このプロジェクトは、NIHの助成金DA19112（DGW）とDA026994（CMO）によってサポートされていました。イラストは、キャサリン心苦しくによって提供されていました。実験は、ヴァンダービルトマウス神経行動学研究室で行った。

1。強化子として様々な視覚と聴覚刺激を用いたオペラントテストセッションを実行するプログラムを書く<ol><li>固定比率（FR）セッションの場合：家の光とファンセッション中にオンにして長さが1時間のセッションを行います。プログレッシブ比セッションでは、セッション二時間の長さにしてください。両方のレバーがレバーが動物（各動物のレバーの割り当てが変化しない）を介して&quot;アクティブ&quot;対&quot;非アクティブ&quot;に指定されているセッションと、カウンターの期間延長がある。 </li><li>各補強剤は、以下のパラメータに応じて変化するような方法でプログラムをコーディングしてください。 <ul><li> 2、4、6、または8秒：各補強剤は、ランダムに選択された以下の期間のいずれかを持っています。 </li><li> 0.625、1.25、2.5、または5 Hzの、50％デューティサイクルの各：各補強剤は、ランダムに選択された以下の刺激ランプのフラッシュ率を誇っています。 </li><li>各刺激のランプの点滅は、左または室の右側のいずれかにランダムです。 </li><li>補強剤の持続のための聴覚刺激を提供する、我々の研究室では、我々は、チャンバー内のバックグラウンドノイズより音が約3 dBを提供する輸液ポンプをトリガします。 </li></ul></li><li> 1：リアルタイムで次の値を表示するプログラムをコーディングしてください。アクティブレバーを押すと、数2。非アクティブなレバーを押すと、数3。強化子の数、4。時間（0.1秒単位）。 </li></ol> 2。動物を扱う（3日目の手順） <ol><li>動物施設への順化の後、動物を取り扱う始める。これは、ピックアップと搬送されるために動物を慣らすになります。 </li><li>ケージの中に手袋をはめた手を置き、それらを90秒間座ってできるようにすることで起動します。すべてのマウスは、その時点であなたの手を調査していない場合は、ゆっくりマウスに向かって手を移動し、それぞれのにおいを嗅ぐと/または続行する前に、あなたの手に連絡するのを待ちます。 </li><li>慎重に尾の付け根でいずれかによって、それぞれのマウスのものをピックアップし、すぐにそれを持ち上げ、マウスがケージに戻ってあなたの手のウォークオフにできるように戻すこと、それをもたらす、あなたの手の上に置きます。 </li><li>マウスの態度に応じて、それぞれのマウスの5〜10倍のために繰り返します。これが行われ、最終的な時間、日によっては、一定の期間（それはあなたの手に立って）、マウス高を保持。 1日目：5秒、2日目：10秒、3日目：15秒。各マウスは、毎日のためにこの基準を満たしていることを確認します。 1日目に、ケージの間に手袋を変更する。 </li><li>動物の背中ストローク、2日目に始めてマウスがあなたの手にある間。また、2日目に、毎日の動物をひょう量を開始。被験者数を示すために、シャーピーと各動物の尾をマーク。 </li><li>注射が実験中に与えられる場合、2日目に注射してマウスをhabituating始める。ケージ内のすべてのマウスの処理と日の基準を満たされている後にこの操作を実行する必要があります。 </li></ol> 3。クリーンと試験装置<ol><li>お湯で底のフライパンを洗う。 </li><li> 30％エタノールでオペラントチャンバー壁と床を清掃してください。 </li><li>家の光、ファン、および刺激のライトが点灯するテストプログラムを実行し、レバー、およびレコードのレバーを押すを拡張します。 </li><li>すべてのライトとファンが正常に動作していることを確認し、すべてのレバーを押すが記録されることを保証するプログラムをテストします。 </li><li> 30％エタノールでレバーを清掃してください。 </li></ol> 4。