This work was funded in part by the BBSRC (BB/1006478/1). PRR is the recipient of a Royal Society University Research Fellowship.

1. Strategic Considerations
<ol>
	<li>The choice of seed-crystals used for microseeding experiments will vary depending on the objective of the experiment. At the beginning of a project it is helpful to find several crystallization hits that can provide alternative starting points for crystal optimization. rMMS greatly reduces the need for crystal optimization because good-quality crystals are more likely to grow in the metastable zone of the phase diagram, i.e. in the region where following disturbance or nuc...

<ol>
	<li>Bergfors, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+Crystallization.">Protein Crystallization.</a> IUL Biotechnology Series. , (2009).</li><li>Rupp, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Biomolecular Crystallography: Priciples, Practice and Application to Structural Biology. , (2010).</li><li>Babnigg, G., Joachimiak, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predicting+protein+crystallization+propensity+from+protein+sequence.">Predicting protein crystallization propensity from protein sequence.</a> J. Struct. Funct. Genomics. 11 (1), 71-80 (2010).</li><li>Bergfors, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seeds+to+crystals.">Seeds to crystals.</a> J. Struct. Biol. 142 (1), 66-76 (2003).</li><li>Ireton, G. C., Stoddard, B. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microseed+matrix+screening+to+improve+crystals+of+yeast+cytosine+deaminase.">Microseed matrix screening to improve crystals of yeast cytosine deaminase.</a> Acta. Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 60, 601-605 (2004).</li><li>Zhu, D. Y., Zhu, Y. Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimizing+protein+crystal+growth+through+dynamic+seeding.">Optimizing protein crystal growth through dynamic seeding.</a> Acta. Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 61 (Pt 6), 772-775 (2005).</li><li>Bergfors, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Screening+and+optimization+methods+for+nonautomated+crystallization+laboratories.">Screening and optimization methods for nonautomated crystallization laboratories.</a> Methods Mol. Biol. 363, 131-151 (2007).</li><li>Xu, L., Butcher, S. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crystallization+and+preliminary+X-ray+analysis+of+receptor-binding+protein+P2+of+bacteriophage+PRD1.">Crystallization and preliminary X-ray analysis of receptor-binding protein P2 of bacteriophage PRD1.</a> J. Struct. Biol. 131 (2), 159-1563 (2000).</li><li>Rangarajan, E. S., Izard, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improving+the+diffraction+of+full-length+human+selenomethionyl+metavinculin+crystals+by+streak-seeding.">Improving the diffraction of full-length human selenomethionyl metavinculin crystals by streak-seeding.</a> Acta. Crystallogr. Sect. F. Struct. Biol. Cryst. Commun. 66 (Pt 12), 1617-1620 (2010).</li><li>Kadirvelraj, R., Harris, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+stepwise+optimization+of+crystals+of+rhamnogalacturonan+lyase+from+Aspergillus+aculeatus.">A stepwise optimization of crystals of rhamnogalacturonan lyase from Aspergillus aculeatus.</a> Acta. Crystallogr. D. Biol . Crystallogr. 58 (Pt 8), 1346-1349 (2002).</li><li>D'Arcy, A., Villard, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+automated+microseed+matrix-screening+method+for+protein+crystallization.">An automated microseed matrix-screening method for protein crystallization.</a> Acta. Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 63 (Pt 4), 550-554 (2007).</li><li>Shaw Stewart, P. D., Kolek, S. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Random+Microseeding:+A+Theoretical+and+Practical+Exploration+of+Seed+Stability+and+Seeding+Techniques+for+Successful+Protein+Crystallization.">Random Microseeding: A Theoretical and Practical Exploration of Seed Stability and Seeding Techniques for Successful Protein Crystallization.</a> Crystal Growth &amp; Design. 11 (8), 3432-3441 (2011).</li><li>Obmolova, G., Malia, T. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Promoting+crystallization+of+antibody-antigen+complexes+via+microseed+matrix+screening.">Promoting crystallization of antibody-antigen complexes via microseed matrix screening.</a> Acta. Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 66, 927-933 (2010).</li><li>Villasenor, A. G., Wong, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acoustic+matrix+microseeding:+improving+protein+crystal+growth+with+minimal+chemical+bias.">Acoustic matrix microseeding: improving protein crystal growth with minimal chemical bias.</a> Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr. 66 (Pt 5), 568-5676 (2010).</li><li>Strynadka, N. C., James, M. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lysozyme:+a+model+enzyme+in+protein+crystallography.">Lysozyme: a model enzyme in protein crystallography.</a> EXS. 75, 185-222 (1996).</li><li>Diaz, A., Loewen, P. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thirty+years+of+heme+catalases+structural+biology.">Thirty years of heme catalases structural biology.</a> Arch. Biochem. 525 (2), 102-110 (2012).</li></ol>

