We thank Yehui Qin and Mallory Myers for technical support. We also thank Dr. Sigismund Huck for providing us the anti-&#945;4-ECD antibody. This work is supported by National Institutes of Health grant NS22061 to L. W. R.

全ての動物実験は、実験動物の管理と使用に関する健康ガイドの国立研究所に従って行った（NIH出版番号80から23は、2012年改訂）し、研究は施設内動物実験によって承認されたとストーニーの研究委員会のために使用しますブルック大学（＃1618と＃1792）。 1. vHipp-NACCシナプス共培養<ol><li>犠牲マウス（生後0日-野生型（WT）またはα7nAChR類トランスジェニックマウスラインから3）CO 2を。各子犬の首をはねると事後遺伝子型決定のための1.5ミリリットル遠心管に尾を保存します。滅菌フードで次の手順を実行します。 </li><li>脳全体を露出させるためにハサミやピンセットで頭蓋骨の上部を取り外します。互いに尾側からの大脳皮質の部分の接合部から開始して、解剖顕微鏡下vHipp 5,21を含む後部皮質が含まれている冠状断面を得ます。 </li><li> Vを分析発展途上のマウス脳アトラス22（ 図1A）によればCA1-海馬台領域を含むヒップ組織片。 （100ミクロンmicroslices×100ミクロン程度）の小さな薄いスライスにカット冷培地（4℃）を含む35mmの培養皿に移します。 </li><li> 37℃のインキュベーター内に少なくとも30分間、培地（〜500μl）を、24​​ウェル組織培養プレートの内側12ミリメートルポリ-D-リジン/ラミニン被覆カバーガラスをプレインキュベートします。 microslicesをメッキする前にメディアを取り出します。 </li><li>外植片の付着を容易にするために（microslicesの〜20個を含む〜50μL、）メディアの最小量でカバースリップの中央に火造りパスツールピペットでプレート。 1匹の動物に由来するプレートvHippのmicroslices（どちらか+ / +または - / - トランスジェニックα7ラインの​​遺伝子型）各カバースリップ上。 </li><li>外植片がカバースリップ上に沈降した後、静かに目によって追加メディア（〜100μl）を追加電子壁メディアのレベルは完全に周囲の外植片ではなく、カバースリップの中央にそれらをカバーするのに十分に高いようにします。 </li><li> 37℃でO / Nインキュベートした後、5％CO 2インキュベーター、生後1日目WTマウスに胚日18からNACCニューロンを分散させ、外植片に加えます。 <ol><li>発展途上のマウス脳アトラス20（ 図1B）に応じてNACC組織を解剖。 </li><li> （500ミクロンmicroslices×500ミクロン程度）を小片に切断し、15 mlチューブに移します。 </li><li> 37℃で15分間、0.25％トリプシン（2ml）で処理します。冷培地で1回洗浄（5 mlで4°C）、続いて冷洗浄培地（5 mlで4°C）での洗浄組織塊三回。サスペンションは、各洗浄工程における5分間の休憩、その後、上清を慎重に取り除くことを可能にします。 </li><li>軽くファイアーポリッシュパスツールピペットで培養培地2mlに優しい粉砕して細胞を解離します。 </li><li>トランス5分間、2,000 X rpmでさらに15 mlチューブと遠心分離機に細胞懸濁液FER。上清を除去し、6子犬ごとに1 mlの培養培地で細胞を再懸濁します。穏やかファイアーポリッシュパスツールピペットで培地で数回ピペッティングして細胞を分散。 </li><li> vHipp移植片と各カバースリップに分散NACC細胞の0.25ミリリットルを追加します。 </li><li>加湿37℃、5％CO 2インキュベーター内で培養を維持します。機械的にシナプス形成を促進する、湿度を安定して維持するために、湿らせた滅菌ガーゼパッド上に培養プレートを置きます。 </li></ol></li></ol> 2.免疫細胞化学<ol><li> 4％パラホルムアルデヒド/ 4％スクロース/ PBS（カバースリップあたり〜500μL、20分、RT）における- （in vitroで 7日5）文化を修正しました。 </li><li> 0.25％トリトンX-100 / PBSで透過処理培養（〜カバースリップあたり500μL、5分、RT）。 </li><li>不格好なやつの前に、PBS中の10％正常ロバ血清（カバースリップあたり〜500μL、30分、RT）でブロック文化Y染色。 4℃でO / N一次抗体でインキュベートします。 