我々は、Google SketchUpのヘルプはセットアップ我々の最初の画像、ワームをカウントするImageJの13を使用するために提案するためのZ. Gitai、およびJ.シュラフについてアドバイスW.龍に感謝する。 CTMは、医歯薬学総合研究でピュー学者、マックナイトの学者、とケックの学者である。

<ol>
	<li>Bargmann, C. I., Hartwieg, E., Horvitz, H. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Odorant-selective+genes+and+neurons+mediate+olfaction+in+C.+elegans.">Odorant-selective genes and neurons mediate olfaction in C. elegans.</a> Cell. 74, 515-515 (1993).</li><li>Ward, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemotaxis+by+the+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans:+identification+of+attractants+and+analysis+of+the+response+by+use+of+mutants.">Chemotaxis by the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans: identification of attractants and analysis of the response by use of mutants.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 70, 817-817 (1973).</li><li>Bono, M. d. e., Maricq, A. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuronal+substrates+of+complex+behaviors+in+C.+elegans.">Neuronal substrates of complex behaviors in C. elegans.</a> Annu Rev Neurosci. 28, 451-451 (2005).</li><li>Mori, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetics+of+chemotaxis+and+thermotaxis+in+the+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Genetics of chemotaxis and thermotaxis in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Annu Rev Genet. 33, 399-399 (1999).</li><li>Zhang, Y., Lu, H., Bargmann, C. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pathogenic+bacteria+induce+aversive+olfactory+learning+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Pathogenic bacteria induce aversive olfactory learning in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Nature. 438, 179-179 (2005).</li><li>Kauffman, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Insulin+signaling+and+dietary+restriction+differentially+influence+the+decline+of+learning+and+memory+with+age.">Insulin signaling and dietary restriction differentially influence the decline of learning and memory with age.</a> PLoS Biol. 8, e1000372-e1000372 (2010).</li><li>Torayama, I., Ishihara, T., Katsura, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caenorhabditis+elegans+integrates+the+signals+of+butanone+and+food+to+enhance+chemotaxis+to+butanone.">Caenorhabditis elegans integrates the signals of butanone and food to enhance chemotaxis to butanone.</a> J Neurosci. 27, 741-741 (2007).</li><li>Silva, A. J., Kogan, J. H., Frankland, P. W., Kida, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CREB+and+memory.">CREB and memory.</a> Annu Rev Neurosci. 21, 127-127 (1998).</li><li>Meyer, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Iterative+image+transformations+for+an+automatic+screening+of+cervical+smears.">Iterative image transformations for an automatic screening of cervical smears.</a> J Histochem Cytochem. 27, 128-128 (1979).</li><li>Otsu, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Threshold+Selection+Method+from+Gray-Level+Histograms.">A Threshold Selection Method from Gray-Level Histograms.</a> IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. 9, 62-62 (1979).</li><li>Brenner, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+genetics+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">The genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Genetics. 77, 71-71 (1974).</li><li>Stephens, G. J., Johnson-Kerner, B., Bialek, W., Ryu, W. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dimensionality+and+dynamics+in+the+behavior+of+C.+elegans.">Dimensionality and dynamics in the behavior of C. elegans.</a> PLoS Comput Biol. 4, e1000028-e1000028 (2008).</li><li>Abramoff, M. a. g. e. l. h. a. e. s., Ram, P. J., J, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Image+Processing+with+ImageJ.">Image Processing with ImageJ.</a> Biophotonics International. 11, 36-36 (2004).</li></ol>