オペラントセッション（セッションは、一日の同じ時間に5-6日/週でなければなりません）を実行<ol><li>各マウスの重量を量る。 </li><li>各チャンバーにプログラムをロードし、適切に実験に注釈を付ける。アクティブレバーは、動物（すなわち、アクティブレバーをマウスの半分を左レバーに割り当てられている、右レバーは、他の半分のためにアクティブになっている）との間で相殺されるはずですが、マウスマウスがされた後、アクティブレバーの側は決して変更されません割り当てられた。 </li><li> 、その指定されたチャンバーに各マウスの搬送室を閉じて、セッションを開始します。 </li><li>セッションの終了後、速やかにマウスを削除し、尾を再マーク。 </li><li>セクション3で説明したクリーンチャンバー。 </li><li>アクティブと非アクティブのレバーを押すの数のデータを分析する。的強化及び/またはレバーの精度（％アクティブレバーを押す）の数も報告することができます。マウスはOSSに対する治療の効果をテストすることを予定している場合、テストするすべてのマウスは、買収の基準を（例えば、&gt; 20アクティブレバーを押すと、最後の3つのFR -​​ 1のセッションのための&gt; 65％の活性レバーを押す満たしていることを確認）は、前治療を開始する。 </li><li> FR - 1が応答の取得後に、強化スケジュールは、（例えば、より高い固定比率、プログレッシブ比、ランダム比、等）を変更することができます。 </li></ol> 5。代表的な結果雄のC57BL/6JマウスによるOSSの取得の例を図1（23から再生）に示されています。対照マウスは、どちらかのレバーのレバーを押したがないconseがなかったことを除いて、同一の条件を受けquence。マウスの別のコホートを図2に示されています。別のグループは、食品の強化を受信しながらこの実験では、マウスの一つのグループは、OSSの補強を受けた。我々は、食品への随意アクセスの条件の下で、応答の両方の固定と進歩的な比率はOSSと（図2、およびB）を確認して10％応答の間で類似していることを発見した。これは、飢餓状態や応答速度の違いから生じる潜在的な困惑を避ける二つの異なる補強タイプ（感覚と食べ物）で操作を効果的に比較することができます。 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2292/2292fig1.jpg" alt="図1" /> 図1：OSSのマウスとコントロールでレバーを押すと非アクティブのレバーを押したときには結果を持っていないながら、OSSのマウスは、それぞれのアクティブなレバープレス（補強のFR - 1スケジュール）は、次の変化、視覚と聴覚刺激を受けた。対照マウスは、同じ条件を施行したが、どちらかレバーを（レバーがアクティブと非アクティブのレバーがOSSのマウスのために相殺されているのと同じ方法で、動物を介して1と2を表記していると相殺されている）を押すことのない結果はありませんでした。 OSSのマウスで押してアクティブレバーが押して非アクティブレバーに相対的に増加した（* P &lt;0.05、** P &lt;0.01）およびコントロールでキーを押す非強化レバーへ（N = 7 8、$ P &lt;0.05、$ $ P &lt;0.01 ）。 23日から再現図。 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2292/2292fig2.jpg" alt="図2" /> 図2：食品の応答OSSのマウスとマウスでレバーを押す A.）マウスでは、OSSの刺激や食物の補強剤（10％を確認してください）のための補強のFR - 1のスケジュールで答えた。すべてのマウスは実験の間、食品への広告libidumのアクセスを持っていた。 B.）は、FR - 1セッションの後、マウスに5日間の強化のプログレッシブ比（PR）のスケジュールで進めていた。データは日4および各動物の5つの値の意味を表します。完成した最終的な比率は、Y軸の右側に報告し、対応する強化因子（つまり30の応答はまで9の強化子を獲得した後、10 番目の強化子を得るために必要とされる）を得るために必要な応答の数を参照します。