In this paper we have described a general method for rMMS protein crystallization screening. We have demonstrated using two test proteins a significant enhancement in crystallization success rate using this method. Diffraction analysis using synchrotron radiation of a subset of crystals generated using rMMS and non-rMMS methods revealed little variation in diffraction quality between crystals grown using either method, although previous authors have reported that good quality crystals are more likely to grow in rMM...

From its initial application by Perutz, Kendrew and co-workers in determining the structures of hemoglobin and myoglobin, to the modern high throughput automated pipelines of the structural genomics consortia, macromolecular X-ray crystallography has afforded us an unprecedented structural glimpse into the protein world. This technique remains the most widely applicable experimental method that permits the direct visualization of protein structure at atomic, or near atomic resolution (i.e. in the 1-3 &Aring; range). A prerequisite for X-ray diffraction to be applied to a protein is that it must first be crystallized, and it is this stage of the process that remains the single greatest rate-limiting step in structure determination by diffraction methods 1, 2. Despite significant advances in our understanding of the process of protein crystallization, and major improvements in the quality and availability of crystallization screens, trays, and related technologies, it remains impossible to reliably predict the likelihood of crystallization success 3. Biochemical and biophysical methods can be applied to assess whether a protein of interest displays favorable characteristics for crystal nucleation and growth, i.e. is it well-folded, homogeneous, monodisperse, etc., however, these insights in no way provide a definitive predictor of crystallization propensity. 	
	Seeding has long been purported to be a viable method for improving the number, size, and quality of existing crystals or crystalline material 4-7. This approach is based on the premise that a condition that supports crystal nucleation may not be optimal for subsequent crystal growth and vice versa. By transferring nucleated material from one condition to another, one may attempt to effectively decouple these processes, thus giving access to new, as yet unexplored crystallization space, and as a result increasing the overall success rate of a screening experiment. Established methods have been documented for (i) macroseeding, the transfer of a single crystal in its entirety from one condition to another 8, (ii) streak seeding, the transfer of nucleated material, generally obtained by the application of directional pressure using for example a cat's whisker to the surface of an existing crystal, followed by subsequent passage of the whisker through a new crystallization drop 9, and (iii) "classical" microseeding, the transfer of crystal "seeds", generated by harvesting crushed crystals (or crystalline material), into conditions similar to those that yielded the seeds 10. Notably all three of these methods are time consuming and poorly scalable, certainly in comparison to what is achievable with modern liquid handling crystallization robotics. These factors have contributed, on some level at least, to the perception that seeding is a method to be visited only when other approaches have failed to bear fruit.	
	Random matrix microseeding (rMMS) is a recent methodological innovation that combines the benefits of traditional microseeding with those of high throughput screening and scalability 11-13. This approach relies on the generation of a seed stock, produced from nucleated crystalline material, which may be aliquoted into/onto each sub-well/coverslip within a standard 96-condition crystallization screen. This method is applicable to both sitting or hanging drop vapor diffusion experiments, established either by hand or using liquid handling robotics, in 24-well or 96-well tray format. rMMS has been demonstrated experimentally to significantly increase crystallization success rate, and produce crystals of greater diffraction quality and quantity 11, 13, 14, and represents an innovative tool in the crystallographers' arsenal of approaches in the ongoing effort towards crystallization success. Here we describe a general method for rMMS and provide sample data illustrating the effectiveness of this technique.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MRC 96 well crystallization trays</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Ltd</td>
			<td>MD11-00-100</td>
			<td>Non-UV compatible, for screens established by robot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ClearView sealing sheets</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Ltd</td>
			<td>MD6-01S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hen egg white lyzozyme</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L6876</td>
			<td>~95% purity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine liver catylase</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C9322</td>
			<td>&gt;95% purity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylanase</td>
			<td>Hampton Research</td>
			<td>HR7-104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thaumatin from Thaumatococcus daniellii</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T7630</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermolysin from Bacillus thermoproteolyticus rokko</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1512</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>JCSG-plus HT-96 screen</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Ltd</td>
			<td>MD1-40</td>
			<td>For screens established by robot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PACT premier HT-96 screen</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Ltd</td>
			<td>MD1-36</td>
			<td>For screens established by robot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Morpheus HT-96 screen</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Ltd</td>
			<td>MD1-47</td>
			<td>For screens established by robot</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Crystal Phoenix liquid handling system</td>
			<td>Art Robbins Instruments</td>
			<td>602-0001-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Seed bead kit</td>
			<td>Hampton Research</td>
			<td>HR2-320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Binocular stereo microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>M165C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel blades</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2646-100EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ErgoOne 0.1-2.5 &mu;l pipette</td>
			<td>Starlab</td>
			<td>S7100-0125</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ErgoOne 2-20 &mu;l pipette</td>
			<td>Starlab</td>
			<td>S7100-0221</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ErgoOne 100-1000 &mu;l pipette</td>
			<td>Starlab</td>
			<td>S7100-1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>JCSG-plus screen</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Ltd</td>
			<td>MD1-37</td>
			<td>For screens established by hand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PACT premier screen</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Ltd</td>
			<td>MD1-29</td>
			<td>For screens established by hand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Morpheus screen</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Ltd</td>
			<td>MD1-46</td>
			<td>For screens established by hand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tweezers</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T5415-1EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CrystalClene coverslips 18 mm</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Ltd</td>
			<td>MD4-17</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 ml glass Pasteur pipettes</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z722669</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vortex mixer</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>02-215-360</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24 well XRL crystallization tray</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions Limited</td>
			<td>MD3-11</td>
			<td>For screens established by hand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>30% (w/v) PEG 8000, 0.2 M ammonium sulfate, 0.1 M sodium cacodylate pH 6.5</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20% (w/v) PEG 8000, 0.2 M magnesium acetate, 0.1 M sodium cacodylate pH 6.5</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20% (w/v) PEG 6000, 100 mM citric acid pH 5.0</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

