Name: quantum state engineering of light with continuous-wave optical parametric oscillators
Uploaded: 2014-05-30T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantum State Engineering of Light with Continuous-wave Optical Parametric Oscillators at JoVE.com

This work is supported by the ERA-NET CHIST-ERA (&#8216;QScale&#8217; project) and by the ERC starting grant &#8216;HybridNet&#8217;. F. Barbosa acknowledges the support from CNR and FAPESP, and K. Huang the support from the Foundation for the Author of National Excellent Doctoral Dissertation of China (PY2012004) and the China Scholarship Council. C. Fabre and J. Laurat are members of the Institut Universitaire de France.

1. Optical Parametric Oscillator
<ol>
	<li>Build a 4&#160;cm long semimonolithic linear cavity (for improved mechanical stability and reduced intracavity losses). The input mirror is directly coated on one face of the nonlinear crystal.</li>
	<li>Choose an input coupler reflection of 95% for the pump at 532 nm and high-reflection for the signal and idler at 1,064 nm. Inversely, choose the output coupler to be highly reflective for the pump and of transmittance T=10% for the infrared. The free spectral range of the OPO ...

<ol>
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The conditional preparation technique presented here is always an interplay between the initial bipartite resource and the measurement performed by the heralding detector. These two components strongly influence the quantum properties of the generated state.
First, the purity of the prepared states strongly depends on the one of the initial resource, thus a &#8216;good&#8217; OPO is required. What is a &#8216;good&#8217; OPO? It is a device for which the escape efficiency &#951; is close to un...

The ability to engineer the quantum state of traveling optical fields is a central&#160;requirement for quantum information science and technology1, including quantum communication, computing and metrology. Here, we discuss the preparation and characterization of some specific quantum states using as a primary resource the light emitted by continuous-wave optical parametric oscillators3,4 operated below threshold. Specifically, two systems will be considered &#8211; a type-II phase-matched OPO and a type-I&#160;OPO &#8211; enabling respectively the reliable generation of heralded single-photons and of optical coherent state superpositions (CSS), i.e. states of the form |&#945;&#62; - |-&#945;&#62;. These states are important resources for the implementation of a variety of quantum information protocols, ranging from linear optical quantum computation6 to optical hybrid protocols5,7. Significantly, the method presented here permits obtaining a low admixture of vacuum and the emission into a well-controlled spatiotemporal mode.
Generally speaking, quantum states can be classified as Gaussian states and non-Gaussian states according to the shape of the quasi-probability distribution in phase space called the Wigner function W(x, p)8. For non-Gaussian states, the Wigner function can take negative values, a strong signature of non-classicality. Single-photon or coherent state superpositions are indeed non-Gaussian states.
An efficient procedure for generating such states is known as the conditional preparation technique, where an initial Gaussian resource is combined with a so-called non-Gaussian measurement such as photon counting9,10,11,12,13. This general scheme, probabilistic but heralded, is sketched on Figure 1a.
<img alt="Figure 1" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51224/51224fig1highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51224/51224fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1.&#160;(a) Conceptual scheme of the conditional preparation technique. (b) Conditional preparation of single-photon state from orthogonally-polarized photon pairs (type-II OPO) separated on a polarizing beam splitter. (c) Conditional preparation of a coherent state superposition by subtracting a single-photon from a squeezed vacuum state (type-I OPO).
By measuring one mode of a bipartite entangled state, the other mode is projected into a state that will depend on this measurement and on the initial entangled resource12,13.
What are the required resource and heralding detector needed to generate the aforementioned states? Single-photon states can be generated using twin beams, i.e. photon-number correlated beams. The detection of a single-photon on one mode then heralds the generation of a single-photon on the other mode9,10,14,15. A frequency-degenerate type-II OPO16,17,18,19 is indeed a well-suited source for this purpose. Signal and idler photons are photon-number correlated and emitted with orthogonal polarizations. Detecting a single-photon on one polarization mode projects the other one into a single-photon state, as shown in Figure 1b.
Concerning coherent state superpositions, they can be generated by subtracting a single-photon from a squeezed vacuum state20 obtained either by pulsed single-pass parametric down-conversion11,21 or by a type-I OPO22,23. The subtraction is performed by tapping a small fraction of the light on a beam-splitter and detecting a single-photon in this mode (Figure 1c). A squeezed vacuum is a superposition of even photon-number states, thus subtracting a single-photon leads to a superposition of odd photon-number states, which has a high fidelity with a linear superposition of two coherent states of equal and small amplitude. For this reason, the name &#8216;Schr&#246;dinger kitten&#8217; has sometimes been given to this state.
The general procedure for generating these states is thus similar, but differs by the primary light source. Filtering of the heralding path and detection techniques are the same whatever the type of OPO used. The present series of protocols detail how to generate these two non-Gaussian states from continuous-wave optical parametric oscillators and how to characterize them with high efficiency.