<ol>
	<li>Thomsen, M., Caine, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intravenous+drug+self-administration+in+mice:+practical+considerations.">Intravenous drug self-administration in mice: practical considerations.</a> Behav Genet. 37, 101-118 (2006).</li><li>Koob, G. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Animal+models+of+motivation+for+drinking+in+rodents+with+a+focus+on+opioid+receptor+neuropharmacology.">Animal models of motivation for drinking in rodents with a focus on opioid receptor neuropharmacology.</a> Recent Dev Alcohol. 16, 263-281 (2003).</li><li>Koob, G. F., Kenneth Lloyd, G., Mason, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+pharmacotherapies+for+drug+addiction:+a+Rosetta+stone+approach.">Development of pharmacotherapies for drug addiction: a Rosetta stone approach.</a> Nat Rev Drug Discov. 8, 500-515 (2009).</li><li>Arnold, J. M., Roberts, D. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+critique+of+fixed+and+progressive+ratio+schedules+used+to+examine+the+neural+substrates+of+drug+reinforcement.">A critique of fixed and progressive ratio schedules used to examine the neural substrates of drug reinforcement.</a> Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 57, 441-447 (1997).</li><li>O'Brien, C. P., Gardner, E. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Critical+assessment+of+how+to+study+addiction+and+its+treatment:+human+and+non-human+animal+models.">Critical assessment of how to study addiction and its treatment: human and non-human animal models.</a> Pharmacology &#38; Therapeutics. 108, 18-58 (2005).</li><li>Olsen, C. M., Duvauchelle, C. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Prefrontal+cortex+D1+modulation+of+the+reinforcing+properties+of+cocaine.">Prefrontal cortex D1 modulation of the reinforcing properties of cocaine.</a> Brain Research. 1075, 229-235 (2006).</li><li>Epstein, D. H., Preston, K. L., Stewart, J., Shaham, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toward+a+model+of+drug+relapse:+an+assessment+of+the+validity+of+the+reinstatement+procedure.">Toward a model of drug relapse: an assessment of the validity of the reinstatement procedure.</a> Psychopharmacology (Berl). 189, 1-16 (2006).</li><li>Kalivas, P. W., McFarland, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain+circuitry+and+the+reinstatement+of+cocaine-seeking+behavior.">Brain circuitry and the reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior.</a> Psychopharmacology (Berl). 168, 44-56 (2003).</li><li>Stewart, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pathways+to+relapse:+the+neurobiology+of+drug-+and+stress-induced+relapse+to+drug-taking.">Pathways to relapse: the neurobiology of drug- and stress-induced relapse to drug-taking.</a> J Psychiatry Neurosci. 25, 125-136 (2000).</li><li>Olsen, C. M., Winder, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+method+for+single-session+cocaine+self-administration+in+the+mouse.">A method for single-session cocaine self-administration in the mouse.</a> Psychopharmacology (Berl). 187, 13-21 (2006).</li><li>Rocha, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+responsiveness+to+cocaine+in+C57BL/6J+and+DBA/2J+mice.">Differential responsiveness to cocaine in C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice.</a> Psychopharmacology (Berl). 138, 82-88 (1998).</li><li>Caine, S. B., Negus, S. S., Mello, N. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Method+for+training+operant+responding+and+evaluating+cocaine+self-administration+behavior+in+mutant+mice.">Method for training operant responding and evaluating cocaine self-administration behavior in mutant mice.</a> Psychopharmacology (Berl). 147, 22-24 (1999).</li><li>Colby, C. R., Whisler, K., Steffen, C., Nestler, E. J., Self, D. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Striatal+cell+type-specific+overexpression+of+DeltaFosB+enhances+incentive+for+cocaine.">Striatal cell type-specific overexpression of DeltaFosB enhances incentive for cocaine.</a> J Neurosci. 23, 2488-2493 (2003).</li><li>Schramm-Sapyta, N. L., Olsen, C. M., Winder, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cocaine+self-administration+reduces+excitatory+responses+in+the+mouse+nucleus+accumbens+shell.">Cocaine self-administration reduces excitatory responses in the mouse nucleus accumbens shell.</a> Neuropsychopharmacology. 31, 1444-1451 (2006).</li><li>Steiner, R. C., Hsiung, H. M., Picciotto, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cocaine+self-administration+and+locomotor+sensitization+are+not+altered+in+CART+knockout+mice.">Cocaine self-administration and locomotor sensitization are not altered in CART knockout mice.