利害の衝突は宣言されません。

C.線虫嗅覚連合学習と記憶のアッセイは、ここで集中学習、等間隔学習、短期記憶、長期記憶のプロセスを区別して提示。これらのアッセイは、自分の環境の1,2の食品や薬品臭いを感知し、2つの間に正の関連を形成するためにワームの能力に依存している。6したがって、アッセイは、動物の開始人口の飢餓に非常に敏感であるため、最適なケアを行う必要がありますワームは、よくトレーニングの前後に供給されるように注意する。単一の密集した訓練は、短期的な連想記憶をもたらします。コンディショニング期間と間隔の訓練パラダイムの増加数は 、C言語の長期的な連想記憶を得るために重要です。それは他の生物にそのままエレガンス 。6,8は、おそらく、このアッセイは異なるエアコンと無条件刺激の間の関連の長期記憶を作り出すに変更することができます。 私たちの連合学習と記憶のアッセイは、加齢や遺伝的変異動物に野生型の学習や記憶能力を比較するために使用することができます。例えば、野生型のワーム、学習が低下インスリンシグナル伝達と動物の加齢に伴って長く維持され、そして学習と記憶がカロリー制限の動物の加齢に伴って長く維持され、老朽化の連合学習と長期的な連想記憶の能力の両方が減少し6時間これらのアッセイはまた、RNAi処理またはCの薬理学的操作に適しているエレガンス 。例えば、DAF - 2のRNAiによるワームの治療が向上、短期と長期の連想記憶、逆に、間隔の訓練中の遺伝子の転写と薬剤とのタンパク質合成（アクチノマイシンDとシクロヘキシミド、それぞれ）の閉塞は、長期記憶の形成を混乱させる。 6 短い、連合学習を区別し、テストする機能の長期的な記憶は、すべての動物の生存に不可欠なプロセスであり、そしてそれはそのパブロフ協会のメモリに関与する分子機械の多くは、哺乳類へのワームから保存されて表示されます。6これらの嗅覚アッセイを用いて長期と長期記憶は C になりますメモリのさらなる研究のための優れたシステムは、 虫 、そして学習と人間の記憶の喪失につながる神経変性のプロセスへの洞察を提供することがあります。

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">	
		
		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Sodium Azide</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
<td>S227</td>
<td>Prepare 1 M concentration in distilled water</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ethyl Alcohol 190 Proof</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Pharmco-Aaper</td>
<td>DSP-CT-18</td>
<td>&gt;95% Ethanol may have impurities that interfere with chemotaxis assays</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2-Butanone 99+%</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Acros</td>
<td>14967-0010</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Basler IEEE-1394/FireWire Area Scan CMOS Camera</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT56-683</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>InfiniMite Video Lens &#x2013; Alpha Industrial</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT56-202</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dolan-Jenner MI-150 Fiber Optic Illuminator</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT55-718</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>8&#x201D; x 8&#x201D; Backlight</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Schott Fostec</td>
<td>A08927</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Standard Boom Stand</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT54-120</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>3/4&#x201D; Post Adaptor for Boom Stands</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT54-124</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Standard Fixed 1/4-20 Mounting Plate</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Edmund Optics</td>
<td>NT54-122</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

c. elegans positive butanone learning, short-term, and long-term associative memory assays

経験の記憶と学習された情報は、彼らの生存を助ける選択をすることが生物にとって非常に重要です。C.虫は、食品や薬品臭い1、2のニューロン特異的検出によってその環境をナビゲート、および化学臭3、温度4、食料源5の病原性と栄養状態を関連付けることができます。 ここで、我々はC. elegansの連合学習と短期的および長期的連想記憶のアッセイを説明します。我々は、代わりに肯定的な応答を生成するために嫌悪嗅覚学習のパラダイム6を修正した;アッセイは、低走指数（同様のを誘発する濃度でAWCニューロン検知された揮発性誘引物質のブタノンの存在下でワームを送り、約400ワームを飢え含むToroyama ら 7まで）。標準人口はassay1テスト直ちに匂いやコンディショニングの後、数分から数時間へのワームの魅力を走化性。 ブタノン増加にエアコン、野生型動物の走化後〜0.6化学走性指数のユニット、その&quot;学習インデックス&quot;。連合学習では訓練中の食料とブタノン両方の存在に依存しています。単一のコンディショニング期間（&quot;密集した研修&quot;）のためのペアリング食べ物とブタノン〜2時間持続する短期的な連想記憶を生成します。 （&quot;間隔トレーニング&quot;）との間の休息期間を持つ複数のコンディショニング期間は、長期的な連想記憶を（&lt;40時間）が得られる、およびcAMP応答エレメント結合タンパク質（CREB）、6間の長期記憶に必要な転写因子に依存しています種8。 我々のプロトコルはまた、走化性指標の迅速かつ正確に測定するための画像解析のメソッドが含まれています。走化性アッセイプレート上の動物の高コントラストな画像は、Matlabのワームカウントソフトウェアにより取り込まれ、分析されます。ソフトウェアは、形態学的なトップハット変換を用いて不均一なバックグラウンドを補正9大津の方法は、背景とは別のワームにしきい値を決定するために使用されます。10非常に小さな粒子は、非ワームの領域（プレートのエッジや寒天のパンチ）を自動的に削除され、大きくされている手動選択して除去。ソフトウェアは、指定された最大サイズを超える領域を無視し、残りの領域のメジアン径をとることによって、単一のワームのサイズを見積もります。ワームの数は、単一のワームの推定サイズによってワームによって占有として識別総面積で除して推定される。 我々は、学習と短期と長期記憶を区別することができることを見出し、そしてこれらのプロセスは、高等生物と同様の重要な分子を共有していること。6,8私たちのアッセイは、迅速に新たな候補遺伝子や学習と短期または長期に影響を与える分子をテストすることができます。 C.における長期記憶種間関係のあるエレガンス 。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays at JoVE.com