、抗小胞性グルタミン酸トランスポーター1（1：250）、抗GAD65（1：100）：;：抗nAChR類（抗α5サブユニット、1 500 500α4 -ECD 1：）以下の一次抗体を使用してください。 </li><li> PBSで一次抗体を洗浄（カバースリップあたり3回/〜500μL、5分間）した後、アレクサ488（カバースリップあたり〜500μlを、1：500）に結合した二次抗体で培養インキュベートまたはアレクサ594（カバースリップあたり〜500μLを、1：37℃で1時間、500）。 </li><li>標識前表面α7*のnAChRのための固定を37℃で45分間：（培地1,000〜カバースリップあたり500μlの、1）のAlexa 594にコンジュゲートαBgTxで培養をインキュベートします。 </li><li>マウントとシールカバースリップ。 </li><li>プランアポクロマート対物レンズ（NA 0.8または1.4 NAの63X油で20X）を備えた蛍光顕微鏡とCCDカメラで画像をキャプチャします。 </li></ol> 3. FM1-43ベースの水疱性の融合<ol><li>ディスク共焦点顕微鏡を紡糸上室マウント、撮像チャンバ内に- （in vitroで 7日、5）の文化を維持します。連続RTでHBSカクテル（1ml /分）灌流。 </li><li> 90秒間の56 mMのK + ACSF（〜500μL）（染色）で10μMのFM1-43で灌流し、負荷の文化を停止、のCa 2+ ADVASEP-7（0.1 mm）を含む無HBSで15分間離れて外部染料を洗います膜結合FM1-43を除去します。 </li><li> 、120秒（脱色）のためにFM1-43ずに56 mMのK + ACSF（〜500μL）と文化を刺激するのと同じ条件を用いて、FM1-43と文化を再ロード、およびCaで再び洗浄2+のためADVASEP-7を含む無HBS 15分。 </li><li> （1.4 NA、励起488 nmの発光530 nmのと60X水）プランアポクロマート対物レンズを搭載した回転ディスク共焦点顕微鏡でFM1-43の蛍光画像を取得し、CCDカメラで画像をキャプチャします。 </li><li> 1分間のベースラインFM1-43蛍光画像（2秒ごとに集めます）プリニコチンコントロールとして; 1分間の急速な灌流（2 ml /分）によってニコチン（1μM）を適用し、アウトHBSカクテルでニコチンを洗います。 5分ごとに2秒の間、およびニコチン適用後に、前にキャプチャタイムラプス画像を保管してください。 </li><li> （F 染色 ）の前に、各シナプスブートンにおける（F 脱色 ）ニコチン適用後FM1-43の蛍光強度を定量化します。 </li><li>ニコチンアプリケーション（ΔF= F 染色 -Fの脱色 ）の前と後のFM1-43蛍光強度の差を定量化することによってvHipp軸索に沿って解放可能FM1-43蛍光の総量を計算します。次式を有するニコチン後の蛍光強度の減少の割合を分析：F 減少 ％=ΔF/ F 染色 。 </li></ol> 4.カルシウムイメージング<ol><li>次に、（5μMのFluo-4のCa 2+指示薬と文化を読み込む、通常のHBSで迅速- （in vitroで 7日5）文化をすすぎますAMエステル）、37℃で30分間、5％CO 2のためにHBSで0.02％プルロニックF-127（2ml）中。 </li><li> HBSとのFluo-4溶液（3回/ 5分）洗い流します。 （37℃/ 5％CO 2）は、少なくとも30分間インキュベーターに文化を返します。 </li><li>同じ撮像チャンバーとFM1-43ベース小胞の融合の項に記載と同様の条件で培養を維持する（ステップ3.1を参照してください）​​。 </li><li>プランアポクロマート対物レンズ（1.4 NAの60X水、励起488 nmの発光530 nm）をCCDカメラでvHippマイクロスライスから軸索突起のフルオ4蛍光画像を収集します。 </li><li> 1分間の急速な灌流（2 ml /分）によってニコチン（1μM）を適用、事前ニコチンコントロールとして、ベースラインのFluo-4の蛍光画像（2分10秒ごと）を採取し、アウトHBSカクテルでニコチンを洗います。 30分ごとに10秒の間、およびニコチン適用後に、前にキャプチャタイムラプス画像を保管してください。 </li><li>一連の生のfluo-4の蛍光画像、輸出のすべてのフレームを保存さらなる分析のためのTIFF形式の画像。 </li><li>ニコチン適用前と後のvHipp軸索に沿ってFLUO-4の蛍光の積分強度を収集します。 </li><li> ΔF/ F F 0は、バックグラウンド補正前ニコチン積分蛍光強度であり、Fは、各時点におけるvHipp軸索に沿って統合された蛍光強度が0 =（FF 0）/ F 0、以下の式を有する集積蛍光強度を正規化ニコチン適用後。正規化された統合された蛍光強度を分析し、プロットします。 </li></ol>