</a> Behav Brain Res. 171, 56-62 (2006).</li><li>Marx, M. H., Henderson, R. L., Roberts, C. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Positive+reinforcement+of+the+bar-pressing+response+by+a+light+stimulus+following+dark+operant+pretests+with+no+after+effect.">Positive reinforcement of the bar-pressing response by a light stimulus following dark operant pretests with no after effect.</a> J Comp Physiol Psychol. 48, 73-76 (1955).</li><li>Baron, A., Kish, G. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Low-intensity+auditory+and+visual+stimuli+as+reinforcers+for+the+mouse.">Low-intensity auditory and visual stimuli as reinforcers for the mouse.</a> J Comp Physiol Psychol. 55, 1011-1013 (1962).</li><li>Stewart, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reinforcing+effects+of+light+as+a+function+of+intensity+and+reinforcement+schedule.">Reinforcing effects of light as a function of intensity and reinforcement schedule.</a> Journal of comparative and physiological psychology. 53, 187-193 (1960).</li><li>Caggiula, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cue+dependency+of+nicotine+self-administration+and+smoking.">Cue dependency of nicotine self-administration and smoking.</a> Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 70, 515-530 (2001).</li><li>Cain, M. E., Green, T. A., Bardo, M. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Environmental+enrichment+decreases+responding+for+visual+novelty.">Environmental enrichment decreases responding for visual novelty.</a> Behavioural Processes. 73, 360-366 (2006).</li><li>Thompson, T. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visual+Reinforcement+in+Siamese+Fighting+Fish.">Visual Reinforcement in Siamese Fighting Fish.</a> Science. 141, 55-57 (1963).</li><li>Blatter, K., Schultz, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rewarding+properties+of+visual+stimuli.">Rewarding properties of visual stimuli.</a> Exp Brain Res. 168, 541-546 (2006).</li><li>Olsen, C. M., Winder, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Operant+sensation+seeking+engages+similar+neural+substrates+to+operant+drug+seeking+in+C57+mice.">Operant sensation seeking engages similar neural substrates to operant drug seeking in C57 mice.</a> Neuropsychopharmacology. 34, 1685-1694 (2009).</li><li>Crabbe, J. C., Wahlsten, D., Dudek, B. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetics+of+mouse+behavior:+interactions+with+laboratory+environment.">Genetics of mouse behavior: interactions with laboratory environment.</a> Science. 284, 1670-1672 (1999).</li><li>Crawley, J. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+phenotypes+of+inbred+mouse+strains:+implications+and+recommendations+for+molecular+studies.">Behavioral phenotypes of inbred mouse strains: implications and recommendations for molecular studies.</a> Psychopharmacology (Berl). 132, 107-124 (1997).</li><li>Belknap, J. K., Metten, P., Beckley, E. H., Crabbe, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multivariate+analyses+reveal+common+and+drug-specific+genetic+influences+on+responses+to+four+drugs+of+abuse.">Multivariate analyses reveal common and drug-specific genetic influences on responses to four drugs of abuse.</a> Trends Pharmacol Sci. 29, 537-543 (2008).</li><li>Mozhui, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strain+differences+in+stress+responsivity+are+associated+with+divergent+amygdala+gene+expression+and+glutamate-mediated+neuronal+excitability.">Strain differences in stress responsivity are associated with divergent amygdala gene expression and glutamate-mediated neuronal excitability.</a> J Neurosci. 30, 5357-5367 (2010).</li><li>Hefner, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impaired+fear+extinction+learning+and+cortico-amygdala+circuit+abnormalities+in+a+common+genetic+mouse+strain.">Impaired fear extinction learning and cortico-amygdala circuit abnormalities in a common genetic mouse strain.</a> J Neurosci. 28, 8074-8085 (2008).</li><li>Elmer, G. I., Pieper, J. O., Hamilton, L. R., Wise, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Qualitative+differences+between+C57BL/6J+and+DBA/2J+mice+in+morphine+potentiation+of+brain+stimulation+reward+and+intravenous+self-administration.">Qualitative differences between C57BL/6J and DBA/2J mice in morphine potentiation of brain stimulation reward and intravenous self-administration.</a> Psychopharmacology (Berl). 208, 309-321 (2010).</li></ol>