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Pump laser</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Innolight</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Diabolo</td>
			<td style="width:217px;">Dual output, IR and 532 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">KTP and PPKTP crystal</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Raicol</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Available from other vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Interferential filters</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Barr associates</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">High efficiency photodiodes</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Fermionics</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Quantum efficiency above 97%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Oscilloscope&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Lecroy</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Wave runner 610 Zi</td>
			<td>Used for data acquisition</td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Spectrum analyser</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Agilent</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">N9000A</td>
			<td>Available from other vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Faraday rotator</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Qioptic</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FR-1060-5SC</td>
			<td>Available from other vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">PZT</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">PI</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P-016.00H</td>
			<td>Available from other vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Superconducting single-photon detectors</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Scontel</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SSPD</td>
			<td>low dark counts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Optical switch</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">OSW12-980E</td>
			<td>Available from other vendors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;"></td>
			<td style="width:71px;"></td>
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</table>

quantum state engineering of light with continuous-wave optical parametric oscillators

Engineering non-classical states of the electromagnetic field is a central quest for quantum optics1,2. Beyond their fundamental significance, such states are indeed the resources for implementing various protocols, ranging from enhanced metrology to quantum communication and computing. A variety of devices can be used to generate non-classical states, such as single emitters, light-matter interfaces or non-linear systems3. We focus here on the use of a continuous-wave optical parametric oscillator3,4. This system is based on a non-linear &#967;2 crystal inserted inside an optical cavity and it is now well-known as a very efficient source of non-classical light, such as single-mode or two-mode squeezed vacuum depending on the crystal phase matching. 
Squeezed vacuum is a Gaussian state as its quadrature distributions follow a Gaussian statistics. However, it has been shown that number of protocols require non-Gaussian states5. Generating directly such states is a difficult task and would require strong &#967;3 non-linearities. Another procedure, probabilistic but heralded, consists in using a measurement-induced non-linearity via a conditional preparation technique operated on Gaussian states. Here, we detail this generation protocol for two non-Gaussian states, the single-photon state and a superposition of coherent states, using two differently phase-matched parametric oscillators as primary resources. This technique enables achievement of a high fidelity with the targeted state and generation of the state in a well-controlled spatiotemporal mode.

For the type-II OPO and the generation of high-fidelity single photon state: 
The tomographic reconstruction of the heralded state is shown in Figure 2, where the diagonal elements of the reconstructed density matrix and the corresponding Wigner function are displayed. Without any loss corrections, the heralded state exhibits a single-photon component as high as 78%. By taking into account the overall detection losses (15%), the state reaches a fidelity of 91% with a single-photon state. The two-pho...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantum State Engineering of Light with Continuous-wave Optical Parametric Oscillators at JoVE.com

Quantum State Engineering of Light with Continuous-wave Optical Parametric Oscillators

We describe the reliable generation of non-Gaussian states of traveling optical fields, including single-photon states and coherent state superpositions, using a conditional preparation method operated on the non-classical light emitted by optical parametric oscillators. Type-I and type-II phase-matched oscillators are considered and common procedures, such as the required frequency filtering or the high-efficiency quantum state characterization by homodyning, are detailed.

Engineering non-classical states of the electromagnetic field is a central quest for quantum optics1,2. Beyond their fundamental significance, such states ...

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Quasi-light Storage for Optical Data Packets

Today's telecommunication is based on optical packets which transmit the information in optical fiber networks around the world. Currently, the processing of the signals is done in the electrical domain. Direct storage in the optical domain would avoid the transfer of the packets to the electrical and back to the optical domain in every network node and, therefore, increase the speed and possibly reduce the energy consumption of telecommunications. However, light consists of photons which propagate with the speed of light in vacuum. Thus, the storage of light is a big challenge. There exist some methods to slow down the speed of the light, or to store it in excitations of a medium. However, these methods cannot be used for the storage of optical data packets used in telecommunications networks. Here we show how the time-frequency-coherence, which holds for every signal and therefore for optical packets as well, can be exploited to build an optical memory. We will review the background and show in detail and through examples, how a frequency comb can be used for the copying of an optical packet which enters the memory. One of these time domain copies is then extracted from the memory by a time domain switch. We will show this method for intensity as well as for phase modulated signals.