improving the success rate of protein crystallization by random microseed matrix screening

Random microseed matrix screening (rMMS) is a protein crystallization technique in which seed crystals are added to random screens. By increasing the likelihood that crystals will grow in the metastable zone of a protein's phase diagram, extra crystallization leads are often obtained, the quality of crystals produced may be increased, and a good supply of crystals for data collection and soaking experiments is provided. Here we describe a general method for rMMS that may be applied to either sitting drop or hanging drop vapor diffusion experiments, established either by hand or using liquid handling robotics, in 96-well or 24-well tray format.

(A) Example of an rMMS experiment
To demonstrate the effectiveness of rMMS screening we applied this method to the crystallization of hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) and bovine liver catalase (BLC). Both these enzymes are eminently crystallizable and are structurally well characterized targets 15, 16. As such both provide excellent test subjects with which to illustrate the enhanced crystallization success rate achievable with rMMS. Crystallization experiments were established in 96-well...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Improving the Success Rate of Protein Crystallization by Random Microseed Matrix Screening at JoVE.com

Improving the Success Rate of Protein Crystallization by Random Microseed Matrix Screening

Here we describe a general method for random microseed matrix screening. This technique is shown to significantly increase the success rate of protein crystallization screening experiments, reduce the need for optimization, and provide a reliable supply of crystals for data collection and ligand-soaking experiments.

Random microseed matrix screening  (rMMS) is a protein crystallization technique in which seed crystals are added  to random screens. By increasing the ...

improving-success-rate-protein-crystallization-random-microseed

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

17.7K ビュー.  University of Bristol. ここでは、ランダムmicroseedマトリックススクリーニングのための一般的方法を記載する。この技術は、有意に、タンパク質結晶化スクリーニング実験の成功率を高める最適化の必要性を低減し、データ収集およびリガンド浸漬実験の結晶の安定供給を提供することが示されている。 

ビデオ: Improving the Success Rate of Protein Crystallization by Random Microseed Matrix Screening

Using the GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System for Molecular Weight-Based Fractionation with Liquid Phase Recovery

The GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System is a novel protein fractionation system designed to maximize protein recovery during molecular weight based fractionation. The system is comprised of single-use, 8-sample capacity cartridges and a benchtop GELFREE Fractionation Instrument. During separation, a constant voltage is applied between the anode and cathode reservoirs, and each protein mixture is electrophoretically driven from a loading chamber into a specially designed gel column gel. Proteins are concentrated into a tight band in a stacking gel, and separated based on their respective electrophoretic mobilities in a resolving gel. As proteins elute from the column, they are trapped and concentrated in liquid phase in the collection chamber, free of the gel. The instrument is then paused at specific time intervals, and fractions are collected using a pipette. This process is repeated until all desired fractions have been collected. If fewer than 8 samples are run on a cartridge, any unused chambers can be used in subsequent separations.
This novel technology facilitates the quick and simple separation of up to 8 complex protein mixtures simultaneously, and offers several advantages when compared to previously available fractionation methods. This system is capable of fractionating up to 1mg of total protein per channel, for a total of 8mg per cartridge. Intact proteins over a broad mass range are separated on the basis of molecular weight, retaining important physiochemical properties of the analyte. The liquid phase entrapment provides for high recovery while eliminating the need for band or spot cutting, making the fractionation process highly reproducible1.

The accompanying video describes the use of the GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System, which partitions complex protein samples on the basis of molecular weight and recovers the fractions in liquid phase. The video describes how the technology works, how it is used, and provides resultant data, with polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of fractionated bovine liver homogenate.

The GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System is a novel protein fractionation system designed to maximize protein recovery during molecular weight based ...

Assessing Two-dimensional Crystallization Trials of Small Membrane Proteins for Structural Biology Studies by Electron Crystallography

Electron crystallography has evolved as a method that can be used either alternatively or in combination with three-dimensional crystallization and X-ray crystallography to study structure-function questions of membrane proteins, as well as soluble proteins. Screening for two-dimensional (2D) crystals by transmission electron microscopy (EM) is the critical step in finding, optimizing, and selecting samples for high-resolution data collection by cryo-EM. Here we describe the fundamental steps in identifying both large and ordered, as well as small 2D arrays, that can potentially supply critical information for optimization of crystallization conditions.
By working with different magnifications at the EM, data on a range of critical parameters is obtained. Lower magnification supplies valuable data on the morphology and membrane size. At higher magnifications, possible order and 2D crystal dimensions are determined. In this context, it is described how CCD cameras and online-Fourier Transforms are used at higher magnifications to assess proteoliposomes for order and size.
While 2D crystals of membrane proteins are most commonly grown by reconstitution by dialysis, the screening technique is equally applicable for crystals produced with the help of monolayers, native 2D crystals, and ordered arrays of soluble proteins. In addition, the methods described here are applicable to the screening for 2D crystals of even smaller as well as larger membrane proteins, where smaller proteins require the same amount of care in identification as our examples and the lattice of larger proteins might be more easily identifiable at earlier stages of the screening.

Evaluating two-dimensional (2D) crystallization trials for the formation of ordered membrane protein arrays is a highly critical and difficult task in electron crystallography. Here we describe our approach in screening for and identifying 2D crystals of predominantly small membrane proteins in the range of 15 &#x2013; 90kDa.

Electron crystallography has evolved as a method that can be used either alternatively or in combination with three-dimensional crystallization and X-ray ...

Protein Crystallization for X-ray Crystallography

Using the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules to infer how they function is one of the most important fields of modern biology. The availability of atomic resolution structures provides a deep and unique understanding of protein function, and helps to unravel the inner workings of the living cell. To date, 86% of the Protein Data Bank (rcsb-PDB) entries are macromolecular structures that were determined using X-ray crystallography.
To obtain crystals suitable for crystallographic studies, the macromolecule (e.g. protein, nucleic acid, protein-protein complex or protein-nucleic acid complex) must be purified to homogeneity, or as close as possible to homogeneity. The homogeneity of the preparation is a key factor in obtaining crystals that diffract to high resolution (Bergfors, 1999; McPherson, 1999).
Crystallization requires bringing the macromolecule to supersaturation. The sample should therefore be concentrated to the highest possible concentration without causing aggregation or precipitation of the macromolecule (usually 2-50 mg/ mL). Introducing the sample to precipitating agent can promote the nucleation of protein crystals in the solution, which can result in large three-dimensional crystals growing from the solution. There are two main techniques to obtain crystals: vapor diffusion and batch crystallization. In vapor diffusion, a drop containing a mixture of precipitant and protein solutions is sealed in a chamber with pure precipitant. Water vapor then diffuses out of the drop until the osmolarity of the drop and the precipitant are equal (Figure 1A). The dehydration of the drop causes a slow concentration of both protein and precipitant until equilibrium is achieved, ideally in the crystal nucleation zone of the phase diagram. The batch method relies on bringing the protein directly into the nucleation zone by mixing protein with the appropriate amount of precipitant (Figure 1B). This method is usually performed under a paraffin/mineral oil mixture to prevent the diffusion of water out of the drop.
Here we will demonstrate two kinds of experimental setup for vapor diffusion, hanging drop and sitting drop, in addition to batch crystallization under oil.

The 3-D structure of a molecule provides a unique understanding of how the molecule functions. The principal method for structure determination at near-atomic resolution is X-ray crystallography. Here, we demonstrate the current methods for obtaining three-dimensional crystals of any given macromolecule that are suitable for structure determination by X-ray crystallography.

Using the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules to infer how they function is one of the most important fields of modern biology. The ...

Detection of Functional Matrix Metalloproteinases by Zymography

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-containing endopeptidases. They degrade proteins by cleavage of peptide bonds. More than twenty MMPs have been identified and are separated into six groups based on their structure and substrate specificity (collagenases, gelatinases, membrane type [MT-MMP], stromelysins, matrilysins, and others). MMPs play a critical role in cell invasion, cartilage degradation, tissue remodeling, wound healing, and embryogenesis. They therefore participate in both normal processes and in the pathogenesis of many diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease1-6. Here, we will focus on MMP-2 (gelatinase A, type IV collagenase), a widely expressed MMP. We will demonstrate how to detect MMP-2 in cell culture supernatants by zymography, a commonly used, simple, and yet very sensitive technique first described in 1980 by C. Heussen and E.B. Dowdle7-10. This technique is semi-quantitative, it can therefore be used to determine MMP levels in test samples when known concentrations of recombinant MMP are loaded on the same gel11.
Solutions containing MMPs (e.g. cell culture supernatants, urine, or serum) are loaded onto a polyacrylamide gel containing sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS; to linearize the proteins) and gelatin (substrate for MMP-2). The sample buffer is designed to increase sample viscosity (to facilitate gel loading), provide a tracking dye (bromophenol blue; to monitor sample migration), provide denaturing molecules (to linearize proteins), and control the pH of the sample. Proteins are then allowed to migrate under an electric current in a running buffer designed to provide a constant migration rate. The distance of migration is inversely correlated with the molecular weight of the protein (small proteins move faster through the gel than large proteins do and therefore migrate further down the gel). After migration, the gel is placed in a renaturing buffer to allow proteins to regain their tertiary structure, necessary for enzymatic activity. The gel is then placed in a developing buffer designed to allow the protease to digest its substrate. The developing buffer also contains p-aminophenylmercuric acetate (APMA) to activate the non-proteolytic pro-MMPs into active MMPs. The next step consists of staining the substrate (gelatin in our example). After washing the excess dye off the gel, areas of protease digestion appear as clear bands. The clearer the band, the more concentrated the protease it contains. Band staining intensity can then be determined by densitometry, using a software such as ImageJ, allowing for sample comparison.

This protocol describes an activity-based assay for detecting matrix metalloproteinases in culture supernatants or body fluids.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-containing endopeptidases. They degrade proteins by cleavage of peptide bonds. More than twenty MMPs have been ...

Crystallization of Membrane Proteins in Lipidic Mesophases

Membrane proteins perform critical functions in living cells related to signal transduction, transport and energy transformations, and, as such, are implicated in a multitude of malfunctions and diseases. However, a structural and functional understanding of membrane proteins is strongly lagging behind that of their soluble partners, mainly, due to difficulties associated with their solubilization and generation of diffraction quality crystals. Crystallization in lipidic mesophases (also known as in meso or LCP crystallization) is a promising technique which was successfully applied to obtain high resolution structures of microbial rhodopsins, photosynthetic proteins, outer membrane beta barrels and G protein-coupled receptors. In meso crystallization takes advantage of a native-like membrane environment and typically produces crystals with lower solvent content and better ordering as compared to traditional crystallization from detergent solutions. The method is not difficult, but requires an understanding of lipid phase behavior and practice in handling viscous mesophase materials. Here we demonstrate a simple and efficient way of making LCP and reconstituting a membrane protein in the lipid bilayer of LCP using a syringe mixer, followed by dispensing nanoliter portions of LCP into an assay or crystallization plate, conducting pre-crystallization assays and harvesting crystals from the LCP matrix. These protocols provide a basic guide for approaching in meso crystallization trials; however, as with any crystallization experiment, extensive screening and optimization are required, and a successful outcome is not necessarily guaranteed.

The protocols describe the essential steps for obtaining diffraction quality crystals of a membrane protein starting from reconstitution of the protein in a lipidic cubic phase (LCP), finding initial conditions with LCP-FRAP pre-crystallization assays, setting up LCP crystallization trials and harvesting crystals.

Membrane proteins perform critical functions in living cells related to signal transduction, transport and energy transformations, and, as such, are ...

Single Particle Electron Microscopy Reconstruction of the Exosome Complex Using the Random Conical Tilt Method

Single particle electron microscopy (EM) reconstruction has recently become a popular tool to get the three-dimensional (3D) structure of large macromolecular complexes. Compared to X-ray crystallography, it has some unique advantages. First, single particle EM reconstruction does not need to crystallize the protein sample, which is the bottleneck in X-ray crystallography, especially for large macromolecular complexes. Secondly, it does not need large amounts of protein samples. Compared with milligrams of proteins necessary for crystallization, single particle EM reconstruction only needs several micro-liters of protein solution at nano-molar concentrations, using the negative staining EM method. However, despite a few macromolecular assemblies with high symmetry, single particle EM is limited at relatively low resolution (lower than 1 nm resolution) for many specimens especially those without symmetry. This technique is also limited by the size of the molecules under study, i.e. 100 kDa for negatively stained specimens and 300 kDa for frozen-hydrated specimens in general.
For a new sample of unknown structure, we generally use a heavy metal solution to embed the molecules by negative staining. The specimen is then examined in a transmission electron microscope to take two-dimensional (2D) micrographs of the molecules. Ideally, the protein molecules have a homogeneous 3D structure but exhibit different orientations in the micrographs. These micrographs are digitized and processed in computers as "single particles". Using two-dimensional alignment and classification techniques, homogenous molecules in the same views are clustered into classes. Their averages enhance the signal of the molecule's 2D shapes. After we assign the particles with the proper relative orientation (Euler angles), we will be able to reconstruct the 2D particle images into a 3D virtual volume.
In single particle 3D reconstruction, an essential step is to correctly assign the proper orientation of each single particle. There are several methods to assign the view for each particle, including the angular reconstitution1 and random conical tilt (RCT) method2. In this protocol, we describe our practice in getting the 3D reconstruction of yeast exosome complex using negative staining EM and RCT. It should be noted that our protocol of electron microscopy and image processing follows the basic principle of RCT but is not the only way to perform the method. We first describe how to embed the protein sample into a layer of Uranyl-Formate with a thickness comparable to the protein size, using a holey carbon grid covered with a layer of continuous thin carbon film. Then the specimen is inserted into a transmission electron microscope to collect untilted (0-degree) and tilted (55-degree) pairs of micrographs that will be used later for processing and obtaining an initial 3D model of the yeast exosome. To this end, we perform RCT and then refine the initial 3D model by using the projection matching refinement method3.

This article describes a standard method to get a three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction of biological macromolecules using negative staining electron microscopy (EM). In this protocol, we explain how to get the 3D structure of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae exosome complex at medium resolution using the random conical tilt reconstruction method (RCT).

Single particle electron microscopy (EM) reconstruction has recently become a popular tool to get the three-dimensional (3D) structure of large ...

High-throughput Crystallization of Membrane Proteins Using the Lipidic Bicelle Method

Membrane proteins (MPs) play a critical role in many physiological processes such as pumping specific molecules across the otherwise impermeable membrane bilayer that surrounds all cells and organelles. Alterations in the function of MPs result in many human diseases and disorders; thus, an intricate understanding of their structures remains a critical objective for biological research. However, structure determination of MPs remains a significant challenge often stemming from their hydrophobicity. 
MPs have substantial hydrophobic regions embedded within the bilayer. Detergents are frequently used to solubilize these proteins from the bilayer generating a protein-detergent micelle that can then be manipulated in a similar manner as soluble proteins. Traditionally, crystallization trials proceed using a protein-detergent mixture, but they often resist crystallization or produce crystals of poor quality. These problems arise due to the detergent&prime;s inability to adequately mimic the bilayer resulting in poor stability and heterogeneity. In addition, the detergent shields the hydrophobic surface of the MP reducing the surface area available for crystal contacts. To circumvent these drawbacks MPs can be crystallized in lipidic media, which more closely simulates their endogenous environment, and has recently become a de novo technique for MP crystallization.
Lipidic cubic phase (LCP) is a three-dimensional lipid bilayer penetrated by an interconnected system of aqueous channels1. Although monoolein is the lipid of choice, related lipids such as monopalmitolein and monovaccenin have also been used to make LCP2. MPs are incorporated into the LCP where they diffuse in three dimensions and feed crystal nuclei. A great advantage of the LCP is that the protein remains in a more native environment, but the method has a number of technical disadvantages including high viscosity (requiring specialized apparatuses) and difficulties in crystal visualization and manipulation3,4. Because of these technical difficulties, we utilized another lipidic medium for crystallization-bicelles5,6 (Figure 1). Bicelles are lipid/amphiphile mixtures formed by blending a phosphatidylcholine lipid (DMPC) with an amphiphile (CHAPSO) or a short-chain lipid (DHPC). Within each bicelle disc, the lipid molecules generate a bilayer while the amphiphile molecules line the apolar edges providing beneficial properties of both bilayers and detergents. Importantly, below their transition temperature, protein-bicelle mixtures have a reduced viscosity and are manipulated in a similar manner as detergent-solubilized MPs, making bicelles compatible with crystallization robots. 
Bicelles have been successfully used to crystallize several membrane proteins5,7-11 (Table 1). This growing collection of proteins demonstrates the versatility of bicelles for crystallizing both alpha helical and beta sheet MPs from prokaryotic and eukaryotic sources. Because of these successes and the simplicity of high-throughput implementation, bicelles should be part of every membrane protein crystallographer&prime;s arsenal. In this video, we describe the bicelle methodology and provide a step-by-step protocol for setting up high-throughput crystallization trials of purified MPs using standard robotics.

Bicelles are lipid/amphiphile mixtures that maintain membrane proteins (MPs) within a lipid bilayer but have unique phase behavior that facilitates high-throughput screening by crystallization robots. This technique has successfully produced a number of high-resolution structures from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic sources. This video describes protocols for generating the lipidic bicelle mixture, incorporating MPs into the bicelle mixture, setting up crystallizations trials (manually as well as robotically) and harvesting crystals from the medium.

Membrane proteins (MPs) play a critical role in many physiological processes such as pumping specific molecules across the otherwise impermeable membrane ...

Preparation of the Mgm101 Recombination Protein by MBP-based Tagging Strategy

The MGM101 gene was identified 20 years ago for its role in the maintenance of mitochondrial DNA. Studies from several groups have suggested that the Mgm101 protein is involved in the recombinational repair of mitochondrial DNA. Recent investigations have indicated that Mgm101 is related to the Rad52-type recombination protein family. These proteins form large oligomeric rings and promote the annealing of homologous single stranded DNA molecules. However, the characterization of Mgm101 has been hindered by the difficulty in producing the recombinant protein. Here, a reliable procedure for the preparation of recombinant Mgm101 is described. Maltose Binding Protein (MBP)-tagged Mgm101 is first expressed in Escherichia coli. The fusion protein is initially purified by amylose affinity chromatography. After being released by proteolytic cleavage, Mgm101 is separated from MBP by cationic exchange chromatography. Monodispersed Mgm101 is then obtained by size exclusion chromatography. A yield of ~0.87 mg of Mgm101 per liter of bacterial culture can be routinely obtained. The recombinant Mgm101 has minimal contamination of DNA. The prepared samples are successfully used for biochemical, structural and single particle image analyses of Mgm101. This protocol may also be used for the preparation of other large oligomeric DNA-binding proteins that may be misfolded and toxic to bacterial cells.

The yeast mitochondrial nucleoid protein, Mgm101, is a Rad52-type recombination protein that forms large oligomeric rings. A protocol is described to prepare soluble recombinant Mgm101 using the Maltose Binding Protein (MBP)-tagging strategy coupled with cation exchange and size exclusion chromatography.

The MGM101 gene was identified 20 years ago for its role in the maintenance of mitochondrial DNA. Studies from several groups have suggested that the ...

siRNA Screening to Identify Ubiquitin and Ubiquitin-like System Regulators of Biological Pathways in Cultured Mammalian Cells

Post-translational modification of proteins with ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like molecules (UBLs) is emerging as a dynamic cellular signaling network that regulates diverse biological pathways including the hypoxia response, proteostasis, the DNA damage response and transcription.&#160; To better understand how UBLs regulate pathways relevant to human disease, we have compiled a human siRNA &#8220;ubiquitome&#8221; library consisting of 1,186 siRNA duplex pools targeting all known and predicted components of UBL system pathways. This library can be screened against a range of cell lines expressing reporters of diverse biological pathways to determine which UBL components act as positive or negative regulators of the pathway in question.&#160; Here, we describe a protocol utilizing this library to identify ubiquitome-regulators of the HIF1A-mediated cellular response to hypoxia using a transcription-based luciferase reporter.&#160; An initial assay development stage is performed to establish suitable screening parameters of the cell line before performing the screen in three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary/deconvolution screening. &#160;The use of targeted over whole genome siRNA libraries is becoming increasingly popular as it offers the advantage of reporting only on members of the pathway with which the investigators are most interested.&#160; Despite inherent limitations of siRNA screening, in particular false-positives caused by siRNA off-target effects, the identification of genuine novel regulators of the pathways in question outweigh these shortcomings, which can be overcome by performing a series of carefully undertaken control experiments.

Here, we describe a methodology to perform a targeted siRNA &#8220;ubiquitome&#8221; screen to identify novel ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like regulators of the HIF1A-mediated cellular response to hypoxia.&#160; This can be adapted to any biological pathway where a robust read out of reporter activity is available.

Post-translational modification of proteins with ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like molecules (UBLs) is emerging as a dynamic cellular signaling network that ...

Genome-wide Protein-protein Interaction Screening by Protein-fragment Complementation Assay (PCA) in Living Cells

Proteins are the building blocks, effectors and signal mediators of cellular processes. A protein&#8217;s function, regulation and localization often depend on its interactions with other proteins. Here, we describe a protocol for the yeast protein-fragment complementation assay (PCA), a powerful method to detect direct and proximal associations between proteins in living cells. The interaction between two proteins, each fused to a dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) protein fragment, translates into growth of yeast strains in presence of the drug methotrexate (MTX). Differential fitness, resulting from different amounts of reconstituted DHFR enzyme, can be quantified on high-density colony arrays, allowing to differentiate interacting from non-interacting bait-prey pairs. The high-throughput protocol presented here is performed using a robotic platform that parallelizes mating of bait and prey strains carrying complementary DHFR-fragment fusion proteins and the survival assay on MTX. This protocol allows to systematically test for thousands of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) involving bait proteins of interest and offers several advantages over other PPI detection assays, including the study of proteins expressed from their endogenous promoters without the need for modifying protein localization and for the assembly of complex reporter constructs.

Genome-wide Protein-protein Interaction Screening by Protein-fragment Complementation Assay PCA in Living Cells

Proteins interact with each other and these interactions determine in a large part their functions. Protein interaction partners can be identified at high-throughput in vivo using a yeast fitness assay based on the dihydrofolate reductase protein-fragment complementation assay (DHFR-PCA).

Proteins are the building blocks, effectors and signal mediators of cellular processes. A protein&#8217;s function, regulation and localization often ...