利害の衝突は宣言されません。

求めているオペラント感覚は、マウスが好きな動物である静脈内薬物自己投与する代わりに使用すると便利です。手術もカテーテルの維持管理のいずれも必要になる、ということは、これらのマウスにおいて重要な技術的なハードルであるため、有利である。それは、食品など他の自然な強化子とは別の補強の側面を測定することがありますので、OSSにも魅力的です。 ?...

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">	
		
		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Drug self-administration test package for mouse: extra-wide chamber and retractable levers</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.med-associates.com/">Med Associates, Inc</a></td>
<td>MED-307W-CT-D1</td>
<td>Levers are ultra-sensitive (require ~2 grams force) and are mounted 2.2 cm above the floor. Yellow stimulus lamps are mounted 2 cm above each lever.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Interface and software package</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td><a href="http://www.med-associates.com/">Med Associates, Inc</a></td>
<td>MED-SYST-16</td>
<td>This is the package for up to 16 chambers.</td>
</tr>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

operant sensation seeking in the mouse

Operant methods are powerful behavioral tools for the study of motivated behavior. These 'self-administration' methods have been used extensively in drug addiction research due to their high construct validity. Operant studies provide researchers a tool for preclinical investigation of several aspects of the addiction process. For example, mechanisms of acute reinforcement (both drug and non-drug) can be tested using pharmacological or genetic tools to determine the ability of a molecular target to influence self-administration behavior1-6. Additionally, drug or food seeking behaviors can be studied in the absence of the primary reinforcer, and the ability of pharmacological compounds to disrupt this process is a preclinical model for discovery of molecular targets and compounds that may be useful for the treatment of addiction3,7-9. One problem with performing intravenous drug self-administration studies in the mouse is the technical difficulty of maintaining catheter patency. Attrition rates in these experiments are high and can reach 40% or higher10-15. Another general problem with drug self-administration is discerning which pharmacologically-induced effects of the reinforcer produce specific behaviors. For example, measurement of the reinforcing and neurological effects of psychostimulants can be confounded by their psychomotor effects. Operant methods using food reinforcement can avoid these pitfalls, although their utility in studying drug addiction is limited by the fact that some manipulations that alter drug self-administration have a minimal impact on food self-administration. For example, mesolimbic dopamine lesion or knockout of the D1 dopamine receptor reduce cocaine self-administration without having a significant impact on food self-administration 12,16. 
Sensory stimuli have been described for their ability to support operant responding as primary reinforcers (i.e. not conditioned reinforcers)17-22. Auditory and visual stimuli are self-administered by several species18,21,23, although surprisingly little is known about the neural mechanisms underlying this reinforcement. The operant sensation seeking (OSS) model is a robust model for obtaining sensory self-administration in the mouse, allowing the study of neural mechanisms important in sensory reinforcement24. An additional advantage of OSS is the ability to screen mutant mice for differences in operant behavior that may be relevant to addiction. We have reported that dopamine D1 receptor knockout mice, previously shown to be deficient in psychostimulant self-administration, also fail to acquire OSS24. This is a unique finding in that these mice are capable of learning an operant task when food is used as a reinforcer. While operant studies using food reinforcement can be useful in the study of general motivated behavior and the mechanisms underlying food reinforcement, as mentioned above, these studies are limited in their application to studying molecular mechanisms of drug addiction. Thus, there may be similar neural substrates mediating sensory and psychostimulant reinforcement that are distinct from food reinforcement, which would make OSS a particularly attractive model for the study of drug addiction processes. The degree of overlap between other molecular targets of OSS and drug reinforcers is unclear, but is a topic that we are currently pursuing. While some aspects of addiction such as resistance to extinction may be observed with OSS, we have found that escalation 25 is not observed in this model24. Interestingly, escalation of intake and some other aspects of addiction are observed with self-administration of sucrose26. Thus, when non-drug operant procedures are desired to study addiction-related processes, food or sensory reinforcers can be chosen to best fit the particular question being asked. 
In conclusion, both food self-administration and OSS in the mouse have the advantage of not requiring an intravenous catheter, which allows a higher throughput means to study the effects of pharmacological or genetic manipulation of neural targets involved in motivation. While operant testing using food as a reinforcer is particularly useful in the study of the regulation of food intake, OSS is particularly apt for studying reinforcement mechanisms of sensory stimuli and may have broad applicability to novelty seeking and addiction.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Operant Sensation Seeking in the Mouse at JoVE.com

Operant Sensation Seeking in the Mouse

このプロトコルでは、マウスでの強化子として感覚刺激を用いたオペラント学習の方法を説明します。それは事前のトレーニングや食事制限を必要とせず、そしてそれは、食品などの薬理学的または自然的強化子を使用せずに、やる気のある行動の研究が可能になります。

マウスに求めてオペラントセンセーション

Operant methods are powerful behavioral tools for the study of motivated behavior.  These 'self-administration' methods have been used extensively in drug ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

12.9K ビュー.  Vanderbilt University Medical Center. このプロトコルでは、マウスでの強化子として感覚刺激を用いたオペラント学習の方法を説明します。それは事前のトレーニングや食事制限を必要とせず、そしてそれは、食品などの薬理学的または自然的強化子を使用せずに、やる気のある行動の研究が可能になります。

ビデオ: Operant Sensation Seeking in the Mouse

A Procedure for Studying the Footshock-Induced Reinstatement of Cocaine Seeking in Laboratory Rats

The most insidious aspect of drug addiction is the high propensity for relapse. Animal models of relapse, known as reinstatement procedures, have been used extensively to study the neurobiology and phenomenology of relapse to drug use. Although procedural variations have emerged over the past several decades, the most conventional reinstatement procedures are based on the drug self-administration (SA) model. In this model, an animal is trained to perform an operant response to obtain drug. Subsequently, the behavior is extinguished by withholding response-contingent reinforcement. Reinstatement of drug seeking is then triggered by a discrete event, such as an injection of the training drug, re-exposure to drug-associated cues, or exposure to a stressor 1.
Reinstatement procedures were originally developed to study the ability of acute non-contingent exposure to the training drug to reinstate drug seeking in rats and monkeys 1, 2. Reinstatement procedures have since been modified to study the role of environmental stimuli, including drug-associated cues and exposure to various forms of stress, in relapse to drug seeking 1, 3, 4.
Over the past 15 years, a major focus of the reinstatement literature has been on the role of stress in drug relapse. One of the most commonly used forms of stress for studying this relationship is acute exposures to mild, intermittent, electric footshocks. The ability of footshock stress to induce reinstatement of drug seeking was originally demonstrated by Shaham and colleagues (1995) in rats with a history of intravenous heroin SA5. Subsequently, the effect was generalized to rats with histories of intravenous cocaine, methamphetamine, and nicotine SA, as well as oral ethanol SA 3, 6.
Although footshock-induced reinstatement of drug seeking can be achieved reliably and robustly, it is an effect that tends to be sensitive to certain parametrical variables. These include the arrangement of extinction and reinstatement test sessions, the intensity and duration of footshock stress, and the presence of drug-associated cues during extinction and testing for reinstatement. Here we present a protocol for footshock-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking that we have used with consistent success to study the relationship between stress and cocaine seeking.