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Z., Liu, Y., Sorenson, E. M., Chiappinelli, V. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptically+released+and+exogenous+ACh+activates+different+nicotinic+receptors+to+enhance+evoked+glutamatergic+transmission+in+the+lateral+geniculate+nucleus.">Synaptically released and exogenous ACh activates different nicotinic receptors to enhance evoked glutamatergic transmission in the lateral geniculate nucleus.</a> J Neurophysiol. 94 (4), 2549-2560 (2005).</li><li>Szabo, S. I., Zelles, T., Vizi, E. S., Lendvai, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+nicotine+on+spiking+activity+and+Ca2++dynamics+of+dendritic+spines+in+rat+CA1+pyramidal+neurons.">The effect of nicotine on spiking activity and Ca2+ dynamics of dendritic spines in rat CA1 pyramidal neurons.</a> Hippocampus. 18 (4), 376-385 (2008).</li></ol>

著者らは、開示することは何もありません。

共培養の準備は、in vitroで前シナプスのnAChRの活性化が強化されたグルタミン酸作動性伝達5、21を誘発することにより、空間的および時間的プロファイルのこの準備を許可比較的簡単で信頼性の高い検査を再降伏し、腹側海馬側坐核回路を説明しました。 共培養は、インビボ様の機能を実証するために、インビトロでの生理学的条件を提供す?...

回路の興奮性のコリン作動性調節は、認知機能の基本的な側面に寄与し、変更されたコリン作動性の調節は、アルツハイマー病、パーキンソン病、統合失調症及び中毒1-4を含む神経変性及び精神神経疾患の特徴です。 CNSにおけるシナプス伝達のコリン作動性促進の確立メカニズムは、シナプス前部位に局在するのnAChRの直接の活性化を介してです。 、間接的に特定のnAChRサブタイプ、および比較的高いカルシウムコンダクタンスの両方に直接起因を介した細胞内シグナル伝達カスケード-これらのシナプス前受容体の活性化は細胞内Ca 2+（[Ca 2+] i） のシナプス前末端での増加につながります図5は 、それによって神経伝達物質の放出を増強します。実際には、シナプス前のnAChRの活性化は、グルタミン酸、GABA、アセチルコリンなどの神経伝達物質の多種多様の放出の変化と関連している、ANDドーパミン6-10。このプロセスは、様々なシナプスにおける電気生理学的方法を用いて、間接的に研究されてきたが、の光学記者の[Ca 2+] iとシナプス小胞のリサイクルは、前シナプス現象のより直接的かつ時間的に正確な測定を可能にします。 nAChR類の前シナプス局在は、電子顕微鏡（EM）レベル11,12でのnAChRの直接の免疫金標識で説得力が実証されています。いくつかの他の技術もまた、培養ニューロン13,14でのnAChR subunit-蛍光タンパク質キメラの位置を検出するなど、間接的のnAChR局在に対処するために使用されている、シナプス端子15,16でのnAChR電流の電気生理学的記録、[内のCaニコチン誘発変化を監視しますによるシナプスターミナルでのライブセルイメージング17、及び神経伝達物質の放出を間接的に監視することにより、シナプス神経終末における2+] i のスチリル両親媒性FM色素（FM1-43とFM4-64）お​​よび/またはsynapto-pHluorinによって、そのようなグルタミン酸のためのAChとiGluSnFrためCNiFERsなどの特定の神経伝達物質の蛍光の記者、によって見シナプス小胞のエキソサイトーシスを含む蛍光指示薬と生細胞イメージング技術、 18-20。全体的に、nAChR類の前シナプス局在を同定するため、これらの現在の手法は複雑であり、信頼性の高い同定とプレシナプス活性の生理学的モニタリングを可能にするために、特別なシステム及び技術を必要とします。 識別し、シナプス伝達のシナプス前および後の両方の成分を分析するための直接アクセスを提供し、側坐核（NACC）回路-ここでは、腹側海馬（vHipp） の in vitro共培養システムのためのプロトコルおよび装置が記載されています。我々は、シナプス前のnAChRの局在およびCa 2+シグナル伝達と神経伝達物質の放出ALO媒介のnAChRのライブセルイメージングの例を示しますNG vHipp軸索。ここで紹介するプロトコルの自然（と簡単な）拡張は、異なる遺伝子型からの神経細胞からなる前と後シナプスの接点の製造です。このように、変調の前および/または後シナプスメカニズムの特定の遺伝子産物の寄与を直接評価することができます。