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

ここでは、線虫の連合学習と短期と長期の連想記憶をテストする方法を説明します。これらの人口のアッセイは、揮発性の臭気物質に向かってchemotaxにワームの能力を採用しており、走化性ブタノンで食べ物をペアリング時に正の関連付けを形成する。コンディショニング期間の数を増やすと、長期記憶を誘導する。

C. elegansの正ブタノンの学習、短期、および長期連想記憶アッセイ

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment ...

c-elegans-positive-butanone-learning-short-term-long-term-associative

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

29.0K ビュー.  Princeton University. ここでは、線虫の連合学習と短期と長期の連想記憶をテストする方法を説明します。これらの人口のアッセイは、揮発性の臭気物質に向かってchemotaxにワームの能力を採用しており、走化性ブタノンで食べ物をペアリング時に正の関連付けを形成する。コンディショニング期間の数を増やすと、長期記憶を誘導する。

ビデオ: C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of these diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease are characterized by age-dependent deterioration in learning and memory functions and movement coordination2. Here we use behavioral assays, including the negative geotaxis assay3 and the aversive phototaxic suppression assay (APS assay)4,5, to show that some of the behavior characteristics associated with human neurodegeneration can be recapitulated in flies. In the negative geotaxis assay, the natural tendency of flies to move against gravity when agitated is utilized to study genes or conditions that may hinder locomotor capacities. In the APS assay, the learning and memory functions are tested in positively-phototactic flies trained to associate light with aversive bitter taste and hence avoid this otherwise natural tendency to move toward light. Testing these trained flies 6 hours post-training is used to assess memory functions. Using these assays, the contribution of any genetic or environmental factors toward developing neurodegeneration can be easily studied in flies.

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Behavior assays for measuring locomotor functions, learning, and memory abilities in Drosophila.

でアッセイする運動、学習、記憶障害ショウジョウバエ</em神経変性の>モデル

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of ...

神経科学

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron is damaged by injury or disease, it may regenerate. Cell-intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the ability of a neuron to regenerate and restore function. Recently, the nematode C. elegans has emerged as an excellent model organism to identify genes and signaling pathways that influence the regeneration of neurons1-6. The main way to initiate neuronal regeneration in C. elegans is laser-mediated cutting, or axotomy. During axotomy, a fluorescently-labeled neuronal process is severed using high-energy pulses. Initially, neuronal regeneration in C. elegans was examined using an amplified femtosecond laser5. However, subsequent regeneration studies have shown that a conventional pulsed laser can be used to accurately sever neurons in vivo and elicit a similar regenerative response1,3,7.
We present a protocol for performing in vivo laser axotomy in the worm using a MicroPoint pulsed laser, a turnkey system that is readily available and that has been widely used for targeted cell ablation. We describe aligning the laser, mounting the worms, cutting specific neurons, and assessing subsequent regeneration. The system provides the ability to cut large numbers of neurons in multiple worms during one experiment. Thus, laser axotomy as described herein is an efficient system for initiating and analyzing the process of regeneration.

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

A protocol to cut neurons in C. elegans with a MicroPoint pulsed laser is presented. We describe setting up the system, immobilizing worms, and severing labeled neurons. Advantages include a relatively low-cost system and the ability to sever neuronal processes or ablate cells in vivo.

Cの生体レーザー軸索切断にエレガンス

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron ...