The article describes a procedure to store optical data packets with an arbitrary modulation, wavelength, and data rate. These packets are the basis of modern telecommunications.

Today's telecommunication is based on optical packets which transmit the information in optical fiber networks around the world. Currently, the processing ...

Gradient Echo Quantum Memory in Warm Atomic Vapor

Gradient echo memory (GEM) is a protocol for storing optical quantum states of light in atomic ensembles. The primary motivation for such a technology is that quantum key distribution (QKD), which uses Heisenberg uncertainty to guarantee security of cryptographic keys, is limited in transmission distance. The development of a quantum repeater is a possible path to extend QKD range, but a repeater will need a quantum memory. In our experiments we use a gas of rubidium 87 vapor that is contained in a warm gas cell. This makes the scheme particularly simple. It is also a highly versatile scheme that enables in-memory refinement of the stored state, such as frequency shifting and bandwidth manipulation. The basis of the GEM protocol is to absorb the light into an ensemble of atoms that has been prepared in a magnetic field gradient. The reversal of this gradient leads to rephasing of the atomic polarization and thus recall of the stored optical state. We will outline how we prepare the atoms and this gradient and also describe some of the pitfalls that need to be avoided, in particular four-wave mixing, which can give rise to optical gain.

The gradient echo memory is a protocol for storing optical quantum states of light in atomic ensembles. Quantum memory is a key element of a quantum repeater, which can extend the range of quantum key distribution. We outline the operation of the scheme when implemented in a 3-level atomic ensemble.

Gradient  echo memory (GEM) is a protocol for storing optical quantum states of light in  atomic ensembles. The primary motivation for such a technology ...

Nanofabrication of Gate-defined GaAs/AlGaAs Lateral Quantum Dots

A quantum computer is a computer composed of quantum bits (qubits) that takes advantage of quantum effects, such as superposition of states and entanglement, to solve certain problems exponentially faster than with the best known algorithms on a classical computer. Gate-defined lateral quantum dots on GaAs/AlGaAs are one of many avenues explored for the implementation of a qubit. When properly fabricated, such a device is able to trap a small number of electrons in a certain region of space. The spin states of these electrons can then be used to implement the logical 0 and 1 of the quantum bit. Given the nanometer scale of these quantum dots, cleanroom facilities offering specialized equipment- such as scanning electron microscopes and e-beam evaporators- are required for their fabrication. Great care must be taken throughout the fabrication process to maintain cleanliness of the sample surface and to avoid damaging the fragile gates of the structure. This paper presents the detailed fabrication protocol of gate-defined lateral quantum dots from the wafer to a working device. Characterization methods and representative results are also briefly discussed. Although this paper concentrates on double quantum dots, the fabrication process remains the same for single or triple dots or even arrays of quantum dots. Moreover, the protocol can be adapted to fabricate lateral quantum dots on other substrates, such as Si/SiGe.

This paper presents a detailed fabrication protocol for gate-defined semiconductor lateral quantum dots on gallium arsenide heterostructures. These nanoscale devices are used to trap few electrons for use as quantum bits in quantum information processing or for other mesoscopic experiments such as coherent conductance measurements.

A quantum computer is a computer composed of quantum bits (qubits) that takes advantage of quantum effects, such as superposition of states and ...

Fabrication and Characterization of Disordered Polymer Optical Fibers for Transverse Anderson Localization of Light

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed polymer optical fiber is composed of 80,000 strands of poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) that are randomly mixed and drawn into a square cross section optical fiber with a side width of 250 &mu;m. Initially, each strand is 200 &mu;m in diameter and 8-inches long. During the mixing process of the original fiber strands, the fibers cross over each other; however, a large draw ratio guarantees that the refractive index profile is invariant along the length of the fiber for several tens of centimeters. The large refractive index difference of 0.1 between the disordered sites results in a small localized beam radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers. The input light is launched from a standard single mode optical fiber using the butt-coupling method and the near-field output beam from the disordered fiber is imaged using a 40X objective and a CCD camera. The output beam diameter agrees well with the expected results from the numerical simulations. The disordered optical fiber presented in this work is the first device-level implementation of 2D Anderson localization, and can potentially be used for image transport and short-haul optical communication systems.

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. This microstructured fiber can transport a small localized beam with a radius that is comparable to the beam radius of conventional optical fibers.

We develop and characterize a disordered polymer optical fiber that uses transverse Anderson localization as a novel waveguiding mechanism. The developed ...

Fabrication of Uniform Nanoscale Cavities via Silicon Direct Wafer Bonding

Measurements of the heat capacity and superfluid fraction of confined 4He have been performed near the lambda transition using lithographically patterned and bonded silicon wafers. Unlike confinements in porous materials often used for these types of experiments3, bonded wafers provide predesigned uniform spaces for confinement. The geometry of each cell is well known, which removes a large source of ambiguity in the interpretation of data.
Exceptionally flat, 5 cm diameter, 375 &#181;m thick Si wafers with about 1 &#181;m variation over the entire wafer can be obtained commercially (from Semiconductor Processing Company, for example). Thermal oxide is grown on the wafers to define the confinement dimension in the z-direction. A pattern is then etched in the oxide using lithographic techniques so as to create a desired enclosure upon bonding. A hole is drilled in one of the wafers (the top) to allow for the introduction of the liquid to be measured. The wafers are cleaned2 in RCA solutions and then put in a microclean chamber where they are rinsed with deionized water4. The wafers are bonded at RT and then annealed at ~1,100 &#176;C. This forms a strong and permanent bond. This process can be used to make uniform enclosures for measuring thermal and hydrodynamic properties of confined liquids from the nanometer to the micrometer scale.

A method for permanently bonding two silicon wafers so as to realize a uniform enclosure is described. This includes wafer preparation, cleaning, RT bonding, and annealing processes. The resulting bonded wafers (cells) have uniformity of enclosure ~1%1,2. The resulting geometry allows for measurements of confined liquids and gasses.

Measurements of the heat capacity and superfluid fraction of confined 4He have been performed near the lambda transition using lithographically patterned ...

Construction and Characterization of External Cavity Diode Lasers for Atomic Physics

Since their development in the late 1980s, cheap, reliable external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) have replaced complex and expensive traditional dye and Titanium Sapphire lasers as the workhorse laser of atomic physics labs1,2. Their versatility and prolific use throughout atomic physics in applications such as absorption spectroscopy and laser cooling1,2 makes it imperative for incoming students to gain a firm practical understanding of these lasers. This publication builds upon the seminal work by Wieman3, updating components, and providing a video tutorial. The setup, frequency locking and performance characterization of an ECDL will be described. Discussion of component selection and proper mounting of both diodes and gratings, the factors affecting mode selection within the cavity, proper alignment for optimal external feedback, optics setup for coarse and fine frequency sensitive measurements, a brief overview of laser locking techniques, and laser linewidth measurements are included.

This is an instructional paper to guide the construction and diagnostics of external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs), including component selection and optical alignment, as well as the basics of frequency reference spectroscopy and laser linewidth measurements for applications in the field of atomic physics.

Since their development in the late 1980s, cheap, reliable external cavity diode lasers (ECDLs) have replaced complex and expensive traditional dye and ...

Fabrication and Testing of Microfluidic Optomechanical Oscillators

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including microresonators. However, because of the increased acoustic radiative losses during direct liquid immersion of optomechanical devices, almost all published optomechanical experiments have been performed in solid phase. This paper discusses a recently introduced hollow microfluidic optomechanical resonator. Detailed methodology is provided to fabricate these ultra-high-Q microfluidic resonators, perform optomechanical testing, and measure radiation pressure-driven breathing mode and SBS-driven whispering gallery mode parametric vibrations. By confining liquids inside the capillary resonator, high mechanical- and optical- quality factors are simultaneously maintained.

Parametric optomechanical excitations have recently been experimentally demonstrated in microfluidic optomechanical resonators by means of optical radiation pressure and stimulated Brillouin scattering. This paper describes the fabrication of these microfluidic resonators along with methodologies for generating and verifying optomechanical oscillations.

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including ...

Selective Area Modification of Silicon Surface Wettability by Pulsed UV Laser Irradiation in Liquid Environment

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of biosensing devices. We report on a protocol of using KrF and ArF lasers irradiating Si (001) samples immersed in a liquid environment with low number of pulses and operating at moderately low pulse fluences to induce Si wettability modification. Wafers immersed for up to 4 hr in a 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution did not show measurable change in their initial contact angle (CA) ~75&#176;. However, the 500-pulse KrF and ArF lasers irradiation of such wafers in a microchamber filled with 0.01% H2O2/H2O solution at 250 and 65 mJ/cm2, respectively, has decreased the CA to near 15&#176;, indicating the formation of a superhydrophilic surface. The formation of OH-terminated Si (001), with no measurable change of the wafer&#8217;s surface morphology, has been confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy measurements. The selective area irradiated samples were then immersed in a biotin-conjugated fluorescein-stained nanospheres solution for 2 hr, resulting in a successful immobilization of the nanospheres in the non-irradiated area. This illustrates the potential of&#160;the method for selective area biofunctionalization and fabrication of advanced Si-based biosensing architectures. We also describe a similar protocol of irradiation of wafers immersed in methanol (CH3OH) using ArF laser operating at pulse fluence of 65 mJ/cm2 and in situ formation of a strongly hydrophobic surface of Si (001) with the CA of 103&#176;. The XPS results indicate ArF laser induced formation of Si&#8211;(OCH3)x compounds responsible for the observed hydrophobicity. However, no such compounds were found by XPS on the Si surface irradiated by KrF laser in methanol, demonstrating the inability of the KrF laser to photodissociate methanol and create -OCH3 radicals.

We report on a process of in situ alteration of HF treated Si (001) surface into a hydrophilic or hydrophobic state by irradiating samples in microfluidic chambers filled with&#160;H2O2/H2O solution (0.01%-0.5%) or methanol solutions using pulsed UV laser of a relative low pulse fluence.

The wettability of silicon (Si) is one of the important parameters in the technology of surface functionalization of this material and fabrication of ...

Experiments on Ultrasonic Lubrication Using a Piezoelectrically-assisted Tribometer and Optical Profilometer

Friction and wear are detrimental to engineered systems. Ultrasonic lubrication is achieved when the interface between two sliding surfaces is vibrated at a frequency above the acoustic range (20 kHz). As a solid-state technology, ultrasonic lubrication can be used where conventional lubricants are unfeasible or undesirable. Further, ultrasonic lubrication allows for electrical modulation of the effective friction coefficient between two sliding surfaces. This property enables adaptive systems that modify their frictional state and associated dynamic response as the operating conditions change. Surface wear can also be reduced through ultrasonic lubrication. We developed a protocol to investigate the dependence of friction force reduction and wear reduction on the linear sliding velocity between ultrasonically lubricated surfaces. A pin-on-disc tribometer was built which differs from commercial units in that a piezoelectric stack is used to vibrate the pin at 22 kHz normal to the rotating disc surface. Friction and wear metrics including effective friction force, volume loss, and surface roughness are measured without and with ultrasonic vibrations at a constant pressure of 1 to 4 MPa and three different sliding velocities: 20.3, 40.6, and 87 mm/sec. An optical profilometer is utilized to characterize the wear surfaces. The effective friction force is reduced by 62% at 20.3 mm/sec. Consistently with existing theories for ultrasonic lubrication, the percent reduction in friction force diminishes with increasing speed, down to 29% friction force reduction at 87 mm/sec. Wear reduction remains essentially constant (49%) at the three speeds considered.

We present a protocol for using a piezoelectrically-assisted tribometer and optical profilometer to investigate the dependence of ultrasonic wear and friction reduction on linear velocity, contact pressure, and surface properties.

Friction and wear are detrimental to engineered systems. Ultrasonic lubrication is achieved when the interface between two sliding surfaces is vibrated at ...

Scanning Light Scattering Profiler (SLPS) Based Methodology to Quantitatively Evaluate Forward and Backward Light Scattering from Intraocular Lenses

The scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) methodology has been developed for the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward light scattering from intraocular lenses (IOLs) using goniophotometer principles. This protocol describes the SLSP platform and how it employs a 360&#176; rotational photodetector sensor that is scanned around an IOL sample while recording the intensity and location of scattered light as it passes through the IOL medium. The SLSP platform can be used to predict, non-clinically, the propensity for current and novel IOL designs and materials to induce light scatter. Non-clinical evaluation of light scattering properties of IOLs can significantly reduce the number of patient complaints related to unwanted glare, glistening, optical defects, poor image quality, and other phenomena associated with the unintended light scattering. Future studies should be conducted to correlate SLSP data with clinical results to help identify which measured light scatter is most problematic for patients that have undergone cataract surgery subsequent to IOL implantation.

Scanning Light Scattering Profiler SLPS Based Methodology to Quantitatively Evaluate Forward and Backward Light Scattering from Intraocular Lenses

This protocol describes the scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) that enables the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward scattering of light from intraocular lenses (IOLs) using goniophotometer principles.

The scanning light scattering profiler (SLSP) methodology has been developed for the full-angle quantitative evaluation of forward and backward light ...