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>1, Culture Media (50 ml)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neurobasal&#160;</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>10888022</td>
			<td>48 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B-27 Supplements</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>0080085-SA</td>
			<td>1 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>10908-010</td>
			<td>0.5 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GlutaMAX Supplement</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>35050-061</td>
			<td>0.5 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td>20 ng/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>2, washing media (HBSS, 100 ml)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HBSS, no calcium, no magnesium, no phenol red&#160;</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>14175-095</td>
			<td>99 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES ( 1M)</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>15630-130</td>
			<td>1 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3, HEPES buffered saline&#160; (HBS)&#160;&#160; pH=7.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S9888&#160;</td>
			<td>135 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P9333&#160;</td>
			<td>5 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M8266&#160;</td>
			<td>1 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2,</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C1016&#160;</td>
			<td>2 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H3375&#160;</td>
			<td>10 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G0350500&#160;</td>
			<td>10 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>4, HBS Cocktail for live imaging pH=7.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S9888&#160;</td>
			<td>135 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P9333&#160;</td>
			<td>5 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M8266&#160;</td>
			<td>1 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2,</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C1016&#160;</td>
			<td>2 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H3375&#160;</td>
			<td>10 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G0350500&#160;</td>
			<td>10 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tetrodotoxin&#160;</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>1078</td>
			<td>2 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bicuculline</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>131</td>
			<td>10 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-AP-5</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>105</td>
			<td>50 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CNQX</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>1045</td>
			<td>20 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LY341495</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>1209</td>
			<td>10 &#181;M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>5, Calcium-free&#160; HBS&#160;&#160; pH=7.3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S9888&#160;</td>
			<td>135 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P9333&#160;</td>
			<td>5 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M8266&#160;</td>
			<td>1 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H3375&#160;</td>
			<td>10 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G0350500&#160;</td>
			<td>10 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>6, 56 mM Potassium ACSF pH=7.4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S9888</td>
			<td>119 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P9333</td>
			<td>56 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgSO4.7H</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M1880</td>
			<td>1.3 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C1016</td>
			<td>2.5 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaH2PO4</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S8282</td>
			<td>1 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaHCO3</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S5761</td>
			<td>26.2 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G0350500&#160;</td>
			<td>10 mM</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

live imaging of nicotine induced calcium signaling and neurotransmitter release along ventral hippocampal axons

Sustained enhancement of axonal signaling and increased neurotransmitter release by the activation of pre-synaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) is an important mechanism for neuromodulation by acetylcholine (ACh). The difficulty with access to probing the signaling mechanisms within intact axons and at nerve terminals both in vitro and in vivo has limited progress in the study of the pre-synaptic components of synaptic plasticity. Here we introduce a gene-chimeric preparation of ventral hippocampal (vHipp)&#8211;accumbens (nAcc) circuit in vitro that allows direct live imaging to analyze both the pre- and post-synaptic components of transmission while selectively varying the genetic profile of the pre- vs post-synaptic neurons. We demonstrate that projections from vHipp microslices, as pre-synaptic axonal input, form multiple, reliable glutamatergic synapses with post-synaptic targets, the dispersed neurons from nAcc. The pre-synaptic localization of various subtypes of nAChRs are detected and the pre-synaptic nicotinic signaling mediated synaptic transmission are monitored by concurrent electrophysiological recording and live cell imaging. This preparation also provides an informative approach to study the pre- and post-synaptic mechanisms of glutamatergic synaptic plasticity in vitro.

採用製剤は、 インビトロで vHipp-NACC回路の遺伝子キメラ共培養物から構成されています。 vHippのmicroslicesから発せられる投影は、前シナプスの軸索の入力として、シナプス後の目標、NACCから分散ニューロンとシナプス接触を行うことができます。ニコチンはvHipp軸索21とシナプス前α7を介しvHipp軸索5に沿ってシグナリング長期化カルシウム*のnAChRにより神経支配NACCニュ?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Live Imaging of Nicotine Induced Calcium Signaling and Neurotransmitter Release Along Ventral Hippocampal Axons at JoVE.com

Live Imaging of Nicotine Induced Calcium Signaling and Neurotransmitter Release Along Ventral Hippocampal Axons

We developed a gene-chimeric preparation of ventral hippocampal &#8211; accumbens circuit in vitro that allows direct live imaging to analyze presynaptic mechanisms of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) mediated synaptic transmission. This preparation also provides an informative approach to study the pre- and post-synaptic mechanisms of synaptic plasticity.