Optical Recording of Suprathreshold Neural Activity with Single-cell and Single-spike Resolution

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also propagation of suprathreshold spiking activity involves populations of neurons. Empirical studies addressing cortical function directly thus require recordings from populations of neurons with high resolution. Here we describe an optical method and a deconvolution algorithm to record neural activity from up to 100 neurons with single-cell and single-spike resolution. This method relies on detection of the transient increases in intracellular somatic calcium concentration associated with suprathreshold electrical spikes (action potentials) in cortical neurons. High temporal resolution of the optical recordings is achieved by a fast random-access scanning technique using acousto-optical deflectors (AODs)1. Two-photon excitation of the calcium-sensitive dye results in high spatial resolution in opaque brain tissue2. Reconstruction of spikes from the fluorescence calcium recordings is achieved by a maximum-likelihood method. Simultaneous electrophysiological and optical recordings indicate that our method reliably detects spikes (&gt;97% spike detection efficiency), has a low rate of false positive spike detection (&lt; 0.003 spikes/sec), and a high temporal precision (about 3 msec) 3. This optical method of spike detection can be used to record neural activity in vitro and in anesthetized animals in vivo3,4.

Understanding the function of the vertebrate central nervous system requires recordings from many neurons because cortical function arises on the level of populations of neurons. Here we describe an optical method to record suprathreshold neural activity with single-cell and single-spike resolution, dithered random-access scanning. This method records somatic fluorescence calcium signals from up to 100 neurons with high temporal resolution. A maximum-likelihood algorithm deconvolves the underlying suprathreshold neural activity from the somatic fluorescence calcium signals. This method reliably detects spikes with high detection efficiency and a low rate of false positives and can be used to study neural populations in vitro and in vivo.

単一セルと単スパイク分解能で閾値上神経活動の光記録

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also ...

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the surface of an agar plate. For the study of the genetic, biochemical, and neuronal basis of behavior, C. elegans is an ideal organism because it is genetically tractable, amenable to microscopy, and shows a number of complex behaviors, including taxis, learning, and social interaction1,2. Behavioral analysis based on tracking the movements of worms as they crawl on agar plates have been particularly useful in the study of sensory behavior3, locomotion4, and general mutational phenotyping5. Our system works by moving the camera and illumination system as the worms crawls on a stationary agar plate, which ensures no mechanical stimulus is transmitted to the worm. Our tracking system is easy to use and includes a semi-automatic calibration feature. A challenge of all video tracking systems is that it generates an enormous amount of data that is intrinsically high dimensional. Our image processing and data analysis programs deal with this challenge by reducing the worms shape into a set of independent components, which comprehensively reconstruct the worms behavior as a function of only 3-4 dimensions6,7. As an example of the process we show that the worm enters and exits its reversal state in a phase specific manner.

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed a video-rate tracking microscope system that can record and quantify C. elegans behavior at high resolution and high speeds. We have also developed computational methods to reduce the dimensionality of the worm images to a fundamental set of measurements that completely describe the shape of the worm.

C. elegansの追跡と行動計測

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the ...

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

In the following we describe the methodological details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with genetic interference, provides a handle to analyze the neuronal and molecular fundamentals of specifically associative learning in a simple larval brain.
Organisms can use past experience to adjust present behavior. Such acquisition of behavioral potential can be defined as learning, and the physical bases of these potentials as memory traces1-4. Neuroscientists try to understand how these processes are organized in terms of molecular and neuronal changes in the brain by using a variety of methods in model organisms ranging from insects to vertebrates5,6. For such endeavors it is helpful to use model systems that are simple and experimentally accessible. The Drosophila larva has turned out to satisfy these demands based on the availability of robust behavioral assays, the existence of a variety of transgenic techniques and the elementary organization of the nervous system comprising only about 10,000 neurons (albeit with some concessions: cognitive limitations, few behavioral options, and richness of experience questionable)7-10.
Drosophila larvae can form associations between odors and appetitive gustatory reinforcement like sugar11-14. In a standard assay, established in the lab of B. Gerber, animals receive a two-odor reciprocal training: A first group of larvae is exposed to an odor A together with a gustatory reinforcer (sugar reward) and is subsequently exposed to an odor B without reinforcement 9. Meanwhile a second group of larvae receives reciprocal training while experiencing odor A without reinforcement and subsequently being exposed to odor B with reinforcement (sugar reward). In the following both groups are tested for their preference between the two odors. Relatively higher preferences for the rewarded odor reflect associative learning - presented as a performance index (PI). The conclusion regarding the associative nature of the performance index is compelling, because apart from the contingency between odors and tastants, other parameters, such as odor and reward exposure, passage of time and handling do not differ between the two groups9.

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

Drosophila larvae are able to associate odor stimuli with gustatory reward. Here we describe a simple behavioral paradigm that allows the analysis of appetitive associative olfactory learning.