Animal models of relapse, known as reinstatement procedures, have been used extensively to study the role of stress in relapse to drug seeking. Here, we report on a method for inducing the reinstatement of cocaine seeking in laboratory rats via acute exposures to mild, intermittent electric footshock.

実験用ラットに求めてコカインのフットショック誘発性回復を勉強するための手順

The most insidious aspect of drug addiction is the high propensity for relapse.  Animal models of relapse, known as reinstatement procedures, have been ...

神経科学

Multiple-mouse Neuroanatomical Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The field of mouse phenotyping with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is rapidly growing, motivated by the need for improved tools for characterizing and evaluating mouse models of human disease. MRI is an excellent modality for investigating genetically altered animals. It is capable of whole brain coverage, can be used in vivo, and provides multiple contrast mechanisms for investigating different aspects of neuranatomy and physiology. The advent of high-field scanners along with the ability to scan multiple mice simultaneously allows for rapid phenotyping of novel mutations.
Effective mouse MRI studies require attention to many aspects of experiment design. In this article, we will describe general methods to acquire quality images for mouse phenotyping using a system that images mice concurrently in shielded transmit/receive radio frequency (RF) coils in a common magnet (Bock et al., 2003). We focus particularly on anatomical phenotyping, an important and accessible application that has shown a high potential for impact in many mouse models at our imaging centre. Before we can provide the detailed steps to acquire such images, there are important practical considerations for both in vivo brain imaging (Dazai et al., 2004) and ex vivo brain imaging (Spring et al., 2007) that should be noted. These are discussed below.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has become an increasingly popular tool for examining the phenotype of genetically altered mice. This article illustrates the methods necessary to achieve high-throughput phenotyping of genetically altered mice using multiple-mouse MRI.

複数のマウスの神経解剖学的磁気共鳴イメージング

The field of mouse phenotyping with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is rapidly growing, motivated by the need for improved tools for characterizing and ...

Detection of Neuritic Plaques in Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder leading to dementia. Neuritic plaque formation is one of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease. The central component of neuritic plaques is a small filamentous protein called amyloid &beta; protein (A&beta;)1, which is derived from sequential proteolytic cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) by &beta;-secretase and &gamma;-secretase. The amyloid hypothesis entails that A&gamma;-containing plaques as the underlying toxic mechanism in AD pathology2. The postmortem analysis of the presence of neuritic plaque confirms the diagnosis of AD. To further our understanding of A&gamma; neurobiology in AD pathogenesis, various mouse strains expressing AD-related mutations in the human APP genes were generated. Depending on the severity of the disease, these mice will develop neuritic plaques at different ages. These mice serve as invaluable tools for studying the pathogenesis and drug development that could affect the APP processing pathway and neuritic plaque formation. In this protocol, we employ an immunohistochemical method for specific detection of neuritic plaques in AD model mice. We will specifically discuss the preparation from extracting the half brain, paraformaldehyde fixation, cryosectioning, and two methods to detect neurotic plaques in AD transgenic mice: immunohistochemical detection using the ABC and DAB method and fluorescent detection using thiofalvin S staining method.

One of the pathological characteristics of AD is the formation of Amyloid &#x03B2; protein positive neuritic plaques. In this protocol we describe two methods to detect neuritic plaques in transgenic AD model mice: immunohistochemical detection using the ABC and DAB method and fluorescent detection using thioflavin S staining method.

アルツハイマー病のマウスモデルにおける神経突起斑の検出

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder leading to dementia. Neuritic plaque formation is one of the pathological hallmarks ...

The Mouse Forced Swim Test

The forced swim test is a rodent behavioral test used for evaluation of antidepressant drugs, antidepressant efficacy of new compounds, and experimental manipulations that are aimed at rendering or preventing depressive-like states. Mice are placed in an inescapable transparent tank that is filled with water and their escape related mobility behavior is measured. The forced swim test is straightforward to conduct reliably and it requires minimal specialized equipment. Successful implementation of the forced swim test requires adherence to certain procedural details and minimization of unwarranted stress to the mice. In the protocol description and the accompanying video, we explain how to conduct the mouse version of this test with emphasis on potential pitfalls that may be detrimental to interpretation of results and how to avoid them. Additionally, we explain how the behaviors manifested in the test are assessed.