ニコチン誘導性カルシウムシグナリングおよび腹側海馬軸索に沿って神経伝達物質放出のライブイメージング

Sustained enhancement of axonal signaling and increased neurotransmitter release by the activation of pre-synaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors ...

live-imaging-nicotine-induced-calcium-signaling-neurotransmitter

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8.9K ビュー.  Stony Brook University. We developed a gene-chimeric preparation of ventral hippocampal – accumbens circuit in vitro that allows direct live imaging to analyze presynaptic mechanisms of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) mediated synaptic transmission. This preparation also provides an informative approach to study the pre- and post-synaptic mechanisms of synaptic plasticity.

ビデオ: Live Imaging of Nicotine Induced Calcium Signaling and Neurotransmitter Release Along Ventral Hippocampal Axons

Neuromodulation and Mitochondrial Transport: Live Imaging in Hippocampal Neurons over Long Durations

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured neurons for extended durations1-3. This is now possible through the use of vital dyes and fluorescent proteins with which cytoskeletal components, organelles, and other structures in living cells can be labeled and then visualized via dynamic fluorescence microscopy. For example, in embryonic chicken sympathetic neurons, mitochondrial movement was characterized using the vital dye rhodamine 1234. In another study, mitochondria were visualized in rat forebrain neurons by transfection of mitochondrially targeted eYFP5. However, imaging of primary neurons over minutes, hours, or even days presents a number of issues. Foremost among these are: 1) maintenance of culture conditions such as temperature, humidity, and pH during long imaging sessions; 2) a strong, stable fluorescent signal to assure both the quality of acquired images and accurate measurement of signal intensity during image analysis; and 3) limiting exposure times during image acquisition to minimize photobleaching and avoid phototoxicity.
Here, we describe a protocol that permits the observation, visualization, and analysis of mitochondrial movement in cultured hippocampal neurons with high temporal resolution and under optimal life support conditions. We have constructed an affordable stage-top incubator that provides good temperature regulation and atmospheric gas flow, and also limits the degree of media evaporation, assuring stable pH and osmolarity. This incubator is connected, via inlet and outlet hoses, to a standard tissue culture incubator, which provides constant humidity levels and an atmosphere of 5-10% CO2/air. This design offers a cost-effective alternative to significantly more expensive microscope incubators that don't necessarily assure the viability of cells over many hours or even days. To visualize mitochondria, we infect cells with a lentivirus encoding a red fluorescent protein that is targeted to the mitochondrion. This assures a strong and persistent signal, which, in conjunction with the use of a stable xenon light source, allows us to limit exposure times during image acquisition and all but precludes photobleaching and phototoxicity. Two injection ports on the top of the stage-top incubator allow the acute administration of neurotransmitters and other reagents intended to modulate mitochondrial movement. In sum, lentivirus-mediated expression of an organelle-targeted red fluorescent protein and the combination of our stage-top incubator, a conventional inverted fluorescence microscope, CCD camera, and xenon light source allow us to acquire time-lapse images of mitochondrial transport in living neurons over longer durations than those possible in studies deploying conventional vital dyes and off-the-shelf life support systems.

We describe a protocol that allows imaging of mitochondria in living neurons via fluorescence microscopy over long durations. Imaging over extended periods is accomplished through lentivirus-mediated expression of a mitochondrially targeted fluorescent protein and use of an inexpensive stage-top incubator that was designed and built in our laboratory.

ニューロモデュレーションとミトコンドリア輸送：長時間にわたって海馬ニューロンのライブイメージング

To understand the relationship between mitochondrial transport and neuronal function, it is critical to observe mitochondrial behavior in live cultured ...

