This research was supported by a grant (AZ: 76202-29-3/11) from the Ministry for Science and Culture of Lower Saxony (Germany) to Andreas Mojzisch and Jan H&#228;usser.

Two studies11,12 that applied the described procedures have been approved by the ethics committee of the University of Hildesheim and were in line with the declaration of Helsinki.
1. Set-up
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53101/53101fig1.jpg" />
Figure 1.&#160;Sketch of the set-up in the two experimental rooms. P = real participant, C1/C2 = confederates, mic = microphone, cam = camera <a href="https:/...

<ol>
	<li>Jowett, B., Davis, H. W. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Aristotle's Politics. , (1920).</li><li>Baumeister, R. F., Leary, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+need+to+belong:+desire+for+interpersonal+attachments+as+a+fundamental+human+motivation.">The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.</a> Psychol. Bull. 117 (3), 497-529 (1995).</li><li>Thorsteinsson, E. B., James, J. 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A., Mojzisch, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Trier+Social+Stress+Test+as+a+paradigm+to+study+how+people+respond+to+threat+in+social+interactions.">The Trier Social Stress Test as a paradigm to study how people respond to threat in social interactions.</a> Front. Psychol. 6 (14), (2015).</li><li>Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K., Hellhammer, D. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+'Trier+Social+Stress+Test'&#8212;a+tool+for+investigating+psychobiological+stress+response+in+a+laboratory+setting.">The 'Trier Social Stress Test'&#8212;a tool for investigating psychobiological stress response in a laboratory setting.</a> Neuropsychobiology. 28 (1-2), 76-81 (1993).</li><li>Kudielka, B. M., Hellhammer, D. H., Kirschbaum, C., Harmon-Jones, E., Winkielman, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ten+years+of+research+with+the+Trier+Social+Stress+Test&#8212;revisited.">Ten years of research with the Trier Social Stress Test&#8212;revisited.</a> Social neuroscience: integrating biological and psychological explanations. , (2007).</li><li>von Dawans, B., Kirschbaum, C., Heinrichs, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Trier+Social+Stress+Test+for+Groups+(TSST-G):+a+new+research+tool+for+controlled+simultaneous+social+stress+exposure+in+a+group+format.">The Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G): a new research tool for controlled simultaneous social stress exposure in a group format.</a> Psychoneuroendocrino. 36 (4), 514-522 (2011).</li><li>Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C., Austin, W. 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A., Kattenstroth, M., van Dick, R., Mojzisch, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=“We”+are+not+stressed:+social+identity+in+groups+buffers+neuroendocrine+stress+reactions.">“We” are not stressed: social identity in groups buffers neuroendocrine stress reactions.</a> J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 48 (4), 973-977 (2012).</li><li>Frisch, J. U., H&#228;usser, J. A., van Dick, R., Mojzisch, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Making+support+work:+the+interplay+between+social+support+and+social+identity.">Making support work: the interplay between social support and social identity.</a> J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 55, 154-161 (2014).</li><li>Nuttin, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Narcissism+beyond+Gestalt+and+awareness:+the+name+letter+effect.">Narcissism beyond Gestalt and awareness: the name letter effect.</a> Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 15 (3), 353-361 (1985).</li><li>Jones, J. T., Pelham, B. W., Carvallo, M., Mirenberg, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+do+I+love+thee?+Let+me+count+the+Js:+implicit+egotism+and+interpersonal+attraction.">How do I love thee? Let me count the Js: implicit egotism and interpersonal attraction.</a> J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 87 (5), 665-683 (2004).</li><li>Taylor, S. E., Seeman, T. E., Eisenberger, N. I., Kozanian, T. A., Moore, A. N., Moons, W. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+a+supportive+or+an+unsupportive+audience+on+biological+and+psychological+responses+to+stress.">Effects of a supportive or an unsupportive audience on biological and psychological responses to stress.</a> J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 98 (1), 47-56 (2010).</li><li>Haslam, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Psychology in organizations: the social identity approach. , (2004).</li><li>Kudielka, B. M., Hellhammer, D. H., W&#252;st, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Why+do+we+respond+so+differently?+Reviewing+determinants+of+human+salivary+cortisol+responses+to+challenge.">Why do we respond so differently? Reviewing determinants of human salivary cortisol responses to challenge.</a> Psychoneuroendocrino. 34 (1), 2-18 (2009).</li><li>Kudielka, B. M., Gierens, A., Hellhammer, D. H., W&#252;st, S., Schlotz, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salivary+cortisol+in+ambulatory+assessment&#8212;some+dos,+some+don&#8217;ts,+and+some+open+questions.">Salivary cortisol in ambulatory assessment&#8212;some dos, some don&#8217;ts, and some open questions.</a> Psychosom. Med. 74 (4), 418-431 (2012).</li><li>Doosje, B., Ellemers, N., Spears, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perceived+intragroup+variability+as+a+function+of+group+status+and+identification.">Perceived intragroup variability as a function of group status and identification.</a> J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 31 (5), 410-436 (1995).</li><li>Birkett, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Trier+Social+Stress+Test+protocol+for+inducing+psychological+stress.">The Trier Social Stress Test protocol for inducing psychological stress.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (56), e3238 (2011).</li><li>Schwabe, L., Haddad, L., Schachinger, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HPA+axis+activation+by+a+socially+evaluated+cold-pressor+test.">HPA axis activation by a socially evaluated cold-pressor test.</a> Psychoneuroendocrino. 33 (6), 890-895 (2008).</li><li>Berg, J., Dickhaut, J., McCabe, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trust,+reciprocity,+and+social+history.">Trust, reciprocity, and social history.</a> Game Econ. Behav. 10 (1), 122-142 (1995).</li><li>Pruitt, D. G., Lewis, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+integrative+solutions+in+bilateral+negotiation.">Development of integrative solutions in bilateral negotiation.</a> J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 31 (4), 621-633 (1975).</li><li>Stasser, G., Titus, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pooling+of+unshared+information+in+group+decision+making:+biased+information+sampling+during+discussion.">Pooling of unshared information in group decision making: biased information sampling during discussion.</a> J. Per. Soc. Psychol. 48 (6), 1467-1478 (1985).</li><li>Mojzisch, A., Schulz-Hardt, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Knowing+others'+preferences+degrades+the+quality+of+group+decisions.">Knowing others' preferences degrades the quality of group decisions.</a> J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 98 (5), 794-808 (2010).</li></ol>