で食欲連想嗅覚学習<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em&gt;幼虫

In the following we describe the methodological  details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with ...

A Molecular Readout of Long-term Olfactory Adaptation in C. elegans

During sustained stimulation most sensory neurons will adapt their response by decreasing their sensitivity to the signal. The adaptation response helps shape attention and also protects cells from over-stimulation. Adaptation within the olfactory circuit of C. elegans was first described by Colbert and Bargmann1,2. Here, the authors defined parameters of the olfactory adaptation paradigm, which they used to design a genetic screen to isolate mutants defective in their ability to adapt to volatile odors sensed by the Amphid Wing cells type C (AWC) sensory neurons. When wildtype C. elegans animals are exposed to an attractive AWC-sensed odor3 for 30 min they will adapt their responsiveness to the odor and will then ignore the adapting odor in a chemotaxis behavioral assay for ~1 hr. When wildtype C. elegans animals are exposed to an attractive AWC-sensed odor for ~1 hr they will then ignore the adapting odor in a chemotaxis behavioral assay for ~3 hr. These two phases of olfactory adaptation in C. elegans were described as short-term olfactory adaptation (induced after 30 min odor exposure), and long-term olfactory adaptation (induced after 60 min odor exposure). Later work from L'Etoile et al.,4 uncovered a Protein Kinase G (PKG) called EGL-4 that is required for both the short-term and long-term olfactory adaptation in AWC neurons. The EGL-4 protein contains a nuclear localization sequence that is necessary for long-term olfactory adaptation responses but dispensable for short-term olfactory adaptation responses in the AWC4. By tagging EGL-4 with a green fluorescent protein, it was possible to visualize the localization of EGL-4 in the AWC during prolonged odor exposure. Using this fully functional GFP-tagged EGL-4 (GFP::EGL-4) molecule we have been able to develop a molecular readout of long-term olfactory adaptation in the AWC5. Using this molecular readout of olfactory adaptation we have been able to perform both forward and reverse genetic screens to identify mutant animals that exhibit defective subcellular localization patterns of GFP::EGL-4 in the AWC6,7. Here we describe: 1) the construction of GFP::EGL-4 expressing animals; 2) the protocol for cultivation of animals for long-term odor-induced nuclear translocation assays; and 3) the scoring of the long-term odor-induced nuclear translocation event and recovery (re-sensitization) from the nuclear GFP::EGL-4 state.

A Molecular Readout of Long-term Olfactory Adaptation in C. elegans

Here we describe a molecular readout of long-term olfactory adaptation in Caenorhabditis elegans. The Protein Kinase G, EGL-4, is necessary for stable adaptation responses in the primary sensory neuron pair called AWC. During prolonged odor exposure EGL-4 translocates from the cytosol to nucleus of the AWC.

の長期嗅覚順応の分子読み出し<em&gt; Cエレガンス</em

During sustained stimulation most sensory neurons will adapt their response by decreasing their sensitivity to the signal. The adaptation response helps ...

Agarose Microchambers for Long-term Calcium Imaging of Caenorhabditis elegans

Behavior is controlled by the nervous system. Calcium imaging is a straightforward method in the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to measure the activity of neurons during various behaviors. To correlate neural activity with behavior, the animal should not be immobilized but should be able to move. Many behavioral changes occur during long time scales and require recording over many hours of behavior. This also makes it necessary to culture the worms in the presence of food. How can worms be cultured and their neural activity imaged over long time scales? Agarose Microchamber Imaging (AMI) was previously developed to culture and observe small larvae and has now been adapted to study all life stages from early L1 until the adult stage of C. elegans. AMI can be performed on various life stages of C. elegans. Long-term calcium imaging is achieved without immobilizing the animals by using short externally triggered exposures combined with an electron multiplying charge-coupled device (EMCCD) camera recording. Zooming out or scanning can scale up this method to image up to 40 worms in parallel. Thus, a method is described to image behavior and neural activity over long time scales in all life stages of C. elegans.

Agarose Microchambers for Long-term Calcium Imaging of Caenorhabditis elegans

Imaging behavior and neural activity over long time scales without immobilization of the animal is a prerequisite to understand behavior. Agarose microfluidic chambers imaging (AMI) can be used to image neural activity and behavior for all life stages of Caenorhabditis elegans.

の長期カルシウムイメージングのためのアガロースマイクロチャンバー<em&gt;線虫（Caenorhabditis elegans）</em

Behavior is controlled by the nervous system. Calcium imaging is a straightforward method in the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to measure ...