神経科学

Live Imaging of Dorsal Root Axons after Rhizotomy

The primary sensory axons injured by spinal root injuries fail to regenerate into the spinal cord, leading to chronic pain and permanent sensory loss. Regeneration of dorsal root (DR) axons into spinal cord is prevented at the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ), the interface between the CNS and PNS. Our understanding of the molecular and cellular events that prevent regeneration at DREZ is incomplete, in part because complex changes associated with nerve injury have been deduced from postmortem analyses. Dynamic cellular processes, such as axon regeneration, are best studied with techniques that capture real-time events with multiple observations of each living animal. Our ability to monitor neurons serially in vivo has increased dramatically owing to revolutionary innovations in optics and mouse transgenics. Several lines of thy1-GFP transgenic mice, in which subsets of neurons are genetically labeled in distinct fluorescent colors, permit individual neurons to be imaged in vivo1. These mice have been used extensively for in vivo imaging of muscle2-4 and brain5-7, and have provided novel insights into physiological mechanisms that static analyses could not have resolved. Imaging studies of neurons in living spinal cord have only recently begun. Lichtman and his colleagues first demonstrated their feasibility by tracking injured dorsal column (DC) axons with wide-field microscopy8,9. Multi-photon in vivo imaging of deeply positioned DC axons, microglia and blood vessels has also been accomplished10. Over the last few years, we have pioneered in applying in vivo imaging to monitor regeneration of DR axons using wide-field microscopy and H line of thy1-YFP mice. These studies have led us to a novel hypothesis about why DR axons are prevented from regenerating within the spinal cord11.
In H line of thy1-YFP mice, distinct YFP+ axons are superficially positioned, which allows several axons to be monitored simultaneously. We have learned that DR axons arriving at DREZ are better imaged in lumbar than in cervical spinal cord. In the present report we describe several strategies that we have found useful to assure successful long-term and repeated imaging of regenerating DR axons. These include methods that eliminate repeated intubation and respiratory interruption, minimize surgery-associated stress and scar formation, and acquire stable images at high resolution without phototoxicity.

An in vivo imaging protocol to monitor primary sensory axons following dorsal root crush is described. The procedures utilize wide-field fluorescence microscopy and thy1-YFP transgenic mice, and permit repeated imaging of axon regeneration over 4 cm in the PNS and axon interactions with the interface of the CNS.

根切断術後の後根の軸索のライブイメージング

The primary sensory axons injured by spinal root injuries fail to regenerate into the spinal cord, leading to chronic pain and permanent sensory loss. ...

Analyzing Murine Schwann Cell Development Along Growing Axons

The development of peripheral nerves is an intriguing process. Neurons send out axons to innervate specific targets, which in humans are often more than 100 cm away from the soma of the neuron. Neuronal survival during development depends on target-derived growth factors but also on the support of Schwann cells (SCs). To this end SC ensheath axons from the region of the neuronal soma (or the transition from central to peripheral nervous system) to the synapse or neuromuscular junction. Schwann cells are derivatives of the neural crest and migrate as precursors along emerging axons until the entire axon is covered with SCs. This shows the importance of SC migration for the development of the peripheral nervous system and underlines the necessity to investigate this process. In order to analyze SC development, a setup is needed which next to the SCs also includes their physiological substrate for migration, the axon. Due to intrauterine development in vivo time-lapse imaging, however, is not feasible in placental vertebrates like mouse (mus musculus). To circumvent this, we adapted the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) explant technique. Upon treatment with nerve growth factor (NGF) SCG explants extend axons, followed by SC precursors migrating along the axons from the ganglion to the periphery. The beauty of this system is that the SC are derived from a pool of endogenous SC and that they migrate along their own physiological axons which are growing at the same time. This system is especially intriguing, because the SC development along axons can be analyzed by time-lapse imaging, opening further possibilities to gain insights into SC migration.

Here we describe a Schwann cell (SC) migration assay in which SCs are able to develop along extending axons.

成長中の軸索に沿ってマウスのシュワン細胞の発達を分析する

The  development of peripheral nerves is an intriguing process. Neurons send out  axons to innervate specific targets, which in humans are often more than ...

Calcium Phosphate Transfection of Primary Hippocampal Neurons

Calcium phosphate precipitation is a convenient and economical method for transfection of cultured cells. With optimization, it is possible to use this method on hard-to-transfect cells like primary neurons. Here we describe our detailed protocol for calcium phosphate transfection of hippocampal neurons cocultured with astroglial cells.

初代海馬ニューロンのリン酸カルシウムトランスフェクション

Calcium phosphate precipitation is a convenient and economical method for transfection of cultured cells. With optimization, it is possible to use this ...

Live Imaging of Drosophila Larval Neuroblasts

Stem cells divide asymmetrically to generate two progeny cells with unequal fate potential: a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating cell. Given their relevance to development and disease, understanding the mechanisms that govern asymmetric stem cell division has been a robust area of study. Because they are genetically tractable and undergo successive rounds of cell division about once every hour, the stem cells of the Drosophila central nervous system, or neuroblasts, are indispensable models for the study of stem cell division. About 100 neural stem cells are located near the surface of each of the two larval brain lobes, making this model system particularly useful for live imaging microscopy studies. In this work, we review several approaches widely used to visualize stem cell divisions, and we address the relative advantages and disadvantages of those techniques that employ dissociated versus intact brain tissues. We also detail our simplified protocol used to explant whole brains from third instar larvae for live cell imaging and fixed analysis applications.

Live Imaging of Drosophila Larval Neuroblasts

This protocol details a streamlined method used to conduct live cell imaging in the context of an intact larval brain. Live cell imaging approaches are invaluable for the study of asymmetric neural stem cell divisions as well as other neurogenic and developmental processes, consistently uncovering mechanisms that were previously overlooked.

のライブイメージング<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em&gt;幼虫の神経芽細胞

Stem cells divide asymmetrically to generate two progeny cells with unequal fate potential: a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating cell. Given ...

Dorsal Root Ganglia Isolation and Primary Culture to Study Neurotransmitter Release

Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) contain cell bodies of sensory neurons. This type of neuron is pseudo-unipolar, with two axons that innervate peripheral tissues, such as skin, muscle and visceral organs, as well as the spinal dorsal horn of the central nervous system. Sensory neurons transmit somatic sensation, including touch, pain, thermal, and proprioceptive sensations. Therefore, DRG primary cultures are widely used to study the cellular mechanisms of nociception, physiological functions of sensory neurons, and neural development. The cultured neurons can be applied in studies involving electrophysiology, signal transduction, neurotransmitter release, or calcium imaging. With DRG primary cultures, scientists may culture dissociated DRG neurons to monitor biochemical changes in single or multiple cells, overcoming many of the limitations associated with in vivo experiments. Compared to commercially available DRG-hybridoma cell lines or immortalized DRG neuronal cell lines, the composition and properties of the primary cells are much more similar to sensory neurons in tissue. However, due to the limited number of cultured DRG primary cells that can be isolated from a single animal, it is difficult to perform high-throughput screens for drug targeting studies. In the current article, procedures for DRG collection and culture are described. In addition, we demonstrate the treatment of cultured DRG cells with an agonist of neuropeptide FF receptor type 2 (NPFFR2) to induce the release of peptide neurotransmitters (calcitonin gene-related peptide (CRGP) and substance P (SP)).

Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) primary cultures are frequently used to study physiological functions or pathology-related events in sensory neurons. Here, we demonstrate the use of lumbar DRG cultures to detect the release of neurotransmitters after neuropeptide FF receptor type 2 stimulation with a selective agonist.

伝達物質の放出を勉強する後根神経節細胞の分離と培養

Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) contain cell bodies of sensory neurons. This type of neuron is pseudo-unipolar, with two axons that innervate peripheral ...

Ex Vivo Calcium Imaging for Visualizing Brain Responses to Endocrine Signaling in Drosophila

Organ-to-organ communication by endocrine signaling, for example, from the periphery to the brain, is essential for maintaining homeostasis. As a model animal for endocrine research, Drosophila melanogaster, which has sophisticated genetic tools and genome information, is being increasingly used. This article describes a method for the calcium imaging of Drosophila brain explants. This method enables the detection of the direct signaling of a hormone to the brain. It is well known that many peptide hormones act through G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), whose activation causes an increase in the intracellular Ca2+concentration. Neural activation also elevates intracellular Ca2+ levels, from both Ca2+ influx and the release of Ca2+ stored in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). A calcium sensor, GCaMP, can monitor these Ca2+ changes. In this method, GCaMP is expressed in the neurons of interest, and the GCaMP-expressing larval brain is dissected and cultured ex vivo. The test peptide is then applied to the brain explant, and the fluorescent changes in GCaMP are detected using a spinning disc confocal microscope equipped with a CCD camera. Using this method, any water-soluble molecule can be tested, and various cellular events associated with neural activation can be imaged using the appropriate fluorescent indicators. Moreover, by modifying the imaging chamber, this method can be used to image other Drosophila organs or the organs of other animals.

Ex Vivo Calcium Imaging for Visualizing Brain Responses to Endocrine Signaling in Drosophila

This paper describes a protocol for ex vivo calcium imaging of the Drosophila brain. In this method, natural or synthetic compounds can be applied to the buffer to test their ability to activate particular neurons in the brain.

Ex Vivoショウジョウバエにおける内分泌シグナル伝達する脳の反応を可視化するためのカルシウム イメージング

Organ-to-organ communication by endocrine signaling, for example, from the periphery to the brain, is essential for maintaining homeostasis. As a model ...

Spectral Reflectometric Microscopy on Myelinated Axons In Situ

In a mammalian nervous system, myelin provides an electrical insulation by enwrapping the axon fibers in a multilayered spiral. Inspired by its highly-organized subcellular architecture, we recently developed a new imaging modality, named spectral reflectometry (SpeRe), which enables unprecedented label-free nanoscale imaging of the live myelinated axons in situ. The underlying principle is to obtain nanostructural information by analyzing the reflectance spectrum of the multilayered subcellular structure. In this article, we describe a detailed step-by-step protocol for performing a basic SpeRe imaging of the nervous tissues using a commercial confocal microscopic system, equipped with a white-light laser and a tunable filter. We cover the procedures of sample preparation, acquisition of spectral data, and image processing for obtaining nanostructural information.

Spectral Reflectometric Microscopy on Myelinated Axons In Situ

Here, we present a step-by-step protocol for imaging myelinated axons in a fixed brain slice using a label-free nanoscale imaging technique based on spectral reflectometry.

その場で有髄軸索のスペクトル反射型顕微鏡

In a mammalian nervous system, myelin provides an electrical insulation by enwrapping the axon fibers in a multilayered spiral. Inspired by its ...

Ex Vivo Imaging of Cell-specific Calcium Signaling at the Tripartite Synapse of the Mouse Diaphragm

The electrical activity of cells in tissues can be monitored by electrophysiological techniques, but these are usually limited to the analysis of individual cells. Since an increase of intracellular calcium (Ca2+) in the cytosol often occurs because of the electrical activity, or in response to a myriad of other stimuli, this process can be monitored by the imaging of cells loaded with fluorescent calcium-sensitive dyes.&#160; However, it is difficult to image this response in an individual cell type within whole tissue because these dyes are taken up by all cell types within the tissue. In contrast, genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) can be expressed by an individual cell type and fluoresce in response to an increase of intracellular Ca2+, thus permitting the imaging of Ca2+ signaling in entire populations of individual cell types. Here, we apply the use of the GECIs GCaMP3/6 to the mouse neuromuscular junction, a tripartite synapse between motor neurons, skeletal muscle, and terminal/perisynaptic Schwann cells. We demonstrate the utility of this technique in classic ex vivo tissue preparations. Using an optical splitter, we perform dual-wavelength imaging of dynamic Ca2+ signals and a static label of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) in an approach that could be easily adapted to monitor two cell-specific GECI or genetically encoded voltage indicators (GEVI) simultaneously. Finally, we discuss the routines used to capture spatial maps of fluorescence intensity. Together, these optical, transgenic, and analytic techniques can be employed to study the biological activity of distinct cell subpopulations at the NMJ in a wide variety of contexts.

Ex Vivo Imaging of Cell-specific Calcium Signaling at the Tripartite Synapse of the Mouse Diaphragm

Here we present a protocol to image calcium signaling in populations of individual cell types at the murine neuromuscular junction.

Ex Vivoセル固有カルシウム マウス ダイヤフラムの三者のシナプスでシグナル伝達のイメージング

The electrical activity of cells in tissues can be monitored by electrophysiological techniques, but these are usually limited to the analysis of ...

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Decades of research in many model organisms have led to the current concept of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory formation. Learning-induced changes in synaptic transmission are often distributed across many neurons and levels of processing in the brain. Therefore, methods to visualize learning-dependent synaptic plasticity across neurons are needed. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster represents a particularly favorable model organism to study neuronal circuits underlying learning. The protocol presented here demonstrates a way in which the processes underlying the formation of associative olfactory memories, i.e., synaptic activity and their changes, can be monitored in vivo. Using the broad array of genetic tools available in Drosophila, it is possible to specifically express genetically encoded calcium indicators in determined cell populations and even single cells. By fixing a fly in place, and opening the head capsule, it is possible to visualize calcium dynamics in these cells whilst delivering olfactory stimuli. Additionally, we demonstrate a set-up in which the fly can be subjected, simultaneously, to electric shocks to the body. This provides a system in which flies can undergo classical olfactory conditioning - whereby a previously na&#239;ve odor is learned to be associated with electric shock punishment - at the same time as the representation of this odor (and other untrained odors) is observed in the brain via two-photon microscopy. Our lab has previously reported the generation of synaptically localized calcium sensors, which enables one to confine the fluorescent calcium signals to pre- or postsynaptic compartments. Two-photon microscopy provides a way to spatially resolve fine structures. We exemplify this by focusing on neurons integrating information from the mushroom body, a higher-order center of the insect brain. Overall, this protocol provides a method to examine the synaptic connections between neurons whose activity is modulated as a result of olfactory learning.

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Here we present a protocol with which pre- and/or postsynaptic calcium can be visualized in the context of Drosophila learning and memory. In vivo calcium imaging using synaptically localized calcium sensors is combined with a classical olfactory conditioning paradigm such that the synaptic plasticity underlying this type of associative learning may be determined.