著者は、財政支援のための技術支援のためのNeurotar株式会社CIMO財団とFGSNに感謝したいと思います。

動物を対象とする手順は、国立動物実験委員会、フィンランドによって承認されている。 イメージングのための1。動物の準備<ol><li> intraperitionalケタミン（IP）注射（体​​重あたり0.08 mg）およびキシラジン（体重あたり0.01 mg）を、マウスを麻酔。リアつま先ピンチ反射麻酔をチェックしてください。 </li><li>脱水から目を保護するために目薬（Viscotears）に動物の目を浸し。 </li><li>低体温症を防ぐために、37℃で加熱パッド（SUPERTECH）上にマウスを置きます。 </li><li> 70％エタノールで画像化のために指定されたフットパッドを清掃してください。 </li><li>皮膚とカバーガラスの間に液浸カップリングのためのフットパッドの皮膚上の水滴を追加します。 </li><li>カバークラスで金属リングの下に位置している後足の下にプラスチック包装材を入れてください。 </li><li>皮膚を平らにするプラスチック包装材料の厚さを調整する。 </li><li>カバーGLASに一滴の水を入れてカバーガラスと客観の間に液浸用の。 </li></ol> 2メタル固定器リングの準備<ol><li>皮膚の安定化のために金属固定器を利用する。私たちは、金属リング（Neurotar社、フィンランドの礼儀）とまちづくりで保護された二羽の固定器を使用しています。 、瞬間接着剤で注射器を埋めるリング上の針を介して瞬間接着剤の小滴を入れて、静かにリング表面の均一なカバレッジを接着剤を広げた。接着剤の過剰量が視野を低減し、その後の画像化を妨害することができるので、唯一の均一な被覆のために必要とされる接着剤の最小量を置くことが重要である。 注：または（下から）金属棒および（カバーのような）標準的な顕微鏡用スライドガラスの組み合わせは、皮膚を平らにし、アセンブリ14の適切な光結合を確実にするために使用することができる。二つのペーパークリップがガラスと金属棒表面との間の足を固定するために使用することができた（ 図4 </s·チョン&gt;）。 </li><li>顕微鏡カバースライド（直径5 mm、電子顕微鏡学）と共に環を覆います。 </li><li>電動顕微鏡ステージ上montagedされ、剛性金属棒にリング固定器にねじ込みます。 </li></ol> 3イメージング手順<ol><li> THY1-YFP-Hマウスを用いる場合には、神経線維を可視化する蛍光ランプスペクトルの青色部分を選択する。落射蛍光モードでの関心の神経を見つけて、それに関心を持っている。 </li><li>縦イメージングのためのスポットの座標を書き留めます。基準点として手根パッドを使用してください。以下の画像化セッションの間、第手根パッドを検出し、同じアップストリーム大きな神経線維を見つけ、保存された座標を使用して戻ります。なお、基準の同じシステムを維持するために金属棒に垂直な同じ方向にフットパッドを配置することが不可欠である。 </li><li>二光子モードをオンにします。 THY1-YFP-Hマウスの場合は、レーザ放射の950 nmの波長を使用するのに適している神経線維を可視化した。 </li><li> （YFP蛍光や髪の自家蛍光を検出するためにYFP標識された神経のイメージングのために580から630 nmの520から550nmの第2高調波発生検出のために450〜480nmの）レーザー波長と発光チャンネルを選択し、で始まる光損傷と漂白を防止するために、低レーザパワー（3-5％）。光電子増倍管での典型的な電圧は、イメージングのこの種の600〜700 Vです。 </li><li>所望の解像度（512×512または高速イベントの測定のための640×640、800×800または1,024×1024形態学的画像化のために）、軸方向のステップ（1-3ミクロン）、試料の厚さと時間間隔（1〜10を設定してください分）。露光時間は、一画素当たり1ミリ秒のオーダーである。 </li><li>まずソフトウェアにおける撮像ボリュームの上下の境界をマークします。 </li><li>病変前の基準のための参照画像スタックを取得します。必要なときに、それは数分の間にベースラインを記録することができる。 </li><li&gt;繰り返し（少なくとも10〜15分毎）​​麻酔薬の追加量を適用する必要なときに、動物の呼吸数や反射神経をチェックしてください。 </li><li>ティッシュできれいなパッドを撮像した後、それが完全に目を覚ましになるまで36℃での回収箱にマウスを入れた。 注記：通常、レーザ誘起病変と組み合わさつの撮像セッションの期間（以下を参照）1時間を超えない。私たちは、動物が深く10〜15分毎に麻酔をかけていることを検証することをお勧めします。これは、画像自体を妨害してはならないが、実験手順が計画されている間考慮されるべきである。シングルケタミン/ xylazyne投与量の効果の持続時間は、このように私たちは25〜30分後に投与量を1/2¼追加適用することを推奨し、約30〜40分程度である。 注：実験は個別の動物用のイメージングセッションの周波数再の悪影響を避けるために、2日ごとに1セッションを超えてはならないことを計画しているときにも同様に考慮されるべきである競争麻酔。 </li></ol> 4。レーザー病変<ol><li>参照画像スタックを取得した後、マイクロ病変を作るために漂白プロトコルを使用。 </li><li> 100％にレーザーパワーを大きくしてください。 </li><li>関心領域ごとに100〜1,000ミリ秒（標準撮像の場合より100-1,000x以上）に露光時間を増やします。 </li><li>病変のための領域を概説。 </li><li>漂白に切り替えることにより、病変を行います。 </li><li>定期的な撮像モードに切り替えとタイムラプス録画を続行します。 </li></ol> 5。データ処理と解析<ol><li> ImageJの8（ヨアヒムウォルター、スペクトルアンミキシングプラグインを使用してアンミキシングを続行<a href="http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/plugins/spectral-unmixing.html">http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/plugins/spectral-unmixing.html</a> ）。 </li><li>画像スタックを開いて、チャンネルを分割します。 </li><li>バックグラウンド測定のための神経や髪の空き領域を検索します。領域Oを入れてその領域でのF関心。 </li><li>慎重に神経から明確に区別され、髪の一部を概説しています。 </li><li>それは髪から分離している画像の一部の神経概要。 </li><li>行列をアンミキシング保存します。 </li><li>スタック全体のために測定された分離行列を適用します。 </li><li> * tifファイル形式の新しい処理された画像スタックを保存します。 </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Lumpkin, E. A., Caterina, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+sensory+transduction+in+the+skin.">Mechanisms of sensory transduction in the skin.</a> Nature. 445, 858-865 (2007).</li><li>Kennedy, W. R., Wendelschafer-Crabb, G., Johnson, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitation+of+epidermal+nerves+in+diabetic+neuropathy.">Quantitation of epidermal nerves in diabetic neuropathy.</a> Neurology. 47, 1042-1048 (1996).</li><li>Wu, K. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Morton's+interdigital+neuroma:+a+clinical+review+of+its+etiology,+treatment,+and+results.">Morton's interdigital neuroma: a clinical review of its etiology, treatment, and results.</a> J. Foot Ankle Surg. 35, 112-119 (1996).</li><li>Lauria, G., Lombardi, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Skin+biopsy:+a+new+tool+for+diagnosing+peripheral+neuropathy.">Skin biopsy: a new tool for diagnosing peripheral neuropathy.</a> BMJ. 334, 1159-1162 (2007).</li><li>Cheng, C., Guo, G. F., Martinez, J. A., Singh, V., Zochodne, D. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+plasticity+of+axons+within+a+cutaneous+milieu.">Dynamic plasticity of axons within a cutaneous milieu.</a> J. Neurosci. 30, 14735-14744 (2010).</li><li>Wang, B., Zinselmeyer, B. H., McDole, J. R., Gieselman, P. A., Miller, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-invasive+Imaging+of+Leukocyte+Homing+and+Migration+in+vivo.">Non-invasive Imaging of Leukocyte Homing and Migration in vivo.</a> J Vis Exp. (46), e2062 (2010).</li><li>Sacconi, L., O'Connor, R. P., Jasaitis, A., Masi, A., Buffelli, M., Pavone, F. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+multiphoton+nanosurgery+of+cortical+neurons.">In vivo multiphoton nanosurgery of cortical neurons.</a> J Biomed Opt. 12, 050502 (2007).</li><li>Robinson, L. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Traumatic+injury+to+peripheral+nerves.">Traumatic injury to peripheral nerves.</a> Muscle Nerve. 23, 863-873 (2000).</li><li>Feng, G., Mellor, R. H., Bernstein, M., Keller-Peck, C., Nguyen, Q. T., Wallace, M., Nerbonne, J. M., Lichtman, J. W., Sanes, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+neuronal+subsets+in+transgenic+mice+expressing+multiple+spectral+variants+of+GFP.">Imaging neuronal subsets in transgenic mice expressing multiple spectral variants of GFP.</a> Neuron. 28, 41-51 (2000).</li><li>Marinkovic, P., Reuter, M. S., Brill, M. S., Godinho, L., Kerschensteiner, M., Misgeld, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Axonal+transport+deficits+and+degeneration+can+evolve+independently+in+mouse+models+of+amyotrophic+lateral+sclerosis.">Axonal transport deficits and degeneration can evolve independently in mouse models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 109, 4296-4301 (2012).</li><li>Amit, S., Yaron, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+systems+for+in+vivo+monitoring+and+microenvironmental+investigations+of+diabetic+neuropathy+in+a+murine+model.">Novel systems for in vivo monitoring and microenvironmental investigations of diabetic neuropathy in a murine model.</a> J Neural Transm. 119, 1317-1325 (2012).</li><li>Yu, H., Fischer, G., Jia, G., Reiser, J., Park, F., Hogan, Q. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lentiviral+gene+transfer+into+the+dorsal+root+ganglion+of+adult+rats.">Lentiviral gene transfer into the dorsal root ganglion of adult rats.</a> Mol Pain. 7, 63 (2011).</li><li>Yuryev, M., Khiroug, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+longitudinal+investigation+of+individual+nerve+endings+in+the+skin+of+anesthetized+mice+using+in+vivo+two-photon+microscopy.">Dynamic longitudinal investigation of individual nerve endings in the skin of anesthetized mice using in vivo two-photon microscopy.</a> J Biomed Opt. 17, 046007 (2012).</li></ol>

著者は、彼らが競合する金融利害がないことを宣言します。

このビデオプロトコルでは、単一の神経終末の非侵襲的な縦二光子イメージングのための方法を実証する。 皮膚神経支配の力学は、乾癬及び末梢神経障害2、のような疾患および外傷9に影響されます。二光子イメージングは​​、コラーゲンマトリックス中の神経線維構造の詳細な分析を可能にする。トランスジェニックレポーターマウスの使用は、神?...

A correction was made to <a href="/video/51045">In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin</a>.
Leonard Khiroug was removed as an author.

Erratum: In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin

皮膚の神経終末は、異なる病態生理学的状態の下での動的な変化を受ける。神経線維は末梢神経障害2またはモートン神経腫3のような疾患の過程で変性および再生や再編のプロセスを経ることができます。外傷後に、皮膚の神経終末ダイナミクスの重要な部分は、損傷を受けた領域の再神経支配である。しかし、神経終末の調査のための一般的なアプローチは、進行中の処理4に関するリアルタイム情報を欠いてex vivoでの組織学的の切片である。遺伝的にコードされた蛍光マーカーを用いて、このように構造変化リッチと有意に関連する情報を取得し、生きている動物の皮膚における神経終末を追跡することが可能である。皮膚の神経終末の調査は、従来の蛍光顕微鏡法を使用して可能であるが、皮膚組織の強い光散乱が強く品質を損なうデータの5を取得した。多光子顕微鏡は、対物レンズの焦点位置からの蛍光の発光をもたらす励起光の光子のエネルギーの非線形和に起因する強散乱組織において高解像度画像の取得を可能にする。この効果は、皮膚組織6の測定のためのロバストな侵入深さの増加および信号対雑音比の向上につながる。イメージングの場合と同じレーザを用いて、神経線維7の選択的な切開を作製することが可能である。以下のプロトコールでは、市販の多光子顕微鏡システムを用いて選択的レーザー病変と組み合わさレポータートランスジェニックマウスにおけるin vivoでの皮膚神経終末の長手方向のイメージングの方法を示す。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1231">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Round cover glass&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">Electron Microscopy Science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">72296-05</td>
			<td style="width:687px;">5 mm diameter #1.5 thickness</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Eye drops Viscotears</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">Novartis</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>2mg/g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Superglue Loctite 401</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">Henkel</td>
			<td>135429</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ketaminol</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">Intervet</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Ketamine 50 mg/ml, working solution 10 mg/ml (use it 80 &#181;g per gramm of animal weight)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Rompun</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">Bayer Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Xylazine 20 mg/ml, working solution 1.25 mg/ml (use it 10 &#181;g per gramm of animal weight)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;"></td>
			<td style="width:209px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:687px;">Working solution is a mixture of Ketamine 10 mg/ml and Xylazine 1.25 mg/ml in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ethanol 70%</td>
			<td style="width:209px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Distilled water or Milli-Q water</td>
			<td style="width:209px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Syringes 1ml&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">300013</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">30G 1/2&#34; needles</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">304000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Plastic packaging material</td>
			<td style="width:209px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Could be purchaized from general hardware store</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">FV-1000MPE microscope</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FV-1000MPE</td>
			<td>Microscope with motorized stage and rigid metal bar for fixation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">25X XLPlan objective</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">XLPLN 25XWMP</td>
			<td>Water imersion objective optimized for multiphoton imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Mai-Tai DeepSee laser (2W)</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">SpectraPhysics</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Heating pad</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">Supertech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TMP-5b</td>
			<td>Heating pad with a temperature controller</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Metal ring fixator</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">Neurotar Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ImageJ</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">NIH</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Open source software for image processing and analysis, http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Thy1-YFPH mice strain</td>
			<td style="width:209px;">JaxLab</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">003782</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vivo two-photon microscopy of single nerve endings in skin

皮膚の神経終末、例えば神経因性疼痛2のような1を感知するように、ならびに病理学的過程における生理学的プロセスに関与している。彼らの近くに対地位置決めが無傷動物の生体における皮膚の神経終末の顕微鏡イメージングを容易にします。多光子顕微鏡を使用して、皮膚組織の強い光散乱の問題を克服精細な画像を得ることができる。 （末梢感覚ニューロンを含む）ニューロンでのThy-1プロモーターの制御下にEYFPを発現するレポータートランスジェニックマウスは、数ヶ月、あるいは生涯までの長期間にわたって個別の神経終末の縦断研究に適しています。さらに、イメージングと同じフェムト秒レーザーを用い、それは神経線維の再構築の研究のために神経線維の高度に選択的な病変を生成することが可能である。ここでは、in vivoイメージング縦多するための簡単で信頼性の高いプロトコルを提示しマウス皮膚の神経終末上のレーザーベースのマイクロサージェリー。

記載された技術を使用して、病変後に同じファイバを追跡し、損傷した神経末端（ 図1）の分解を研究することが可能である。 120〜150ミクロンの厚さのスタックの取得は、視野内の全繊維を維持するために数日の間に繰り返しの画像化のための通常適切である。 プラスチック包装材料は、皮膚を平らにするように調整されている場合、病変は、典型的には、...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin at JoVE.com

In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin

動的な縦イメージングレポータートランスジェニックマウスにおける神経終末の選択的レーザ病変のためのプロトコルが提供される。

皮膚における単一神経終末のin vivo二光子顕微鏡で

Nerve endings in skin are involved in physiological processes such as sensing1 as well as in pathological processes such as neuropathic pain2. Their ...

in-vivo-two-photon-microscopy-of-single-nerve-endings-in-skin

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin

10.6K ビュー.  University of Helsinki. 動的な縦イメージングレポータートランスジェニックマウスにおける神経終末の選択的レーザ病変のためのプロトコルが提供される。 

ビデオ: In Vivo Two-Photon Microscopy of Single Nerve Endings in Skin

In vivo Imaging of the Mouse Spinal Cord Using Two-photon Microscopy

In vivo imaging using two-photon microscopy 1 in mice that have been genetically engineered to express fluorescent proteins in specific cell types 2-3 has significantly broadened our knowledge of physiological and pathological processes in numerous tissues in vivo 4-7. In studies of the central nervous system (CNS), there has been a broad application of in vivo imaging in the brain, which has produced a plethora of novel and often unexpected findings about the behavior of cells such as neurons, astrocytes, microglia, under physiological or pathological conditions 8-17. However, mostly technical complications have limited the implementation of in vivo imaging in studies of the living mouse spinal cord. In particular, the anatomical proximity of the spinal cord to the lungs and heart generates significant movement artifact that makes imaging the living spinal cord a challenging task.
We developed a novel method that overcomes the inherent limitations of spinal cord imaging by stabilizing the spinal column, reducing respiratory-induced movements and thereby facilitating the use of two-photon microscopy to image the mouse spinal cord in vivo. This is achieved by combining a customized spinal stabilization device with a method of deep anesthesia, resulting in a significant reduction of respiratory-induced movements. This video protocol shows how to expose a small area of the living spinal cord that can be maintained under stable physiological conditions over extended periods of time by keeping tissue injury and bleeding to a minimum. Representative raw images acquired in vivo detail in high resolution the close relationship between microglia and the vasculature. A timelapse sequence shows the dynamic behavior of microglial processes in the living mouse spinal cord. Moreover, a continuous scan of the same z-frame demonstrates the outstanding stability that this method can achieve to generate stacks of images and/or timelapse movies that do not require image alignment post-acquisition. Finally, we show how this method can be used to revisit and reimage the same area of the spinal cord at later timepoints, allowing for longitudinal studies of ongoing physiological or pathological processes in vivo.

In vivo Imaging of the Mouse Spinal Cord Using Two-photon Microscopy

A minimally invasive protocol to stabilize the mouse spinal column and perform repetitive in vivo spinal cord imaging using two-photon microscopy is described. This method combines a spinal stabilization device and an anesthetic regimen to minimize respiratory-induced movements and produce raw imaging data that require no alignment or other post-processing.

二光子顕微鏡を用いたマウス脊髄の in vivoイメージングで

In vivo imaging using two-photon microscopy 1 in mice that have been genetically engineered to express fluorescent proteins in specific cell types 2-3 has ...

神経科学

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains technically challenging. One approach, Activation-Induced Manganese-enhanced MRI (AIM MRI), has been used successfully to map neuronal activity in rodents 1-5. In AIM MRI, Mn2+ acts a calcium analog and accumulates in depolarized neurons 6,7. Because Mn2+ shortens the T1 tissue property, regions of elevated neuronal activity will enhance in MRI. Furthermore, Mn2+ clears slowly from the activated regions; therefore, stimulation can be performed outside the magnet prior to imaging, enabling greater experimental flexibility. However, because Mn2+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the need to open the BBB has limited the use of AIM MRI, especially in mice.
One tool for opening the BBB is ultrasound. Though potentially damaging, if ultrasound is administered in combination with gas-filled microbubbles (i.e., ultrasound contrast agents), the acoustic pressure required for BBB opening is considerably lower. This combination of ultrasound and microbubbles can be used to reliably open the BBB without causing tissue damage 8-11.
Here, a method is presented for performing AIM MRI by using microbubbles and ultrasound to open the BBB. After an intravenous injection of perflutren microbubbles, an unfocused pulsed ultrasound beam is applied to the shaved mouse head for 3 minutes. For simplicity, we refer to this technique of BBB Opening with Microbubbles and UltraSound as BOMUS 12. Using BOMUS to open the BBB throughout both cerebral hemispheres, manganese is administered to the whole mouse brain. After experimental stimulation of the lightly sedated mice, AIM MRI is used to map the neuronal response.
To demonstrate this approach, herein BOMUS and AIM MRI are used to map unilateral mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae in lightly sedated mice 13. Because BOMUS can open the BBB throughout both hemispheres, the unstimulated side of the brain is used to control for nonspecific background stimulation. The resultant 3D activation map agrees well with published representations of the vibrissae regions of the barrel field cortex 14. The ultrasonic opening of the BBB is fast, noninvasive, and reversible; and thus this approach is suitable for high-throughput and/or longitudinal studies in awake mice.

A technique is described for broadly opening the blood-brain barrier in the mouse using microbubbles and ultrasound. Using this technique, manganese can be administered to the mouse brain. Because manganese is an MRI contrast agent that accumulates in depolarized neurons, this approach enables imaging of neuronal activity.

超音波血液脳関門の破壊とマンガン増強MRIを用いた脳機能イメージングの試み

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging Of Experience-dependent Molecular Changes In Cortical Neurons

The brain's ability to change in response to experience is essential for healthy brain function, and abnormalities in this process contribute to a variety of brain disorders1,2. To better understand the mechanisms by which brain circuits react to an animal's experience requires the ability to monitor the experience-dependent molecular changes in a given set of neurons, over a prolonged period of time, in the live animal. While experience and associated neural activity is known to trigger gene expression changes in neurons1,2, most of the methods to detect such changes do not allow repeated observation of the same neurons over multiple days or do not have sufficient resolution to observe individual neurons3,4. Here, we describe a method that combines in vivo two-photon microscopy with a genetically encoded fluorescent reporter to track experience-dependent gene expression changes in individual cortical neurons over the course of day-to-day experience. 
One of the well-established experience-dependent genes is Activity-regulated cytoskeletal associated protein (Arc)5,6. The transcription of Arc is rapidly and highly induced by intensified neuronal activity3, and its protein product regulates the endocytosis of glutamate receptors and long-term synaptic plasticity7. The expression of Arc has been widely used as a molecular marker to map neuronal circuits involved in specific behaviors3. In most of those studies, Arc expression was detected by in situ hybridization or immunohistochemistry in fixed brain sections. Although those methods revealed that the expression of Arc was localized to a subset of excitatory neurons after behavioral experience, how the cellular patterns of Arc expression might change with multiple episodes of repeated or distinctive experiences over days was not investigated. 
In vivo two-photon microscopy offers a powerful way to examine experience-dependent cellular changes in the living brain8,9. To enable the examination of Arc expression in live neurons by two-photon microscopy, we previously generated a knock-in mouse line in which a GFP reporter is placed under the control of the endogenous Arc promoter10. This protocol describes the surgical preparations and imaging procedures for tracking experience-dependent Arc-GFP expression patterns in neuronal ensembles in the live animal. In this method, chronic cranial windows were first implanted in Arc-GFP mice over the cortical regions of interest. Those animals were then repeatedly imaged by two-photon microscopy after desired behavioral paradigms over the course of several days. This method may be generally applicable to animals carrying other fluorescent reporters of experience-dependent molecular changes4.

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging Of Experience-dependent Molecular Changes In Cortical Neurons

Experience-dependent molecular changes in neurons are essential for the brain's ability to adapt in response to behavioral challenges. An in vivo two-photon imaging method is described here that allows the tracking of such molecular changes in individual cortical neurons through genetically encoded reporters.

皮質ニューロンにおける経験依存性分子の変化の in vivo二光子イメージングにおける

The brain's ability to change in response to experience is essential for healthy brain function, and abnormalities in this process contribute to a variety ...

Simultaneous Two-photon In Vivo Imaging of Synaptic Inputs and Postsynaptic Targets in the Mouse Retrosplenial Cortex

This video shows the craniotomy procedure that allows chronic imaging of neurons in the mouse retrosplenial cortex (RSC) using in vivo two-photon microscopy in Thy1-GFP transgenic mouse line. This approach creates a possibility to investigate the correlation of behavioural manipulations with changes in neuronal morphology in vivo.
The cranial window implantation procedure was considered to be limited only to the easily accessible cortex regions such as the barrel field. Our approach allows visualization of neurons in the highly vascularized RSC. RSC is an important element of the brain circuit responsible for spatial memory, previously deemed to be problematic for in vivo two-photon imaging.
The cranial window implantation over the RSC is combined with an injection of mCherry-expressing recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAVmCherry) into the dorsal hippocampus. The expressed mCherry spreads out to axonal projections from the hippocampus to RSC, enabling the visualization of changes in both presynaptic axonal boutons and postsynaptic dendritic spines in the cortex. 
This technique allows long-term monitoring of experience-dependent structural plasticity in RSC.

Simultaneous Two-photon In Vivo Imaging of Synaptic Inputs and Postsynaptic Targets in the Mouse Retrosplenial Cortex

This video shows the craniotomy procedure that allows chronic imaging of neurons in mouse retrosplenial cortex using in vivo two photon microscopy in Thy1-GFP transgenic line. This approach is combined with injection of mCherry-expressing adeno-associated virus into dorsal hippocampus. These techniques allow long-term monitoring of experience-dependent structural plasticity in RSC.

同時2光子<em&gt;インビボ</emマウス脳梁膨大後部皮質におけるシナプス入力とシナプス後ターゲットの&gt;イメージング

This video shows the craniotomy procedure that allows chronic imaging of neurons in the mouse retrosplenial cortex (RSC) using in vivo two-photon ...

Quantification of Cerebral Vascular Architecture using Two-photon Microscopy in a Mouse Model of HIV-induced Neuroinflammation

Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1) infection frequently results in HIV-1 Associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND), and is characterized by a chronic neuroinflammatory state within the central nervous system (CNS), thought to be driven principally by virally-mediated activation of microglia and brain resident macrophages. HIV-1 infection is also accompanied by changes in cerebrovascular blood flow (CBF), raising the possibility that HIV-associated chronic neuroinflammation may lead to changes in CBF and/or in cerebral vascular architecture. To address this question, we have used a mouse model for HIV-induced neuroinflammation, and we have tested whether long-term exposure to this inflammatory environment may damage brain vasculature and result in rarefaction of capillary networks. In this paper we describe a method to quantify changes in cortical capillary density in a mouse model of neuroinflammatory disease (HIV-1 Tat transgenic mice). This generalizable approach employs in vivo two-photon imaging of cortical capillaries through a thin-skull cortical window, as well as ex vivo two-photon imaging of cortical capillaries in mouse brain sections. These procedures produce images and z-stack files of capillary networks, respectively, which can be then subjected to quantitative analysis in order to assess changes in cerebral vascular architecture.

This paper describes a method by which the vascular architecture in the brain can be quantified using in vivo and ex vivo two-photon microscopy.

HIV誘導神経炎症のマウスモデルでは二光子顕微鏡を用いた脳血管のアーキテクチャの定量化

Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1) infection frequently results in HIV-1 Associated Neurocognitive Disorders (HAND), and is characterized by a chronic ...

Optical Monitoring of Living Nerve Terminal Labeling in Hair Follicle Lanceolate Endings of the Ex Vivo Mouse Ear Skin

A novel dissection and recording technique is described for optical monitoring staining and de-staining of lanceolate terminals surrounding hair follicles in the skin of the mouse pinna. The preparation is simple and relatively fast, reliably yielding extensive regions of multiple labeled units of living nerve terminals to study uptake and release of styryl pyridinium dyes extensively used in studies of vesicle recycling. Subdividing the preparations before labeling allows test vs. control comparisons in the same ear from a single individual. Helpful tips are given for improving the quality of the preparation, the labeling and the imaging parameters. This new system is suitable for assaying pharmacologically and mechanically-induced uptake and release of these vital dyes in lanceolate terminals in both wild-type and genetically modified animals. Examples of modulatory influences on labeling intensity are given.

Optical Monitoring of Living Nerve Terminal Labeling in Hair Follicle Lanceolate Endings of the Ex Vivo Mouse Ear Skin

Here we describe a novel preparation for imaging live lanceolate sensory terminals of palisade endings that innervate mouse ear skin hair follicles during staining and destaining with styryl pyridinium dyes.

の毛包披針形語尾に神経末端標識リビングの光監視<em&gt; ex vivoで</em&gt;マウスの耳皮膚

A novel dissection and recording technique is described for optical monitoring staining and de-staining of lanceolate terminals surrounding hair follicles ...

Two-photon Calcium Imaging in Neuronal Dendrites in Brain Slices

Calcium (Ca2+) imaging is a powerful tool to investigate the spatiotemporal dynamics of intracellular Ca2+ signals in neuronal dendrites. Ca2+ fluctuations can occur through a variety of membrane and intracellular mechanisms and play a crucial role in the induction of synaptic plasticity and regulation of dendritic excitability. Hence, the ability to record different types of Ca2+ signals in dendritic branches is valuable for groups studying how dendrites integrate information. The advent of two-photon microscopy has made such studies significantly easier by solving the problems inherent to imaging in live tissue, such as light scattering and photodamage. Moreover, through combination of conventional electrophysiological techniques with two-photon Ca2+ imaging, it is possible to investigate local Ca2+ fluctuations in neuronal dendrites in parallel with recordings of synaptic activity in soma. Here, we describe how to use this method to study the dynamics of local Ca2+ transients (CaTs) in dendrites of GABAergic inhibitory interneurons. The method can be also applied to studying dendritic Ca2+ signaling in different neuronal types in acute brain slices.

We present a method combining whole-cell patch-clamp recordings and two-photon imaging to record Ca2+ transients in neuronal dendrites in acute brain slices.

脳スライスにおける神経樹状突起における 2 光子カルシウム イメージング

Calcium (Ca2+) imaging is a powerful tool to investigate the spatiotemporal dynamics of intracellular Ca2+ signals in neuronal dendrites. Ca2+ ...

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging of Cortical Neurons in Neonatal Mice

Two-photon imaging is a powerful tool for the in vivo analysis of neuronal circuits in the mammalian brain. However, a limited number of in vivo imaging methods exist for examining the brain tissue of live newborn mammals. Herein we summarize a protocol for imaging individual cortical neurons in living neonatal mice. This protocol includes the following two methodologies: (1) the Supernova system for sparse and bright labeling of cortical neurons in the developing brain, and (2) a surgical procedure for the fragile neonatal skull. This protocol allows the observation of temporal changes of individual cortical neurites during neonatal stages with a high signal-to-noise ratio. Labeled cell-specific gene silencing and knockout can also be achieved by combining the Supernova with RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing systems. This protocol can, thus, be used for analyzing the developmental dynamics of cortical neurons, molecular mechanisms that control the neuronal dynamics, and changes in neuronal dynamics in disease models.

In Vivo Two-photon Imaging of Cortical Neurons in Neonatal Mice

We present an in vivo two-photon imaging protocol for imaging the cerebral cortex of neonatal mice. This method is suitable for analyzing the developmental dynamics of cortical neurons, the molecular mechanisms that control the neuronal dynamics, and the changes in neuronal dynamics in disease models.

生体内で新生仔マウスの大脳皮質ニューロンの 2 光子イメージング

Two-photon imaging is a powerful tool for the in vivo analysis of neuronal circuits in the mammalian brain. However, a limited number of in vivo imaging ...

In Vivo Three-Dimensional Two-Photon Microscopy to Study Conducted Vascular Responses by Local ATP Ejection Using a Glass Micro-Pipette

Maintenance of normal brain function requires a sufficient and efficient supply of oxygen and nutrition by a complex network of vessels. However, the regulation of cerebral blood flow (CBF) is incompletely understood, especially at the capillary level. Two-photon microscopy is a powerful tool widely used to study CBF and its regulation. Currently, this field is limited by the lack of in vivo two-photon microscopy studies examining (1) CBF responses in three-dimensions, (2) conducted vascular responses, and (3) localized interventions within the vascular network. Here, we describe a 3D in vivo method using two-photon microscopy to study conducted vascular responses elicited by&#160;local ejection of ATP with a glass micro-pipette. Our method uses fast and repetitive hyperstack two-photon imaging providing precise diameter measurements by maximal intensity projection of the obtained images. Furthermore, we show that this method can also be used to study 3D astrocytic calcium responses. We also discuss the advantages and limitations of glass micro-pipette insertion and two-photon hyperstack imaging.

We present an optimized local ejection procedure using a glass micro-pipette and a fast two-photon hyperstack imaging method, which allows precise measurement of capillary diameter changes and investigation of its regulation in three dimensions.

ガラスマイクロピペットを用いて局所ATP吐出による血管応答を研究する生体内3次元2光子顕微鏡検査

Maintenance of normal brain function requires a sufficient and efficient supply of oxygen and nutrition by a complex network of vessels. However, the ...

Visualizing Protein Kinase A Activity In Head-fixed Behaving Mice Using In Vivo Two-photon Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy

Neuromodulation exerts powerful control over brain function. Dysfunction of neuromodulatory systems results in neurological and psychiatric disorders. Despite their importance, technologies for tracking neuromodulatory events with cellular resolution are just beginning to emerge. Neuromodulators, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, and serotonin, trigger intracellular signaling events via their respective G protein-coupled receptors to modulate neuronal excitability, synaptic communications, and other neuronal functions, thereby regulating information processing in the neuronal network. The above mentioned neuromodulators converge onto the cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) pathway. Therefore, in vivo PKA imaging with single-cell resolution was developed as a readout for neuromodulatory events in a manner analogous to calcium imaging for neuronal electrical activities. Herein, a method is presented to visualize PKA activity at the level of individual neurons in the cortex of head-fixed behaving mice. To do so, an improved A-kinase activity reporter (AKAR), called tAKAR&#945;, is used, which is based on F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET). This genetically-encoded PKA sensor is introduced into the motor cortex via in utero electroporation (IUE) of DNA plasmids, or stereotaxic injection of adeno-associated virus (AAV). FRET changes are imaged using two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (2pFLIM), which offers advantages over ratiometric FRET measurements for quantifying FRET signal in light-scattering brain tissue. To study PKA activities during enforced locomotion, tAKAR&#945; is imaged through a chronic cranial window above the cortex of awake, head-fixed mice, which run or rest on a speed-controlled motorized treadmill. This imaging approach will be applicable to many other brain regions to study corresponding behavior-induced PKA activities and to other FLIM-based sensors for in vivo imaging.

A procedure is presented to visualize protein kinase A activities in head-fixed, behaving mice. An improved A-kinase activity reporter, tAKAR&#945;, is expressed in cortical neurons and made accessible for imaging through a cranial window. Two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy is used to visualize PKA activities in vivo during enforced locomotion.

生体内での2光子蛍光寿命イメージング顕微鏡を用いて頭固定振る舞いマウスにおけるタンパク質キナーゼの活動を可視化する

Neuromodulation exerts powerful control over brain function. Dysfunction of neuromodulatory systems results in neurological and psychiatric disorders. ...