Assessing Spatial Learning and Memory in Small Squamate Reptiles

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, interest in the cognitive processes of nonmodel species, typically within an ecological context, has also become an emerging field of study. In particular, interest in the cognitive processes in reptiles is growing although experimental studies on reptilian cognition are sparse. The few reptilian studies that have experimentally tested for spatial learning and memory have used rodent paradigms modified for use in reptiles. However, ecologically important aspects of the physiology and behavior of this taxonomic group must be taken into account when testing for spatially based cognition. Here, we describe modifications of the dry land Barnes maze and associated testing protocol that can improve performance when probing for spatial learning and memory ability in small squamate reptiles. The described paradigm and procedures were successfully used with male side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana), demonstrating that spatial learning and memory can be assessed in this taxonomic group with an ecologically relevant apparatus and protocol.

This paper describes a modification of the Barnes maze, a standard rodent paradigm used to assess spatial memory and learning, for use in small squamate reptiles.

小さなうろこに覆われた爬虫類の空間学習と記憶を評価します

Clinical research has leveraged a variety of paradigms to assess cognitive decline, commonly targeting spatial learning and memory abilities. However, ...

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model organisms such as the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Drosophila is useful for understanding the basic neurobiology underlying cognitive deficits resulting from mutations in genes associated with human cognitive disorders, such as intellectual disability (ID) and autism. This work describes a methodology for testing learning and memory using a classic paradigm in Drosophila known as courtship conditioning. Male flies court females using a distinct pattern of easily recognizable behaviors. Premated females are not receptive to mating and will reject the male&#39;s copulation attempts. In response to this rejection, male flies reduce their courtship behavior. This learned reduction in courtship behavior is measured over time, serving as an indicator of learning and memory. The basic numerical output of this assay is the courtship index (CI), which is defined as the percentage of time that a male spends courting during a 10 min interval. The learning index (LI) is the relative reduction of CI in flies that have been exposed to a premated female compared to na&#239;ve flies with no previous social encounters. For the statistical comparison of LIs between genotypes, a randomization test with bootstrapping is used. To illustrate how the assay can be used to address the role of a gene relating to learning and memory, the pan-neuronal knockdown of Dihydroxyacetone phosphate acyltransferase (Dhap-at) was characterized here. The human ortholog of Dhap-at, glyceronephosphate O-acyltransferase (GNPT), is involved in rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata type 2, an autosomal-recessive syndrome characterized by severe ID. Using the courtship conditioning assay, it was determined that Dhap-at is required for long-term memory, but not for short-term memory. This result serves as a basis for further investigation of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Drosophila Courtship Conditioning As a Measure of Learning and Memory

This protocol describes a Drosophila learning and memory assay called courtship conditioning. This classic assay is based on a reduction of male courtship behavior after sexual rejection by a non-receptive premated female. This natural form of behavioral plasticity can be used to test learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

ショウジョウバエの訓練と記憶の尺度としてのコンディショニング

Many insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory have been elucidated through the use of simple behavioral assays in model ...

Long-term Sensory Conflict in Freely Behaving Mice

Long-term sensory conflict protocols are a valuable means of studying motor learning. The presented protocol produces a persistent sensory conflict for experiments aimed at studying long-term learning in mice. By permanently wearing a device fixed on their heads, mice are continuously exposed to a sensory mismatch between visual and vestibular inputs while freely moving in home cages. Therefore, this protocol readily enables the study of the visual system and multisensory interactions over an extended timeframe that would not be accessible otherwise. In addition to lowering the experimental costs of long-term sensory learning in naturally behaving mice, this approach accommodates the combination of in vivo and in vitro experiments. In the reported example, video-oculography is performed to quantify the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) and optokinetic reflex (OKR) before and after learning. Mice exposed to this long-term sensory conflict between visual and vestibular inputs presented a strong VOR gain decrease but exhibited few OKR changes. Detailed steps of device assembly, animal care, and reflex measurements are hereby reported.

The presented protocol produces a persistent sensory conflict for experiments aimed at studying long-term learning. By permanently wearing a fixed device on their heads, mice are continuously exposed to a sensory mismatch between visual and vestibular inputs while freely moving in home cages.

自由に行動するマウスで長期的な感覚の衝突

Long-term sensory conflict protocols are a valuable means of studying motor learning. The presented protocol produces a persistent sensory conflict for ...