The forced swim test is validated as an experimental approach to assess potential antidepressant efficacy in rodents. Experimental animals are placed in a tank of water and escape-related mobility behavior is quantified. The common procedures for the mouse version of this test are described.

マウス強制水泳試験

The forced swim test is a rodent behavioral test used for evaluation of antidepressant drugs, antidepressant efficacy of new compounds, and experimental ...

Microdialysis of Ethanol During Operant Ethanol Self-administration and Ethanol Determination by Gas Chromatography

Operant self-administration methods are commonly used to study the behavioral and pharmacological effects of many drugs of abuse, including ethanol. However, ethanol is typically self-administered orally, rather than intravenously like many other drugs of abuse. The pharmacokinetics of orally administered drugs are more complex than intravenously administered drugs. Because understanding the relationship between the pharmacological and behavioral effects of ethanol requires knowledge of the time course of ethanol reaching the brain during and after drinking, we use in vivo microdialysis and gas chromatography with flame ionization detection to monitor brain dialysate ethanol concentrations over time. 
Combined microdialysis-behavioral experiments involve the use of several techniques. In this article, stereotaxic surgery, behavioral training and microdialysis, which can be adapted to test a multitude of self-administration and neurochemical centered hypotheses, are included only to illustrate how they relate to the subsequent phases of sample collection and dialysate ethanol analysis. Dialysate ethanol concentration analysis via gas chromatography with flame-ionization detection, which is specific to ethanol studies, is described in detail. Data produced by these methods reveal the pattern of ethanol reaching the brain during the self-administration procedure, and when paired with neurochemical analysis of the same dialysate samples, allows conclusions to be made regarding the pharmacological and behavioral effects of ethanol.

A method to determine the time course of ethanol concentration in the brains of rats during operant ethanol self-administration is described. Gas chromatography with flame ionization detection is used to quantify ethanol in the dialysate samples, because it has the sensitivity required for the small volumes that are generated.

ガスクロマトグラフィーによるオペラントエタノール自己投与とエタノール判別中エタノールのマイクロダイアリシス

Operant self-administration methods are commonly used to study the behavioral and pharmacological effects of many drugs of abuse, including ethanol.  ...

A Simple Way to Measure Alterations in Reward-seeking Behavior Using Drosophila melanogaster

We describe a protocol for measuring ethanol self-administration in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) as a proxy for changes in reward states. We demonstrate a simple way to tap into the fly reward system, modify experiences related to natural reward, and use voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure for changes in reward states. The approach serves as a relevant tool to study the neurons and genes that play a role in experience-mediated changes of internal state. The protocol is composed of two discrete parts: exposing the flies to rewarding and nonrewarding experiences, and assaying voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure of the motivation to obtain a drug reward. The two parts can be used independently to induce the modulation of experience as an initial step for further downstream assays or as an independent two-choice feeding assay, respectively. The protocol does not require a complicated setup and can therefore be applied in any laboratory with basic fly culture tools.

A Simple Way to Measure Alterations in Reward-seeking Behavior Using Drosophila melanogaster

We describe a protocol for inducing rewarding and nonrewarding experiences in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) using voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure for changes in reward states.

使用して報酬を求める行動の変化を測定するための簡単な方法<em&gt;キイロショウジョウバエ</em

We describe a protocol for measuring ethanol self-administration in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) as a proxy for changes in reward states. We ...

Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents

Reinforcement-guided decision making is the ability to choose between competing courses of action based on the relative value of the benefits and their consequences. This process is integral to the normal human behavior and has been shown to be disrupted by neurological and psychiatric disorders such as addiction, schizophrenia, and depression. Rodents have long been used to uncover the neurobiology of human cognition. To this end, several behavioral tasks have been developed; however, most are non-automated and are labor-intensive. The recent development of the open-source microcontroller has enabled researchers to automate operant-based tasks for assessing a variety of cognitive tasks, standardizing the stimulus presentation, improving the data recording and consequently, improving the research output. Here, we describe an automated delay-based reinforcement-guided decision-making task, using an operant T-maze controlled by custom-written software programs. Using these decision-making tasks, we show the changes in the local field potential activities in the anterior cingulate cortex of a rat whilst it performs a delay-based cost-and-benefit decision-making task.

A cost-benefit analysis is a weighing-scale approach that the brain performs during the course of decision making. Here, we propose a protocol to train rats on an operant-based decision-making paradigm where rats choose higher rewards at the expense of waiting for 15 s to receive them.

齧歯動物による補強意思の中に費用便益分析を評価するためのオペラントのプロトコル

Reinforcement-guided decision making is the ability to choose between competing courses of action based on the relative value of the benefits and their ...

