microscope slide with 70% Ethanol and dry it with a kimwipe. Position one injected and recovered mosquito on the slide on the outer edge of the etched circle. Set microinjector to pick up 12 &mu;l of fresh hemolymph diluent and inject this volume into the mosquito in the lateral side of its mesothorax. Deliver most but not the entire volume of diluent (about 8 &#x2013; 10 &mu;l) so as to prevent mineral oil from being injected. A small volume of diluent should remain at the tip of the needle.</li>
 <li>Position the mosquito so that the cut abdominal opening is at the edge of the 1 cm circle. After injection the diluted hemolymph should be collected within the marked area. Once the needle is removed from the mesothoracic injection site, resume holding the mosquito between the two arms of the forceps and gently squeeze the abdomen with those forceps to direct the hemolymph onto the etched circle area.</li>
 <li>Allow diluted hemolymph to dry on slide for about 10 minutes or until it is visibly dry.</li>
</ol>
5. Hemocyte fixation and staining
 <ol>
 <li>Stain each slide separately with HEMA3 7 (see Materials): Dip slide in fixative 5 times for 1 second each time; Dipslide in solution I 3 times for 1 second each; and, finally, dip slide in solution II 3 times for 1 second each. Rinse the back of slide with DI water. The front of the slide should not be rinsed. Blot-dry the front of the slide outside etched circle containing stained tissue.
 </li>
 <li>Apply mounting medium (e.g. Shur/Mount or Polymount) around the etched center and place a cover slip on it. Press down lightly onto the cover slip (25 x 25 mm) so that the mounting medium spreads to the entire area covered by the cover slip (including etched circle containing stained tissue). Allow slides to dry for a minimum of 3 hours or overnight. Hemocytes should be viewed within 2 weeks following collection for optimum visualization and imaging.</li>
 </ol>
6. Representative Results
Examples of fixed and HEMA3 stained hemocytes collected from an Aedes aegypti adult female are shown in Figure 1A-C. Figure 1A shows a hemocyte that we identified as a prohemocyte based on its small size, spherical-spheroidal shape and high nuclear to cytoplasm ratio (550x magnification) 11. Figure 1B shows a hemocyte classified as an oenocytoid based on its spheroidal shape and high cytoplasm to nuclear ratio (550x magnification). Lastly, Figure 1C shows a granulocyte-type hemocyte (550x magnification). Granulocytes are more granular in nature and tend to be more amoeboid in shape and behavior as they adhere to glass surfaces. Using previously published criteria for hemocyte typing and recovery 11, our collection method yielded a similar number of total hemocytes and we likewise found that granulocytes make up the largest percentage of total hemocytes 11 (Fig 2).
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2772/2772fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> Figure 1. Light microscope images of a representative HEMA3 fixed, stained prohemocyte (A), oenocytoid (B), and granulocyte (C) from an Ae. aegypti adult female. C = cytoplasm, N = nucleus G = granules.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/2772/2772fig2.jpg" alt="Figure 2"/> Figure 2. Total counts &plusmn; SE of all hemocytes and granulocytes obtained per female mosquito by our hemolymph dilution and collection method.

<ol>
	<li>Enayati, A., Hemingway, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Malaria+management:+past,+present,+and+future.">Malaria management: past, present, and future.</a> Annu. Rev. Entomol. 55, 569-569 (2010).</li><li>Medlock, J., Luz, P. M., Struchiner, C. J., Galvani, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+transgenic+mosquitoes+on+dengue+virulence+to+humans+and+mosquitoes.">The impact of transgenic mosquitoes on dengue virulence to humans and mosquitoes.</a> The American Naturalist. 174, 565-565 (2009).</li><li>Baton, L. A., Garver, L., Xi, Z., Dimopoulos, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+genomics+studies+on+the+innate+immunity+of+disease+vectors.">Functional genomics studies on the innate immunity of disease vectors.</a> Insect Sci. 15, 15-15 (2008).</li><li>Thomas, R. E., Wu, W. K., Verleye, D., Rai, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Midgut+basal+lamina+thickness+and+dengue-1+virus+dissemination+rates+in+laboratory+strains+of+Aedes+albopictus+(Diptera:+Culicidae).">Midgut basal lamina thickness and dengue-1 virus dissemination rates in laboratory strains of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae).</a> J. Med. Entomol. 30, 326-326 (1993).</li><li>Bartholomay, L. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Profiling+infection+responses+in+the+haemocytes+of+the+mosquito,+Aedes+aegypti.">Profiling infection responses in the haemocytes of the mosquito, Aedes aegypti.</a> Insect Mol. Biol. 16, 761-761 (2007).</li><li>Strand, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+insect+cellular+immune+response.">The insect cellular immune response.</a> Insect Sci. 15, 1-1 (2008).</li><li>Hillyer, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age-associated+mortality+in+immune+challenged+mosquitoes+(Aedes+aegypti)+correlates+with+a+decrease+in+haemocyte+numbers.">Age-associated mortality in immune challenged mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) correlates with a decrease in haemocyte numbers.</a> Cell. Microbiol. 7, 39-39 (2005).</li><li>Chen, C. C., Laurence, B. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+study+on+humoral+encapsulation+of+microfilariae:+establishment+of+technique+and+description+of+reaction.">In vitro study on humoral encapsulation of microfilariae: establishment of technique and description of reaction.</a> International Journal for Parasitology. 17, 781-781 (1987).</li><li>Beerntsen, B. T., Christensen, B. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dirofilaria+immitis:+effects+on+hemolymph+polypeptide+synthesis+in+Aedes+aegypti+during+melanotic+encapsulation+reactions+against+Microfilariae.">Dirofilaria immitis: effects on hemolymph polypeptide synthesis in Aedes aegypti during melanotic encapsulation reactions against Microfilariae.</a> Exp. Parasitol. 71, 406-406 (1990).</li><li>Hillyer, J. F., Schmidt, S. L., Christensen, B. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+antibacterial+innate+immune+response+by+the+mosquito+Aedes+aegypti+is+mediated+by+hemocytes+and+independent+of+Gram+type+and+pathogenicity.">The antibacterial innate immune response by the mosquito Aedes aegypti is mediated by hemocytes and independent of Gram type and pathogenicity.</a> Microb. Infect. 6, 448-448 (2004).</li><li>Castillo, J. C., Robertson, A. E., Strand, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+hemocytes+from+the+mosquitoes+Anopheles+gambiae+and+Aedes+aegypti.">Characterization of hemocytes from the mosquitoes Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti.</a> Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 36, 891-891 (2006).</li></ol>

אין ניגודי אינטרסים הכריז.

שיטת איסוף hemocyte המתואר כאן הוא שונה משיטות שפורסמו בעבר ומאפשר לבודד את ההכנות נקי של hemocytes מ Aedes יתושים בצעדים פחות. בעוד עניין מיוחד שלנו טמון באפיון האוכלוסיות hemocyte ב Aedes יתושים, אנו מאמינים כי הטכניקה הזו יכול להיות מיושם על קבוצות אחרות יתוש לאחר הניסויי...

<table border="1" style=";text-align:right;direction:rtl"><tbody><tr><th> שם מגיב </th><th> חברה </th><th> מספר קטלוגי </th><th> הערות (אופציונלי) </th></tr><tr><td> שניידר בינוני </td><td> סיגמא אולדריץ </td><td> S0146 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> בסרום שור עוברית </td><td> סיגמא אולדריץ </td><td> F0643 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Hema3 כתם ערכת </td><td> דיג </td><td> 123-869 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> זכוכית מחטים (בורוסיליקט עם נימה) </td><td> סאטר Instrument </td><td> BF100-78-10 </td><td> 1.0mm OD ו - ID 0.78mm </td></tr><tr><td> מחט חולץ </td><td> סאטר מכשירים </td><td> דגם P-87 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> MicroInjector </td><td> Tritech מחקר </td><td> MINJ-PD </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> בעל מחט </td><td> Tritech מחקר </td><td> MINJ-4 </td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a protocol for collecting and staining hemocytes from the yellow fever mosquito aedes aegypti

יתושים הם וקטורים עבור מספר גורמי מחלות ומזיקים כגון וירוס קדחת צהובה, טפילי מלריה ותולעים filarial. מעבדות חוקרת אנטי הפתוגן מרכיבים של מערכת החיסון המולדת של וקטור מחלת מין בתקווה ליצור יתושים מהונדס, כי הם מגיבים פתוגנים כגון 1, 2. מערכת החיסון המולדת של יתושים כולל כמה שורות של הגנה 3. פתוגנים שמצליחים לברוח המכשול שהוטלו על ידי יתוש אפיתל מצופה midgut 4 להיכנס hemolymph והמפגש hemocytes במחזור, מרכיבים תאיים חשובים לתמצת פתוגנים לבלוע 5, 6. החוקרים לא מצאו ראיות רקמות hematopoietic ב יתושים ראיות הנוכחי עולה כי מספר hemocytes קבוע על הופעתה מבוגרים המספרים בפועל עשוי לרדת כפי הגילאים יתושים 7. היכולת לזהות כראוי לאסוף hemocytes מפני חרקים חשוב מבחינה רפואית היא צעד חיוני ללימודי חסינות הסלולר. עם זאת, גודלו הקטן של יתושים נפח מוגבל של hemolymph מהווים אתגר לאיסוף תאים חיסוניים. שתי שיטות לאיסוף הוקמה hemocytes יתושים כולל גירוש hemolymph מתוך חוטם לחתוך 8, ועקירה נפח (זלוף), שבו מלוחים מוזרק באזור necklike קרומי בין הראש לבין החזה (כלומר, צוואר הרחם) לבין hemolymph perfused נאסף מפתיחת קרוע באזור הדיסטלי של הבטן 9, 10. טכניקות אלו, לעומת זאת, מוגבלים על ידי התאוששות נמוכה של hemocytes וזיהום אפשרי על ידי תאים שומן בגוף, בהתאמה 11. לאחרונה שיטה המכונה התאוששות הזרקה / התאוששות גבוהה משופרת של immunocytes על ידי שימוש מאגרים קרישה תוך הפחתת רמות זיהום קשקשים ורקמות פנימיות 11. אמנם שיטה המאפשרת שיטה משופרת של איסוף ושמירה hemocytes לתרבות העיקרי, הוא טומן בחובו מספר שלבים הזרקה איסוף שאינם נחוצים אם המטרה היא לאסוף את הזרם, לתקן כתם hemocytes עבור אבחון. הנה, אנחנו מדגימים את השיטה שלנו של איסוף hemolymph יתוש המשלבת את הפשטות של זלוף, באמצעות מאגרים קרישה במקום תמיסת מלח, עם דיוק של טכניקות ההזרקה גבוה לבודד ההכנות נקי של hemocytes ב Aedes יתושים.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Protocol for Collecting and Staining Hemocytes from the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti at JoVE.com

A Protocol for Collecting and Staining Hemocytes from the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

שיטה פשוטה אך מדויקת לאסוף כתם hemocytes יתוש מתואר. השיטה שלנו משלבת את הפשטות של זלוף עם דיוק של טכניקות ההזרקה גבוה לבודד את ההכנות נקי של hemocytes ב Aedes יתושים. שיטה זו מקלה על מחקרים וידע המחייב של סוגי hemocytes ושפע שלהם.

פרוטוקול איסוף מכתים Hemocytes מן יתוש הקדחת הצהובה Aedes aegypti</em

 Mosquitoes are vectors for a number  of disease-causing pathogens such as the yellow fever virus, malaria parasites  and filarial worms. Laboratories are ...

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Immunology and Infection

A Protocol for Collecting and Staining Hemocytes from the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

15.3K Views.  University of Richmond. שיטה פשוטה אך מדויקת לאסוף כתם hemocytes יתוש מתואר. השיטה שלנו משלבת את הפשטות של זלוף עם דיוק של טכניקות ההזרקה גבוה לבודד את ההכנות נקי של hemocytes ב Aedes יתושים. שיטה זו מקלה על מחקרים וידע המחייב של סוגי hemocytes ושפע שלהם.

Video: A Protocol for Collecting and Staining Hemocytes from the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti

Protocol for Production of a Genetic Cross of the Rodent Malaria Parasites

Variation in response to antimalarial drugs and in pathogenicity of malaria parasites is of biologic and medical importance. Linkage mapping has led to successful identification of genes or loci underlying various traits in malaria parasites of rodents1-3 and humans4-6. The malaria parasite Plasmodium yoelii is one of many malaria species isolated from wild African rodents and has been adapted to grow in laboratories. This species reproduces many of the biologic characteristics of the human malaria parasites; genetic markers such as microsatellite and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers have also been developed for the parasite7-9. Thus, genetic studies in rodent malaria parasites can be performed to complement research on Plasmodium falciparum. Here, we demonstrate the techniques for producing a genetic cross in P. yoelii that were first pioneered by Drs. David Walliker, Richard Carter, and colleagues at the University of Edinburgh10.

Genetic crosses in P. yoelii and other rodent malaria parasites are conducted by infecting mice Mus musculus with an inoculum containing gametocytes of two genetically distinct clones that differ in phenotypes of interest and by allowing mosquitoes to feed on the infected mice 4 days after infection. The presence of male and female gametocytes in the mouse blood is microscopically confirmed before feeding. Within 48 hrs after feeding, in the midgut of the mosquito, the haploid gametocytes differentiate into male and female gametes, fertilize, and form a diploid zygote (Fig. 1). During development of a zygote into an ookinete, meiosis appears to occur11. If the zygote is derived through cross-fertilization between gametes of the two genetically distinct parasites, genetic exchanges (chromosomal reassortment and cross-overs between the non-sister chromatids of a pair of homologous chromosomes; Fig. 2) may occur, resulting in recombination of genetic material at homologous loci. Each zygote undergoes two successive nuclear divisions, leading to four haploid nuclei. An ookinete further develops into an oocyst. Once the oocyst matures, thousands of sporozoites (the progeny of the cross) are formed and released into mosquito hemoceal. Sporozoites are harvested from the salivary glands and injected into a new murine host, where pre-erythrocytic and erythrocytic stage development takes place. Erythrocytic forms are cloned and classified with regard to the characters distinguishing the parental lines prior to genetic linkage mapping. Control infections of individual parental clones are performed in the same way as the production of a genetic cross.

Genetic crosses of rodent malaria parasites are performed by feeding two genetically distinct parasites to mosquitoes. Recombinant progeny are cloned from mouse blood after allowing mosquitoes to bite infected mice. This video shows how to produce genetic crosses of Plasmodium yoelii and is applicable to other rodent malaria parasites.

פרוטוקול עבור הפקה של הצלב גנטית של טפילי מלריה מכרסמים

Variation in response to antimalarial drugs and in pathogenicity of malaria parasites is of biologic and medical importance. Linkage mapping has led to ...

A Calcium Bioluminescence Assay for Functional Analysis of Mosquito (Aedes aegypti) and Tick (Rhipicephalus microplus) G Protein-coupled Receptors

Arthropod hormone receptors are potential targets for novel pesticides as they regulate many essential physiological and behavioral processes. The majority of them belong to the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). We have focused on characterizing arthropod kinin receptors from the tick and mosquito. Arthropod kinins are multifunctional neuropeptides with myotropic, diuretic, and neurotransmitter function. Here, a method for systematic analyses of structure-activity relationships of insect kinins on two heterologous kinin receptor-expressing systems is described. We provide important information relevant to the development of biostable kinin analogs with the potential to disrupt the diuretic, myotropic, and/or digestive processes in ticks and mosquitoes.
The kinin receptors from the southern cattle tick, Boophilus microplus (Canestrini), and the mosquito Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus), were stably expressed in the mammalian cell line CHO-K1. Functional analyses of these receptors were completed using a calcium bioluminescence plate assay that measures intracellular bioluminescence to determine cytoplasmic calcium levels upon peptide application to these recombinant cells. This method takes advantage of the aequorin protein, a photoprotein isolated from luminescent jellyfish. We transiently transfected the aequorin plasmid (mtAEQ/pcDNA1) in cell lines that stably expressed the kinin receptors. These cells were then treated with the cofactor coelenterazine, which complexes with intracellular aequorin. This bond breaks in the presence of calcium, emitting luminescence levels indicative of the calcium concentration. As the kinin receptor signals through the release of intracellular calcium, the intensity of the signal is related to the potency of the peptide.
This protocol is a synthesis of several previously described protocols with modifications; it presents step-by-step instructions for the stable expression of GPCRs in a mammalian cell line through functional plate assays (Staubly et al., 2002 and Stables et al., 1997). Using this methodology, we were able to establish stable cell lines expressing the mosquito and the tick kinin receptors, compare the potency of three mosquito kinins, identify critical amino acid positions for the ligand-receptor interaction, and perform semi-throughput screening of a peptide library. Because insect kinins are susceptible to fast enzymatic degradation by endogenous peptidases, they are severely limited in use as tools for pest control or endocrinological studies. Therefore, we also tested kinin analogs containing amino isobutyric acid (Aib) to enhance their potency and biostability. This peptidase-resistant analog represents an important lead in the development of biostable insect kinin analogs and may aid in the development of neuropeptide-based arthropod control strategies.

A Calcium Bioluminescence Assay for Functional Analysis of Mosquito Aedes aegypti and Tick Rhipicephalus microplus G Protein-coupled Receptors

This protocol provides instructions for clonal-cell line selection and a calcium bioluminescence assay to analyze the structure-activity relationships of synthesized arthropod neuropeptides on their cognate GPCRs. This assay can be used for receptor deorphanization and structure-activity relationship studies for synthetic analog design and peptide/drug-lead discovery.

פליטת אור סידן Assay עבור ניתוח פונקציונלי של יתוש ( Aedes aegypti) ו טיק ( Rhipicephalus microplus) G-חלבון בשילוב רצפטורים

Arthropod hormone receptors are potential targets for novel pesticides as they regulate many essential physiological and behavioral processes.  The ...

A Simple Chelex Protocol for DNA Extraction from Anopheles spp.

Endemic countries are increasingly adopting molecular tools for efficient typing, identification and surveillance against malaria parasites and vector mosquitoes, as an integral part of their control programs1,2,3,4,5. For sustainable establishment of these accurate approaches in operations research to strengthen malaria control and elimination efforts, simple and affordable methods, with parsimonious reagent and equipment requirements are essential6,7,8. Here we present a simple Chelex-based technique for extracting malaria parasite and vector DNA from field collected mosquito specimens.
We morphologically identified 72 Anopheles gambiae sl. from 156 mosquitoes captured by pyrethrum spray catches in sleeping rooms of households within a 2,000 km2 vicinity of the Malaria Institute at Macha. After dissection to separate the head and thorax from the abdomen for all 72 Anopheles gambiae sl. mosquitoes, the two sections were individually placed in 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tubes and submerged in 20 &mu;l of deionized water. Using a sterile pipette tip, each mosquito section was separately homogenized to a uniform suspension in the deionized water. Of the ensuing homogenate from each mosquito section, 10 &mu;l was retained while the other 10 &mu;l was transferred to a separate autoclaved 1.5 ml tube. The separate aliquots were subjected to DNA extraction by either the simplified Chelex or the standard salting out extraction protocol9,10. The salting out protocol is so-called and widely used because it employs high salt concentrations in lieu of hazardous organic solvents (such as phenol and chloroform) for the protein precipitation step during DNA extraction9.
Extracts were used as templates for PCR amplification using primers targeting arthropod mitochondrial nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase (NADH) subunit 4 gene (ND4) to check DNA quality11, a PCR for identification of Anopheles gambiae sibling species10 and a nested PCR for typing of Plasmodium falciparum infection12. Comparison using DNA quality (ND4) PCR showed 93% sensitivity and 82% specificity for the Chelex approach relative to the established salting out protocol. Corresponding values of sensitivity and specificity were 100% and 78%, respectively, using sibling species identification PCR and 92% and 80%, respectively for P. falciparum detection PCR. There were no significant differences in proportion of samples giving amplicon signal with the Chelex or the regular salting out protocol across all three PCR applications. The Chelex approach required three simple reagents and 37 min to complete, while the salting out protocol entailed 10 different reagents and 2 hr and 47 min' processing time, including an overnight step. Our results show that the Chelex method is comparable to the existing salting out extraction and can be substituted as a simple and sustainable approach in resource-limited settings where a constant reagent supply chain is often difficult to maintain.

A Simple Chelex Protocol for DNA Extraction from Anopheles spp.

A rapid and affordable way to extract quality malaria parasite and vector DNA from mosquito specimens is described. Capitalizing on chelating properties of Chelex resin, the simple method enables genotyping of malaria parasites in mosquito mid-gut and salivary gland phases, as well as molecular identification of the Anopheles sibling species by PCR.

פשוט פרוטוקול Chelex למיצוי DNA מ<em&gt; אנופלס</em&gt; Spp.

Endemic countries are increasingly adopting molecular tools for  efficient typing, identification and surveillance against malaria parasites and  vector ...

A Protocol for Analyzing Hepatitis C Virus Replication

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) affects 3% of the world&#8217;s population and causes serious liver ailments including&#160;chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. HCV is an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae. Current treatment is not fully effective and causes adverse side effects. There is no HCV vaccine available. Thus, continued effort is required for developing a vaccine and better therapy. An HCV cell culture system is critical for studying various stages of HCV growth including viral entry, genome replication, packaging, and egress. In the current procedure presented, we used a wild-type intragenotype 2a chimeric virus, FNX-HCV, and a recombinant FNX-Rluc virus carrying a Renilla luciferase reporter gene to study the virus replication. A human hepatoma cell line (Huh-7 based) was used for transfection of in vitro transcribed HCV genomic RNAs. Cell-free culture supernatants, protein lysates and total RNA were harvested at various time points post-transfection to assess HCV growth. HCV genome replication status was evaluated by quantitative RT-PCR and visualizing the presence of HCV double-stranded RNA. The HCV protein expression was verified by Western blot and immunofluorescence assays using antibodies specific for HCV NS3 and NS5A proteins. HCV RNA transfected cells released infectious particles into culture supernatant and the viral titer was measured. Luciferase assays were utilized to assess the replication level and infectivity of reporter HCV. In conclusion, we present various virological assays for characterizing different stages of the HCV replication cycle.

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) is a major human pathogen that causes liver disorders, including cirrhosis and cancer. An HCV infectious cell culture system is essential for understanding the molecular mechanism of HCV replication and developing new therapeutic approaches. Here we describe a protocol to investigate various stages of the HCV replication cycle.

פרוטוקול לניתוח שכפול נגיף הצהבת מסוג C

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) affects 3% of the world&#8217;s population and causes serious liver ailments including&#160;chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and ...

Utilization of Capsules for Negative Staining of Viral Samples within Biocontainment

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is used to observe the ultrastructure of viruses and other microbial pathogens with nanometer resolution. Most biological materials do not contain dense elements capable of scattering electrons to create an image; therefore, a negative stain, which places dense heavy metal salts around the sample, is required. In order to visualize viruses in suspension under the TEM they must be applied to small grids coated with a transparent surface only nanometers thick. Due to their small size and fragility, these grids are difficult to handle and easily moved by air currents. The thin surface is easily damaged, leaving the sample difficult or impossible to image. Infectious viruses must be handled in a biosafety cabinet (BSC) and some require a biocontainment laboratory environment. Staining viruses in biosafety levels (BSL)-3 and -4 is especially challenging because these environments are more turbulent and technicians are required to wear personal protective equipment (PPE), which decreases dexterity. 
In this study, we evaluated a new device to assist in negative staining viruses in biocontainment. The device is a capsule that works as a specialized pipette tip. Once grids are loaded into the capsule, the user simply aspirates reagents into the capsule to deliver the virus and stains to the encapsulated grid, thus eliminating user handling of grids. Although this technique was designed specifically for use in BSL-3 or -4 biocontainment, it can ease sample preparation in any lab environment by enabling easy negative staining of virus. This same method can also be applied to prepare negative stained TEM specimens of nanoparticles, macromolecules and similar specimens.

This protocol provides instruction for negative staining virus samples which can easily be used in BSL-2, -3, or -4 laboratories. It includes the use of an innovative processing capsule, which protects the transmission electron microscopy grid and provides the user easier handling in the more turbulent environments within biocontainment.

ניצול של קפסולות עבור מכתים שלילי של דגימות ויראלי בתוך Biocontainment

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is used to observe the ultrastructure of viruses and other microbial pathogens with nanometer resolution. Most ...

Extraction of Hemocytes from Drosophila melanogaster Larvae for Microbial Infection and Analysis

During the pathogenic infection of Drosophila melanogaster, hemocytes play an important role in the immune response throughout the infection. Thus, the goal of this protocol is to develop a method to visualize the pathogen invasion in a specific immune compartment of flies, namely hemocytes. Using the method presented here, up to 3 &#215; 106 live hemocytes can be obtained from 200 Drosophila 3rd instar larvae in 30 min for ex vivo infection. Alternatively, hemocytes can be infected in vivo through injection of 3rd instar larvae followed by hemocyte extraction up to 24 h post-infection. These infected primary cells were fixed, stained, and imaged using confocal microscopy. Then, 3D representations were generated from the images to definitively show pathogen invasion. Additionally, high-quality RNA for qRT-PCR can be obtained for the detection of pathogen mRNA following infection, and sufficient protein can be extracted from these cells for Western blot analysis. Taken together, we present a method for definite reconciliation of pathogen invasion and confirmation of infection using bacterial and viral pathogen types and an efficient method for hemocyte extraction to obtain enough live hemocytes from Drosophila larvae for ex vivo and in vivo infection experiments.

Extraction of Hemocytes from Drosophila melanogaster Larvae for Microbial Infection and Analysis

This method demonstrates how to visualize pathogen invasion into insect cells with three-dimensional (3D) models. Hemocytes from Drosophila larvae were infected with viral or bacterial pathogens, either ex vivo or in vivo. Infected hemocytes were then fixed and stained for imaging with a confocal microscope and subsequent 3D cellular reconstruction.

החילוץ של Hemocytes של הזחלים דרוזופילה melanogaster זיהום מיקרוביאלי וניתוח

During the pathogenic infection of Drosophila melanogaster, hemocytes play an important role in the immune response throughout the infection. Thus, the ...

Co-staining Blood Vessels and Nerve Fibers in Adipose Tissue

Recent studies have highlighted the critical role of angiogenesis and sympathetic innervation in adipose tissue remodeling during the development of obesity. Therefore, developing an easy and efficient method to document the dynamic changes in adipose tissue is necessary. Here, we describe a modified immunofluorescent approach that efficiently co-stains blood vessels and nerve fibers in adipose tissues. Compared to traditional and recently developed methods, our approach is relatively easy to follow and more efficient in labeling the blood vessels and nerve fibers with higher densities and less background. Moreover, the higher resolution of the images further allows us to accurately measure the area of the vessels, amount of branching, and length of the fibers by open source software. As a demonstration using our method, we show that brown adipose tissue (BAT) contains higher amounts of blood vessels and nerve fibers compared to white adipose tissue (WAT). We further find that among the WATs, subcutaneous WAT (sWAT) has more blood vessels and nerve fibers compared to epididymal WAT (eWAT). Our method thus provides a useful tool for investigating adipose tissue remodeling.

New blood vessel formation and sympathetic innervation play pivotal roles in adipose tissue remodeling. However, there remain technical issues in visualizing and quantitatively measuring adipose tissue. Here we present a protocol to successfully label and quantitatively compare the densities of blood vessels and nerve fibers in different adipose tissues.

שיתוף צביעת כלי הדם, סיבי עצב ברקמת שומן

Recent studies have highlighted the critical role of angiogenesis and sympathetic innervation in adipose tissue remodeling during the development of ...

In Vitro ELISA Test to Evaluate Rabies Vaccine Potency

The growing global concern for the animal welfare is encouraging manufacturers and the National Control Laboratories (OMCLs) to follow the 3Rs strategy for the Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement of the laboratory animal testing. The development of in vitro approaches is recommended at the WHO and European levels as alternatives to the NIH test for evaluating the rabies vaccine potency. At the surface of the rabies virus (RABV) particle, trimers of glycoprotein constitute the major immunogen to induce Viral Neutralizing Antibodies (VNAbs). An ELISA test, where Neutralizing Monoclonal Antibodies (mAb-D1) recognize the trimeric form of the glycoprotein, has been developed to determine the contents of the native folded trimeric glycoprotein along with the production of the vaccine batches. This in vitro potency test demonstrated a good concordance with the NIH test and has been found suitable in collaborative trials by RABV vaccine manufacturers and OMCLs. Avoidance of animal use is an achievable objective in the near future.
The method presented is based on an indirect ELISA sandwich immunocapture using the mAb-D1 which recognizes the antigenic sites III (aa 330 to 338) of the trimeric RABV glycoprotein, i.e., the immunogenic RABV antigen. mAb-D1 is used for both coating and detection of glycoprotein trimers present in the vaccine batch. Since the epitope is recognized because of its conformational properties, the potentially denatured glycoprotein (less immunogenic) cannot be captured and detected by the mAb-D1. The vaccine to be tested is incubated in a plate sensitized with the mAb-D1. Bound trimeric RABV glycoproteins are identified by adding the mAb-D1 again, labeled with peroxidase and then revealed in the presence of substrate and chromogen. Comparison of the absorbance measured for the tested vaccine and the reference vaccine allows for the determination of the immunogenic glycoprotein content.

Here we describe an indirect ELISA sandwich immunocapture to determine the immunogenic glycoprotein contents in rabies vaccines. This test uses a neutralizing Monoclonal Antibody (mAb-D1) recognizing glycoprotein trimers. It is an alternative to the in vivo NIH test to follow the consistency of vaccine potency during production.

בדיקת מחוץ גופית מבחן להערכת כלבת חיסון עוצמת

The growing global concern for the animal welfare is encouraging manufacturers and the National Control Laboratories (OMCLs) to follow the 3Rs strategy ...

Vector Competence Analyses on Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes using Zika Virus

The procedures presented describe a generalized methodology to infect Aedes aegypti mosquitoes with Zika virus under laboratory conditions to determine the rate of infection, disseminated infection, and potential transmission of the virus in the mosquito population in question. These procedures are widely utilized with various modifications in vector competence evaluations globally. They are important in determining the potential role that a given mosquito (i.e., species, population, individual) may play in the transmission of a given agent.

Vector Competence Analyses on Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes using Zika Virus

The presented protocol can determine the vector competence of Aedes aegypti mosquito populations for a given virus, such as Zika, in a containment setting.

וקטור יכולת ניתוחים על יתושים Aedes aegypti באמצעות וירוס זיקה

The procedures presented describe a generalized methodology to infect Aedes aegypti mosquitoes with Zika virus under laboratory conditions to determine ...

Propagation of the Microsporidian Parasite Edhazardia aedis in Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

Edhazardia aedis is a microsporidian parasite of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, a disease vector that transmits multiple arboviruses which cause millions of disease cases each year. E. aedis causes mortality and reduced reproductive fitness in the mosquito vector and has been explored for its potential as a biocontrol agent. The protocol we present for culturing E. aedis is based on its natural infection cycle, which involves both horizontal and vertical transmission at different life stages of the mosquito host. Ae. aegypti mosquitoes are exposed to spores in the larval stage. These infected larvae then mature into adults and transmit the parasite vertically to their offspring. Infected offspring are then used as a source of spores for future horizontal transmission. Culturing E. aedis can be challenging to the uninitiated given the complexities of the parasite&#8217;s life cycle, and this protocol provides detailed guidance and visual aids for clarification.

Propagation of the Microsporidian Parasite Edhazardia aedis in Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes

A protocol to culture the microsporidian parasite Edhazardia aedis. The parasite is passaged from one generation of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes to the next via horizontal transfer at the larval stage followed by vertical transmission at the adult stage. Live sporoplasms survive long-term in infected eggs.

התפשטות הטפיל המיקרו-ספורידיאן אדהאזרדיה אדיס ב-Aedes aegypti יתושים

Edhazardia aedis is a microsporidian parasite of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, a disease vector that transmits multiple arboviruses which cause millions of ...