This protocol describes two effective manipulations of (a) the relationship between different protagonists in the TSST (i.e., between participants in the TSST-G11 or between the TSST-committee and the participant12) and (b)&#160;the behavior of the TSST-committee12.
The proposed manipulation of social identity has several strengths. First, it can be easily implemented before commencing the TSST. Hence, it does not alter the standard TSST protocol, whic...

As social animals1, humans strive for belongingness2. Hence, for humans the behavior of significant others as well as their relationships with them are of great importance, especially in unfamiliar and challenging situations. For example, in stressful situations supportive behavior of other people as well as positive social relationships can act as powerful resources to cope with stress3,4. These social resources, however, interact in a complex way and are sometimes not effective stress buffers5 per se . In order to study the conditions under which supportive behavior and social relationships have an effect on stress reactions, two different manipulations are introduced that can be implemented in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)6,7 or the group version of the TSST (TSST-G)8. Both are standard protocols to induce high levels of psychological and physiological stress in the laboratory7. The TSST(-G) is framed as a simulated job interview, in which participants are supposed to convince two interviewers (i.e., the selection committee) that they are the most suitable candidate for a job position. Additionally, participants have to perform a mental arithmetic task in front of the selection committee. In order to increase the social-evaluative threat, participants are told that a video of them will be recorded for an analysis of their nonverbal behavior and a voice frequency analysis6,7.
Manipulation of social versus personal identity
To manipulate social relationships within the TSST(-G), different techniques to induce a shared social identity9&#8212;a feeling of &#8220;we&#8221;-ness&#8212;between protagonists in the TSST/TSST-G are proposed (compare Gockel et al.10, H&#228;usser et al.11). Specifically, the manipulation of a&#160;social identity &#160;consists of the following steps11,12: (1) Participants are placed at the same table. (2) Throughout the experimental procedure participants are addressed as a group. (3) The initial letter of participants&#8217; names is manipulated to be identical because people prefer letters constituting their own name13. This name letter effect can be linked to increased interpersonal attraction14. (4) Participants&#8217; age and occupation are manipulated to be similar. (5) Participants are given T-shirts of the same color. (6) Participants work alone on a task in which they have to generate and write down ideas to improve the quality of life in their city (Task 1). Their ideas are put into a collective box and they are told that the group performance will be analyzed. (7) Participants are asked to think of similarities (e.g., goals, wishes, and habits) between themselves and their fellow group members (Task 2). (8) A group picture is taken.
In order to induce a personal identity, the following means are taken: (1) Participants are seated at three individual tables. (2) Throughout the experimental procedure participants are addressed as individuals. (3) The initial letter of participants&#8217; names is manipulated to be different. (4) Participants&#8217; age and occupation are manipulated to be different. (5) Participants are given T-shirts of different colors. (6) Participants also work on Task 1. However, their ideas for improving the quality of life are put into individual boxes and it is emphasized that their individual performance will be analyzed. (7) Participants should think of things (e.g., goals, wishes, and habits) that distinguish themselves from their fellow group members. (8) An individual picture of each participant is taken. Importantly, in both conditions participants are not allowed to interact with each other in any form. Furthermore, please note that the realization of steps 3 and 4 requires the use of confederates and may therefore not be applicable in every study design.
Manipulation of supportive versus unsupportive behavior
To study the effects of (un)supportive behavior, an experimental manipulation of non-verbal behavior of the TSST-selection committee members (compare Taylor et al.15) is introduced. Importantly, only the non-verbal behavior of the committee is altered: In stark contrast to the standard version of the TSST6, in which the committee members are trained to communicate with the participant in an unresponsive neutral manner (i.e., the committee members provide no facial feedback at all), the committee members now behave either supportively or unsupportively. However, the standardized verbal statements of the committee members and the procedure of the TSST are unchanged.
These two experimental manipulations can be applied independently of each other but can also be combined. In sum, the identity manipulation has been tested in our laboratory on 186 male and female healthy students and the manipulation of committee behavior on 90 male and female healthy students. In the present article, we describe the combination of both manipulations as conducted by Frisch et al.12. Building on the social identity approach16, Frisch et al. 12 hypothesized that social support in a stressful situation will only be effective in buffering stress responses, if the provider and the recipient of support share a social identity. This hypothesis was tested using a 2 (social versus personal identity) &#215; 2 (unsupportive versus supportive committee behavior) between-subjects design. In the first part of this experiment, a shared social identity (versus personal identity) was induced between three participants. In fact, there was only one real participant and the other two persons were confederates who pretended to be real participants throughout the study. The two confederates were used in order to assure a standardized committee behavior in the upcoming TSST. In this second part of the experiment, the TSST was introduced to the participants and they were told that one of them would have to serve as job applicant and the other two would constitute the committee. The two confederates were designated as members of the TSST-committee by using a bogus drawing of lots procedure. During the TSST, the non-verbal behavior of those two committee members was manipulated and they acted either supportively or unsupportively. The following protocol describes the procedure of this experiment12 and the manipulations in more detail.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="841">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>9 T-shirts in 3 colors (i.e., 3 in each color)</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Social/personal identity manipulation.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 stick-on labels</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Social/personal identity manipulation.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 boxes (e.g., made of cardboard)</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Social/personal identity manipulation (task 1).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>a little pouch&#160;</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Bogus lot drawing procedure (entails three lots: two neatly folded lots labeled with with &#8220;committee&#8221; and one crumpled-up lot labeled with &#8220;applicant&#8221;).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 stopwatches</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Place them on the table in Room 2 (for the TSST-committee).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 video cameras</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Place in Room 2 (one for allegedly filming the participant, one for filming the behavior of the committee).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 tripods</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Place in Room 2.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 microphone</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Place in Room 2 (for allegedly recording the speech and the answers of the participant).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 microphone stand</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Place in Room 2.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>several pens</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Furniture</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 chairs</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Room 1 A and B (social/ personal identity manipulation).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 big table</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Room 1A (social identity manipulation).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 small tables</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Room 1B (personal identity manipulation).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 big table</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Room 2 (TSST-committee).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 chairs</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Room 2 (TSST-committee).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Questionnaires/ instructions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 informed consents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Use the&#160; informed consent of your institution (for all participants, i.e., the two confederates and the real participant).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3 manipulation checks of identity salience</td>
			<td>Items of Frisch et al. (2014), H&#228;usser et al. (2012) or Doosje et al. (1995)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hand out after the identity salience manipulation (for all participants, i.e., the two confederates and the real participant).&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 &#34;instructions&#34; for the TSST-committee</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hand out to the committee members (i.e., the confederates) at the end of the bogus lot drawing procedure. These &#34;instructions&#34; are part of the cover story so that the real participant believes that the two confederates are real participants as well and need to be informed about their roles in the TSST. However, since the confederates are of course already familiar with the TSST procedure, it is not important what these instructions actually entail (e.g., as a reminder for the confederates they may entail the exact wording of the verbal instructions of the committee).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 solutions to the mental arithmetic task</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Place them on the table in Room 2 (for the TSST-committee).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 (or 3) manipulation check(s) of committee behavior</td>
			<td>Items of Frisch et al. (2014)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hand out after the TSST (for the real participant only). (However, in order to keep up the role of the confederates as real participants, a similar questionnaire can be handed out to the confederates asking them how they evaluate their own behavior during the TSST.)&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>several sheets of blank paper</td>
			<td>any brand/manufacturer is suitable</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hand out for task 1, task 2, preparation time of TSST (for the real participant), notes during the TSST (for the TSST-committee).</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

the social dimension of stress: experimental manipulations of social support and social identity in the trier social stress test

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations supportive behavior of other people as well as positive social relationships can act as powerful resources to cope with stress. In order to study the interplay between these variables, this protocol describes two effective experimental manipulations of social relationships and supportive behavior in the laboratory. In the present article, these two manipulations are implemented in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)&#8212;a standard stress induction paradigm in which participants are subjected to a simulated job interview. More precisely, we propose (a) a manipulation of the relationship between different protagonists in the TSST by making a shared social identity salient and (b) a manipulation of the behavior of the TSST-selection committee, which acts either supportively or unsupportively. These two experimental manipulations are designed in a modular fashion and can be applied independently of each other but can also be combined. Moreover, these two manipulations can also be integrated into other stress protocols and into other standardized social interactions such as trust games, negotiation tasks, or other group tasks.

Two studies (H&#228;usser et al.11 and Frisch et al.12) showed the effectiveness of the identity manipulation on 186 healthy students (97 females, age range 18 to 35 years, mean (M) age = 22.40 years, standard deviation (SD) = 2.83 years). Moreover, Frisch et al.12 tested the effectiveness of the committee behavior manipulation on 90 healthy students (49 females, age range 18 to 29, M = 22.00 years, SD = 2.31 years).
<p cl...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Social Dimension of Stress: Experimental Manipulations of Social Support and Social Identity in the Trier Social Stress Test at JoVE.com

The Social Dimension of Stress: Experimental Manipulations of Social Support and Social Identity in the Trier Social Stress Test

Previous research on the social dimension of stress has focused on two important variables: social identity and social support. This protocol introduces an effective experimental manipulation of these two social variables and describes their implementation in a standard stress induction paradigm (Trier Social Stress Test).

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations ...

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13.5K ビュー.  University of Hildesheim. Previous research on the social dimension of stress has focused on two important variables: social identity and social support. This protocol introduces an effective experimental manipulation of these two social variables and describes their implementation in a standard stress induction paradigm (Trier Social Stress Test). 

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The Resident-intruder Paradigm: A Standardized Test for Aggression, Violence and Social Stress

This video publication explains in detail the experimental protocol of the resident-intruder paradigm in rats. This test is a standardized method to measure offensive aggression and defensive behavior in a semi natural setting. The most important behavioral elements performed by the resident and the intruder are demonstrated in the video and illustrated using artistic drawings. The use of the resident intruder paradigm for acute and chronic social stress experiments is explained as well. Finally, some brief tests and criteria are presented to distinguish aggression from its more violent and pathological forms.

This video shows the resident-intruder paradigm in rats. This test is a standardized method to measure offensive aggression, defensive behavior and violence in a semi-natural setting. The use of the paradigm for social stress experiments is explained as well.

This video publication explains in detail the experimental protocol of the resident-intruder paradigm in rats. This test is a standardized method to ...

Using Chronic Social Stress to Model Postpartum Depression in Lactating Rodents

Exposure to chronic stress is a reliable predictor of depressive disorders, and social stress is a common ethologically relevant stressor in both animals and humans. However, many animal models of depression were developed in males and are not applicable or effective in studies of postpartum females. Recent studies have reported significant effects of chronic social stress during lactation, an ethologically relevant and effective stressor, on maternal behavior, growth, and behavioral neuroendocrinology. This manuscript will describe this chronic social stress paradigm using repeated exposure of a lactating dam to a novel male intruder, and the assessment of the behavioral, physiological, and neuroendocrine effects of this model. Chronic social stress (CSS) is a valuable model for studying the effects of stress on the behavior and physiology of the dam as well as her offspring and future generations. The exposure of pups to CSS can also be used as an early life stress that has long term effects on behavior, physiology, and neuroendocrinology.

This article describes the use of chronic resident intruder social stress as an ethologically relevant paradigm to model postpartum depression and anxiety in lactating rodents.

Exposure to chronic stress is a reliable predictor of depressive disorders, and social stress is a common ethologically relevant stressor in both animals ...

The Modified Hole Board - Measuring Behavior, Cognition and Social Interaction in Mice and Rats

This protocol describes the modified hole board (mHB), which combines features from a traditional hole board and open field and is designed to measure multiple dimensions of unconditioned behavior in small laboratory mammals (e.g., mice, rats, tree shrews and small primates). This paradigm is a valuable alternative for the use of a behavioral test battery, since a broad behavioral spectrum of an animal&#8217;s behavioral profile can be investigated in one single test.
The apparatus consists of a box, representing the &#8216;protected&#8217; area, separated from a group compartment. A board, on which small cylinders are staggered in three lines, is placed in the center of the box, representing the &#8216;unprotected&#8217; area of the set-up. The cognitive abilities of the animals can be measured by baiting some cylinders on the board and measuring the working and reference memory. Other unconditioned behavior, such as activity-related-, anxiety-related- and social behavior, can be observed using this paradigm. Behavioral flexibility and the ability to habituate to a novel environment can additionally be observed by subjecting the animals to multiple trials in the mHB, revealing insight into the animals&#8217; adaptive capacities.
Due to testing order effects in a behavioral test battery, na&#239;ve animals should be used for each individual experiment. By testing multiple behavioral dimensions in a single paradigm and thereby circumventing this issue, the number of experimental animals used is reduced. Furthermore, by avoiding social isolation during testing and without the need to food deprive the animals, the mHB represents a behavioral test system, inducing if any, very low amount of stress.

This protocol describes the modified hole board, which is a behavioral test set-up that comprises the characteristics of an open field and a traditional hole board. This set-up enables the differential analysis of unconditioned behavior of small laboratory mammals as well as the analysis of cognitive abilities.

This protocol describes the modified hole board (mHB), which combines features from a traditional hole board and open field and is designed to measure ...

A Mouse Model of Subchronic and Mild Social Defeat Stress for Understanding Stress-induced Behavioral and Physiological Deficits

Stressful life events often increase the incidence of depression in humans. To study the mechanisms of depression, the development of animal models of depression is essential. Because there are several types of depression, various animal models are needed for a deeper understanding of the disorder. Previously, a mouse model of subchronic and mild social defeat stress (sCSDS) using a modified chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) paradigm was established. In the paradigm, to reduce physical injuries from aggressors, the duration of physical contact between the aggressor and a subordinate was reduced compared to in the original CSDS paradigm. sCSDS mice showed increased body weight gain, food intake, and water intake during the stress period, and their social behaviors were suppressed after the stress period. In terms of the face validity of the stress-induced overeating and overdrinking following the increased body weight gain, the sCSDS mice may show some features related to atypical depression in humans. Thus, a mouse model of sCSDS may be useful for studying the pathogenic mechanisms underlying depression. This protocol will help establish the sCSDS mouse model, especially for studying the mechanisms underlying stress-induced weight gain and polydipsia- and hyperphagia-like symptoms.

Here, methods for developing a mouse model of subchronic and mild social defeat stress are described and used to investigate the pathogenic features of depression including hyperphagia- and polydipsia-like symptoms following increased body weight.

Stressful life events often increase the incidence of depression in humans. To study the mechanisms of depression, the development of animal models of ...

Experimental Research Examining How People Can Cope with Uncertainty Through Soft Haptic Sensations

Human beings are constantly surrounded by uncertainty and change. The question arises how people cope with such uncertainty. To date, most research has focused on the cognitive strategies people adopt to deal with uncertainty. However, especially when uncertainty is due to unpredictable societal events (e.g., economical crises, political revolutions, terrorism threats) of which one is unable to judge the impact on one&#8217;s future live, cognitive strategies (like seeking additional information) is likely to fail to combat uncertainty. Instead, the current paper discusses a method demonstrating that people might deal with uncertainty experientially through soft haptic sensations. More specifically, because touching something soft creates a feeling of comfort and security, people prefer objects with softer as compared to harder properties when feeling uncertain. Seeking for softness is a highly efficient and effective tool to deal with uncertainty as our hands are available at all times. This protocol describes a set of methods demonstrating 1) how environmental (un)certainty can be situationally activated with an experiential priming procedure, 2) that the quality of the softness experience (what type of softness and how it is experienced) matters and 3) how uncertainty can be reduced using different methods.

To date research has focused on cognitive strategies people adopt to cope with uncertainty. This research examines instead an experiential way of dealing with uncertainty and introduces a set of experimental methods showing how the experience of haptic softness can serve as a tool to deal with uncertainty.

Human beings are constantly surrounded by uncertainty and change. The question arises how people cope with such uncertainty. To date, most research has ...

Examining Recall Memory in Infancy and Early Childhood Using the Elicited Imitation Paradigm

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is commonly assessed using verbal report paradigms in adults, studying the development of this ability in preverbal infants and children proved challenging. Over the past 30 years, researchers have developed a non-verbal means of assessing recall memory known as the elicited or deferred imitation paradigm. In one variant of the procedure, participants are presented with novel three-dimensional stimuli for a brief baseline period before a researcher demonstrates a series of actions that culminate in an end- or goal-state. The participant is allowed to imitate the demonstrated actions immediately, after a delay, or both. Recall performance is then compared to baseline or to performance on novel control sequences presented at the same session; memory can be assessed for the individual target actions and the order in which they were completed. This procedure is an accepted analogue to the verbal report techniques used with adults, and it has served to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. In addition, the elicited or deferred imitation procedure has been modified and adapted to answer questions relevant to other aspects of cognitive functioning. The broad utility and application of imitation paradigms is discussed, along with limitations of the approach and directions for future research.

The elicited imitation procedure was established to examine the development of recall memory in infancy and early childhood. This procedure has been widely used to establish a solid foundation of the nature of recall memory in infancy and early childhood.

The ability to recall the past allows us to report on details of previous experiences, from the everyday to the significant. Because recall memory is ...

A Within-subjects Experimental Protocol to Assess the Effects of Social Input on Infant EEG

Despite the importance of social interactions for infant brain development, little research has assessed functional neural activation while infants socially interact. Electroencephalography (EEG) power is an advantageous technique to assess infant functional neural activation. However, many studies record infant EEG only during one baseline condition. This protocol describes a paradigm that is designed to comprehensively assess infant EEG activity in both social and nonsocial contexts as well as tease apart how different types of social inputs differentially relate to infant EEG. The within-subjects paradigm includes four controlled conditions. In the nonsocial condition, infants view objects on computer screens. The joint attention condition involves an experimenter directing the infant's attention to pictures. The joint attention condition includes three types of social input: language, face-to-face interaction, and the presence of joint attention. Differences in infant EEG between the nonsocial and joint attention conditions could be due to any of these three types of input. Therefore, two additional conditions (one with language input while the experimenter is hidden behind a screen and one with face-to-face interaction) were included to assess the driving contextual factors in patterns of infant neural activation. Representative results demonstrate that infant EEG power varied by condition, both overall and differentially by brain region, supporting the functional nature of infant EEG power. This technique is advantageous in that it includes conditions that are clearly social or nonsocial and allows for examination of how specific types of social input relate to EEG power. This paradigm can be used to assess how individual differences in age, affect, socioeconomic status, and parent-infant interaction quality relate to the development of the social brain. Based on the demonstrated functional nature of infant EEG power, future studies should consider the role of EEG recording context and design conditions that are clearly social or nonsocial.

This novel protocol is designed to assess the neural bases of social interaction in infants. The paradigm is designed to tease apart how various social inputs such as language, joint attention, and face-to-face interaction relate to infant neural activation. Infant EEG power is recorded during both social and nonsocial conditions.

Despite the importance of social interactions for infant brain development, little research has assessed functional neural activation while infants ...

A Visual Guide for Studying Behavioral Defenses to Pathogen Attacks in Leaf-Cutting Ants

The complex lifestyle, evolutionary history of advanced cooperation, and disease defenses of leaf-cutting ants are well studied. Although numerous studies have described the behaviors connected with disease defense, and the associated use of chemicals and antimicrobials, no common visual reference has been made. The main aim of this study was to record short clips of behaviors involved in disease defense, both prophylactically and directly targeted towards an antagonist of the colony following infection. To do so we used an infection experiment, with sub-colonies of the leaf-cutting ant species Acromyrmex echinatior, and the most significant known pathogenic threat to the ants&#39; fungal crop (Leucoagaricus gongylophorus), a specialized pathogenic fungus in the genus Escovopsis. We filmed and compared infected and uninfected colonies, at both early and more advanced stages of infection. We quantified key defensive behaviors across treatments and show that the behavioral response to pathogen attack likely varies between different castes of worker ants, and between early and late detection of a threat. Based on these recordings we have made a library of behavioral clips, accompanied by definitions of the main individual defensive behaviors. We anticipate that such a guide can provide a common frame of reference for other researchers working in this field, to recognize and study these behaviors, and also provide greater scope for comparing different studies to ultimately help better understand the role these behaviors play in disease defense.

We present a visual guide to disease defense behaviors in leaf-cutting ants, with individual clips and accompanying definitions, illustrated in an experimental infection scenario. Our main aim is to help other researchers recognize key defensive behaviors and to provide a common understanding for future research in this field.

The complex lifestyle, evolutionary history of advanced cooperation, and disease defenses of leaf-cutting ants are well studied. Although numerous studies ...

Enactive Phenomenological Approach to the Trier Social Stress Test: A Mixed Methods Point of View

The single Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and the TSST for groups (TSST-G) are the most used protocols to experimentally induce psychosocial stress. These tests are based on uncontrollability and social-evaluative threat, inducing psychological and physiological consequences (e.g., anxiety, emotional states, salivary cortisol increases). Many quantitative experimental studies have investigated these stress inducers and these consequences. But, as far as we know, this study is the first to provide a qualitative analysis to access the participants' voices so as to understand the dynamics of their experience throughout the TSST and the TSST-G. This paper outlines a mixed methods approach to the TSST. This approach can help to maximize the information that can be gained from the TSST, which researchers often use without looking more closely at what is qualitatively happening psychologically for participants during the stressor itself. In this way, this protocol is an example of mixed methods, showing the added value of using the enactive phenomenological approach to analyze experimental protocols more deeply. This kind of mixed methods is helpful to access the experience, to understand the actor's point of view, and to analyze in-depth the dynamics of cognitive processes like intentions, perceptions, enacted knowledge, and emotion. The discussion section shows the different uses of a mixed methods protocol, exploiting the enactive phenomenological approach to analyze a protocol or to give a cross vision of the same research subject. This section deals with different existing applications, pointing out some critical steps in this mixed methods approach.

Here, we present an original mixed method combining a quantitative and a qualitative approach to examine accurately participants&#39; experiences during the Trier Social Stress Test and the Trier Social Stress Test for groups.

The single Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and the TSST for groups (TSST-G) are the most used protocols to experimentally induce psychosocial stress. ...

Integrating Computerized Linguistic and Social Network Analyses to Capture Addiction Recovery Capital in an Online Community

The article describes a new methodology designed with the aim of finding a comprehensive, unobtrusive, and accurate way of capturing social recovery capital development in online communities of recovery from alcohol and drug (AOD) addiction. Recovery capital was conceptualised as both engagement in the online recovery community and identification with the community. To measure recovery capital development, naturally occurring data were extracted from the social media page of a specific recovery program, with the page being set up as a resource for a face-to-face recovery program. To map engagement with the online community, social network analysis (SNA) capturing online social interaction was performed. Social interaction was measured through the linkages between the online contributors/members of the online community as represented by program clients, staff, and supporters from the broader community. To capture markers of social identification with the online community, computerised linguistic analysis of the textual data (content from posts and comments) was conducted. Recovery capital captured in this way was analysed against retention data (a proxy outcome indicator), as days spent in the (face-to-face) recovery program. The online data extracted was linked to participant data in regards to program retention to test prediction of a key recovery outcome. This approach allowed the examination of the role of online support communities and assessment of the association between recovery capital (developed via the online community of recovery) and recovery outcomes.

The article describes a novel approach for analyzing dynamic online social interactions (in an online context) exemplified by a study of an online community of recovery from alcohol and drug addiction.

The article describes a new methodology designed with the aim of finding a comprehensive, unobtrusive, and accurate way of capturing social recovery ...