Localization of the Locus Coeruleus in the Mouse Brain

The locus coeruleus (LC) is a major hub of norepinephrine producing neurons that modulate a number of physiological functions. Structural or functional abnormalities of LC impact several brain regions including cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum and may contribute to depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, as well as Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease. These disorders are often associated with metal misbalance, but the role of metals in LC is only partially understood. Morphologic and functional studies of LC are needed to better understand the human pathologies and contribution of metals. Mice are a widely used experimental model, but the mouse LC is small (~0.3 mm diameter) and hard to identify for a non-expert. Here, we describe a step-by-step immunohistochemistry-based protocol to localize the LC in the mouse brain. Dopamine-&#946;-hydroxylase (DBH), and alternatively, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), both enzymes highly expressed in the LC, are used as immunohistochemical markers in brain slices. Sections adjacent to LC-containing sections can be used for further analysis, including histology for morphological studies, metabolic testing, as well as metal imaging by X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM).

The locus coeruleus is a small cluster of neurons involved in a variety of physiological processes. Here, we describe a protocol to prepare mouse brain sections for studies of proteins and metals in this nucleus.

マウスの脳、青斑核の局在

The locus coeruleus (LC) is a major hub of norepinephrine producing neurons that modulate a number of physiological functions. Structural or functional ...

Cochlear Surface Preparation in the Adult Mouse

Auditory processing in the cochlea depends on the integrity of the mechanosensory hair cells. Over a lifetime, hearing loss can be acquired from numerous etiologies such as exposure to excessive noise, the use of ototoxic medications, bacterial or viral ear infections, head injuries, and the aging process. Loss of sensory hair cells is a common pathological feature of the varieties of acquired hearing loss. Additionally, the inner hair cell synapse can be damaged by mild insults. Therefore, surface preparations of cochlear epithelia, in combination with immunolabeling techniques and confocal imagery, are a very useful tool for the investigation of cochlear pathologies, including losses of ribbon synapses and sensory hair cells, changes in protein levels in hair cells and supporting cells, hair cell regeneration, and determination of report gene expression (i.e., GFP) for verification of successful transduction and identification of transduced cell types. The cochlea, a bony spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear, holds the auditory sensory end organ, the organ of Corti (OC). Sensory hair cells and surrounding supporting cells in the OC are contained in the cochlear duct and rest on the basilar membrane, organized in a tonotopic fashion with high-frequency detection occurring in the base and low-frequency in the apex. With the availability of molecular and genetic information and the ability to manipulate genes by knockout and knock-in techniques, mice have been widely used in biological research, including in hearing science. However, the adult mouse cochlea is miniscule, and the cochlear epithelium is encapsulated in a bony labyrinth, making microdissection difficult. Although dissection techniques have been developed and used in many laboratories, this modified microdissection method using cell and tissue adhesive is easier and more convenient. It can be used in all types of adult mouse cochleae following decalcification.

This article presents a modified cochlear surface preparation method that requires decalcification and use of a cell and tissue adhesive to adhere the pieces of cochlear epithelia to 10 mm round cover slips for immunohistochemistry in adult mouse cochleae.

大人のマウスにおける人工内耳表面製剤

Auditory processing in the cochlea depends on the integrity of the mechanosensory hair cells. Over a lifetime, hearing loss can be acquired from numerous ...

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent and cause visual impairment and blindness. Understanding how such diseases progress is critical to formulating new treatments. In vivo&#160;microscopy in animal models of disease is a powerful tool for understanding neurodegeneration and has led to important progress towards treatments of conditions ranging from Alzheimer&#39;s disease to stroke. Given that the retina is the only central nervous system structure inherently accessible by optical approaches, it naturally lends itself towards in vivo imaging. However, the native optics of the lens and cornea present some challenges for effective imaging access.
This protocol outlines methods for in vivo two-photon imaging of cellular cohorts and structures in the mouse retina at cellular resolution, applicable for both acute- and chronic-duration imaging experiments. It presents examples of retinal ganglion cell (RGC), amacrine cell, microglial, and vascular imaging using a suite of labeling techniques including adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, transgenic mice, and inorganic dyes. Importantly, these techniques extend to all cell types of the retina, and suggested methods for accessing other cellular populations of interest are described. Also detailed are example strategies for manual image postprocessing for display and quantification. These techniques are directly applicable to studies of retinal function in health and disease.

In vivo imaging is a powerful tool for the study of biology in health and disease. This protocol describes transpupillary imaging of the mouse retina with a standard two-photon microscope. It also demonstrates different in vivoimaging methods to fluorescently label multiple cellular cohorts of the retina.

経瞳孔二光子マウス網膜のin vivoイメージング

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent ...