著者は、アメリカ航空宇宙局（NASA）のバラとAPRAプログラムから資金援助を認めます。 GCはまた、NASAで彼の予定を管理するための大学宇宙研究協会を認めています。

1.マイクロストリップ線路共振器の製作14（図3） <ol><li> H 2 O 2（3：1）で10分間混合したばかりのH 2 SO 4を用いて、0.45μmの厚さのシリコンデバイス層を有するシリコン・オン・インシュレータ（SOI）ウェハをきれい。その後、窒素ガンで10分間、乾燥のために、脱イオン水でウェハをすすぎます。 HF（10：1）、続いて加工直前に、H 2 O中にウェハを浸漬するための10秒、5分間、脱イオン水ですすぎます。 </li><li>ゲルマニウム（Ge）などのS-1811のような/ポジ型フォトレジストで構成されてリフトオフマスクを製作。15 <ol><li>スピンコート薄くポジ型フォトレジストの二層（2部シンナー-P：1部ポジ型フォトレジスト）とのウェハ30秒、その後、電子ビーム堆積物のGeのための4000 rpmで。 </li><li>最初の1分間のウェハ上にヘキサメチルジシラザン（HMDS）を塗布した後、30秒間3000rpmで過剰をスピンオフすることにより、フォトリソグラフィを用いてパターンのGe。 </li><li> SPI30秒間2000rpmで110℃で1分間ホットプレート上でそれを焼く：nは上にポジ型フォトレジスト（1部ポジ型フォトレジスト2部シンナー-P）を薄く。フォトレジストを露光し、テトラメチルアンモニウムヒドロキシベースのソリューションでレジストを現像スプレーするマスクアライナを使用してください。 </li><li>反応性イオンは、フォトレジストのアンダーカットを達成するために、O 2プラズマでフォトレジストの下にある70 W.アッシュで、SF 6 / O 2プラズマでのGeをエッチングします。 </li><li> 500 Wのアルゴンの3.7ミリテスラ（AR）でDCマグネトロンスパッタ堆積物ニオブ（Nbの）グランドプレーンと4時間アセトンで満たされたビーカーの内側にウエハを置くことによって、それを持ち上げ。 </li></ol></li><li>スピンコートビスベンゾシクロブテン（BCB）SOIウェーハのNbを塗布面に30秒間4,000rpmで別のシリコンウエハの一方の面に。 200℃で圧力を3バールと一緒に2 BCB被覆表面を接着。 </li><li>手動で逆さまフリップウェーハスタックは、SOIウエハの裏面の処理を開始します。 </li><li>ボッシュプロセスを使用して、深い反応性イオンエッチング、続いてのAl 2 O 3スラリーを用いて機械研磨によりシリコンハンドルウエハをエッチングする16エッチングH 2 Oとの埋込SiO 2層：HF（10：1）で20分間。 </li><li>預金モリブデン700 WのDCマグネトロン反応性スパッタリングを用いて、窒化モリブデン（Mo 2 N）および3.3 mTのアルゴン（Ar：N 2分圧= 7：1）。 30秒間2000rpmで30秒間、2000rpmでスピニング、スピニング続いて2分間、180℃でそれを焼成することにより、パターンの共振器は、ポジ型フォトレジスト（1部ポジ型フォトレジスト2部シンナー-P）を薄く。反応性イオンエッチング装置内の水酸化テトラメチルアンモニウムベースのソリューションと灰にフォトレジストを開発します。リン酸系溶液でのMo 2 Nをエッチングします。 </li><li> 30秒間5000rpmでポリメチルメタクリレート（PMMA）でスピンし、電子ビームDEP、続いて2分間、180℃でそれを焼成したGe / PMMA二重層からなるリフトオフマスクを製作Geをosition。 Nbの伝送ライン預金をスパッタし、アセトン中でリフトオフ（ポジ型フォトレジストは、PMMAで置換されていることを除いて、1.2のステップを参照）。 </li><li>いくつかの実施形態では、無線周波数（RF）にポジ型フォトレジストを用いて回転させてSiO 2のパターンをデポジットスパッタとフッ酸系溶液中でエッチングします。次に、ステップ1.2で詳述したように、マスクリフトオフゲルマニウム/ポジ型フォトレジストを用いて、スパッタ堆積のNb薄膜をリフトオフ。 </li></ol>テストパッケージにおけるマイクロ波共振器チップの設置2.手順<ol><li>設計と機械金からなるテストパッケージ（金）で被覆された銅の空洞共振器チップ寸法、給電線の入力と出力の場所と一致して（ベースおよび蓋付き）。注：ハウジングの空洞サイズは、目的の帯域にわたって最小限の寄生結合でシングルモード動作をサポートするように指定する必要があります。 </li><li>インピーダンス制御されたマイクロ波ファン-OUを設計・製作ルートへトンボード17チップとサブミニチュアバージョンA（SMA）コネクタ間の信号。 </li><li>中心導体ピンは、対応するファンアウトボードのコンタクトパッドの上に位置合わせされるように、テストパッケージの入力および出力にSMAコネクタを挿入します。短絡から保護し、中心導体ピンの領域にはんだを適用するために、はんだマスクを適用します。はんだを溶融するために〜5分間200℃にホットプレートや熱にパッケージを配置します。冷ます、その後、はんだマスクを削除します。 </li><li>オンチップの給電線の出力と入力パッドが近いと、対応するファンアウトボードのコプレーナ線路（CPW）ラインに整列していること例えばAu被覆銅パッケージキャビティ内に共振器チップをマウントします。チップのコーナー部の縁で接触する銅クリップでチップを固定します。 </li><li>コンタクトパッドファンアウトボードとオンチップのAlワイヤボンドを超伝導置きます。ここで紹介する場合の最大数（〜4を配置 - を参照してください。 <strSMAコネクタの入力と出力とオンチップCPW給電線との間のインピーダンス整合を提供するために、〜500-600μmの長い、〜250ミクロン・イン・高さのワイヤボンドオング&gt;図4）。 </li><li>ワイヤボンディングした後、マルチメータで入力および出力コネクタの中心ピン間の直流抵抗をチェックして、センターピンとグランドの間に、2つの中央のピンの間の電気的接続と中心とのオープン接続があることを確認します線路とグランド。 </li></ol>極低温ヘリウム3マイクロ波テストベッドにおけるマイクロ波共振器の取り付け3.手順<ol><li> SMAケーブルのシリーズは、デバイスがマウントされる0.3-KのコールドステージにRTからルーティングされている。図2に示す構成、のようにテストベッドを組み立てます。 </li><li>で、低マイクロ波損失を提供するために、図2に示すように、銅（Cu）と超伝導ニオブ-チタン（のNbTi）ケーブルを取り付け、NbTiケーブルの場合、低い熱伝導性。 2-Kおよび0.3-Kステージ間の熱ブレークとしてのNbTiケーブルを使用してください。 </li><li>共振器の帯域で低雑音増幅のための出力ライン上の2-K段階で低温高電子移動度トランジスタ（HEMT）増幅器をマウントし、サーキュレータを取り付けます。 </li><li>この増幅器への入力で出力ライン上の極低温サーキュレータを挿入します。 </li><li> 0.3-Kのコールドステージにボルトで固定ブラケットにパッケージ化された共振器デバイスをマウントします。 </li><li>マッチ終結を提供し、この減衰器の入力とパッケージの出力に適切なSMAケーブルを接続するには、パッケージの入力側のマイクロ波減衰器を接続します。これらの制御されたインピーダンスの終端がよくマッチしており、可能な限り、被試験デバイスの近くにあることを確認します-彼らは、「デバイスの校正面」を定義します（ 図2を参照）。 </li><li>クライオスタットをクローズアップ。デバイスを冷却するための標準的な手順に従ってください0.3 K.秒</li></ol>マイクロ波共振器の測定のための4.手順<ol><li>被試験デバイスの設計周波数における - （ここでは考慮デバイスのために、8 GHzの10 MHz）の広い周波数帯域をオーバースキャンするVNAを設定します。テスト中のデバイスに最適なレベルにVNA上の電力レベルを調整します（〜-30 dBmに、ここで考えデバイス用）。 注：超伝導マイクロ波共振器と超伝導給電線の臨界電流を超えないように、入力RF電力レベルが十分に低いことを確認してください。電力レベルが十分な信号対雑音比を提供するのに十分に高いことを確認してください。 </li><li> VNAマニュアルに記載されていVNAソフトウェアの指示に従って、標準的な短期オープン負荷スルー（SOLT）の手順に従って、柔軟なRFケーブルを調整します。後で入力に接続されるベクトル・ネットワーク・アナライザからのルートとフレキシブルケーブルのそれぞれの出力、で終了し、短絡、オープンにし、標準スルー挿入測定用クライオスタットの。このキャリブレーションは、「機器の基準面」を規定する（ 例えば 、 図2を参照します）。 </li><li>このSOLT校正に続いて、送信、VNAで測定接続スルーラインとS 21は 、低残留誤差（ すなわちを持って、応答が〜0デシベルレベルとS 11とSであることを確認することにより、キャリブレーションの忠実度を確認します22）は ≤-50 dBで、 例えば 、低いです。 </li><li>クライオスタットの入力および出力ラインにフレキシブルケーブルを接続します。 </li><li>マイクロ波増幅器のための会社が提供するドキュメントに指定されているように必要な直流バイアス電圧を印加することにより、極低温マイクロ波増幅器をオンにします。 </li><li> S 21ベースラインの構造を観察すると、任意のシャープな高Qを探すために&lt; -まず、VNAの広帯域スキャン（ここでは考慮デバイスのための8 GHzの、10 MHz）を完了/ em&gt;のマイクロ波共振器を示す構造。 </li><li>共振帯域にわたってスキャンするVNAの - （ここで検討装置4ギガヘルツ〜2）と（ここで考察デバイスの〜3万）データポイントの数を調整し、次に、周波数範囲を狭めます。 その場でキャリブレーションを行うために、このベースラインに後でフィットのために適切なベースラインスパンを提供するために十分広い周波数帯域を使用します（導入での議論を参照してください）。 注：ノイズレベルに応じて、信号対雑音比を改善するために、平均の数を増やす、またはIF帯域幅を減少させます。 </li><li>測定後その場でキャリブレーション、および分析と品質係数と共振周波数を抽出するためのファイルに複雑な伝送データのこれらのVNAデータスキャンを保存します。11 </li></ol>

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</ol>

著者は、彼らが競合する金融利害関係を持たないことを宣言します。

単一フリップ製造プロセスは、薄い0.45μmの単結晶Si基板の両面に超伝導共振器を実現するための手段を提供します。それは4.0から6.5 GHzの範囲の損失正接&lt;1×10で（例えば、Si 3 N 4など）に堆積誘電体よりも一桁低い損失以上のものを持っているので一つは、単結晶Siの誘電体を使用するのやる気かもしれ- 5。パターンへの能力は、この基板の両面に備え23-24は ...

天体物理計測器の進歩は、赤外光の検出のために最近導入された超伝導マイクロ波共振器を持つ1 - 4超伝導共振器は、エネルギーの赤外線E = HV&gt;2Δ（hはプランク定数、vは電磁波の周波数である、Δがあるに応答します超伝導ギャップエネルギー）。共振器が十分に超電導臨界温度以下に冷却されると、この入射光は、共振器体積のクーパー対を破壊し、準粒子励起を生成します。準粒子励起の密度の増加は、運動インダクタンスが変化し、従って、超伝導体の複合体表面インピーダンス。この光反応は、より低い周波数の共振周波数のシフトと共振器の品質係数の減少として観察されます。マイクロ波雌牛のための標準的な読み出し方式でチックインダクタンス検出器（MKID）、共振器は、マイクロ波給電線に結合され、1つは、共振上の単一のマイクロ波周波数トーンで、この給電線を介して複雑な伝送を監視します。ここでは、光学応答は、振幅及び変速機5（ 図1）の位相の両方の変化として観察されます。周波数領域の多重化方式は、共振器の数千の配列を読み出すことが可能である。6-7 成功した超伝導共振器ベースの計測器を設計し、実装するには、これらの共振構造の特性を正確かつ効率的に特徴づけする必要があります。例えば、ノイズ特性の精密な測定は、品質がMKIDデバイス物理学、8量子コンピューティング、9のコンテキストと低の決意に望まれているQ、（それらの温度依存性を含む）の共振周波数と超伝導共振器の光学応答特性因子テmperatureの材料特性。10 これらの場合の全てにおいて、回路の複雑な伝送散乱パラメータの測定が望まれています。この作業は、振幅と位相ベクトルネットワークアナライザ（VNA）を用いて測定することができ、共振器の複素透過係数、S 21の決意に集中します。理想的には、VNAの基準面（又はテストポート）に直接被試験デバイス（DUT）に接続されるが、低温設定は、通常RT間に断熱層を実現するために、追加の伝送線路構造の使用を必要とする（〜300 K）とコールドステージ（この作業中〜0.3 K; 図の URE 2を参照してください）。そのような方向性結合器、サーキュレータ、アイソレータ、増幅器、減衰器、および関連する相互接続ケーブルのような追加のマイクロ波構成要素を適宜調製励起、目的のデバイスを読み出してバイアスするために必要とされてもよいです。ザ部屋から極低温に冷却したときに位相速度およびこれらの構成要素の寸法が変化し、したがって、それらは、デバイスの校正面で観測​​された応答に影響を与えます。機器およびデバイスの校正面との間にこれらの介在部品は、複雑なゲインに影響を与え、適切に測定された応答の解釈において考慮される必要がある。11 理論的には、スキームがDUTに、キャリブレーション時に用いたものと同一の測定基準面を設定することが必要とされます。この目標を達成するためには、複数のクールダウン以上の校正標準を測定することができます。しかしながら、これは達成が困難であるVNAの安定性と低温機器の再現性に制約を課します。これらの問題を軽減するためには、冷却されたテスト環境で必要な基準を配置し、それらを切り替えることができました。これは、例えば、マイクロ波プローブステーションに見られるものと類似していますサンプル及び較正標準は12、この方法は、サブケルビン温度で実証された。連続液体ヘリウム流または閉サイクル冷凍システムにより、4 Kに冷却が、低消費電力、高性能マイクロ波スイッチを必要としている場合テスト目的のバンド。13 その場較正手順は、従って、VNAの基準面と、上記の方法の限界を克服する装置校正面（ 図の URE 2）との間の楽器送信応答を考慮することが望まれます。この低温較正方法、提示さカタルドら 11で詳細に議論は、一つの広い〜1％の精度で共振線幅と共振器間の間隔と比較して周波数範囲にわたって複数の共振器を特徴づけることを可能にします。本稿では、サンプルの製造および準備の詳細に焦点を当てますarationプロセス、実験的テストセットアップ及び測定手順は、平面線路形状と超電導マイクロ波共振器を特徴づけるために使用される。11

<table><tbody><tr><td colspan="4">&lt;strong&gt;Protocol Section 1&lt;/strong&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Microposit S-1811 Photoresist</td><td>Shipley</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>BCB</td><td>Dow</td><td></td><td>3022-35</td></tr><tr><td>SOI wafers</td><td>SOITec</td><td></td><td>Fabricated with SmartCut&lt;sup&gt;TM&lt;/sup&gt; process</td></tr><tr><td>Mo</td><td>Kamis</td><td></td><td>99.99%</td></tr><tr><td>Nb</td><td>Kamis</td><td></td><td>99.95% (excludes Ta)</td></tr><tr><td>E-6 metal etch w/AES</td><td>Fujifilm</td><td></td><td>CPG Grade</td></tr><tr><td>Acetone</td><td>JT Baker</td><td>9005-05</td><td>CMOS Grade</td></tr><tr><td>HF dip (1:10)</td><td>JT Baker</td><td>5397-03</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PMMA</td><td>Microchem</td><td></td><td>950 PMMA A2</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">&lt;strong&gt;Protocol Section 2&lt;/strong&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>GE 7031</td><td>General Electric</td><td></td><td>Low-temperature adhesive</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">&lt;strong&gt;Protocol Sections 3-4&lt;/strong&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Cryogenic Microwave Amplifier</td><td>MITEQ</td><td>AF S3-02000400-08-CR-4</td><td>2-4 GHz, gain ~30&amp;nbsp;dB</td></tr><tr><td>NbTi Semi-rigid SMA cables</td><td>Coax. Co.</td><td>SC-086/50-NbTi-NbTi</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Circulator</td><td>PamTech</td><td>CTD1229K</td><td>return loss &gt; -20 dB from 2-4 GHz</td></tr><tr><td>RF attenuator</td><td>Weinschel</td><td>Model-4M</td><td>7 dB attenuation</td></tr><tr><td>Flexible SMA cables</td><td>Teledyne-Storm</td><td>R94-240</td><td>ACCU-TEST</td></tr><tr><td>Vector Network Analyzer</td><td>Agilent</td><td>N5242A PNA-X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Liquid He-4 cryogen</td><td>Praxair</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Liquid N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; cryogen</td><td>Praxair</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

fabrication and characterization of superconducting resonators

超電導マイクロ波共振器は、かすかな天体のシグネチャを検出するためのマイクロ波の運動インダクタンス検出器（MKIDs）としてのそれらの使用を含め、ならびに量子コンピューティング・アプリケーションと材料特性評価、アプリケーションの広い範囲のために重要です。本論文では、手順は、薄膜超伝導マイクロ波共振器の製造および特徴付けのために提示されています。製造方法は、原子的に平滑な単結晶シリコン誘電体の両側に特徴を有する伝送線路共振器を超伝導の実現を可能にします。この作品は、極低温マイクロ波テストベッドへと超伝導転移温度以下でクールダウンのための共振器デバイスをインストールするための手順を説明します。極低温マイクロ波テストベッドのセットアップは、PRの抽出を可能にする、1は、これらの共振器デバイスの複雑なマイクロ波伝送の慎重な測定を行うことができますデバイスの設計および性能のために重要である超電導線と誘電体基板（ 例えば 、内部品質係数、損失および運動インダクタンス分画）、のoperties。

0.45μmの単結晶シリコン誘電体上に作製半波長のMo 2 N共振器（ 図5）の応答は、この方法論を用いて検証しました。この例では、読み出しのためのNbのコプレーナ線路への結合（CPW）給電路は、（参照共振器の開放端の1に「H」状の領域でのスパッタ堆積SiO 2の誘電体を介して、容量結合を介して達成されますプロトコルセクション1.6）。他...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators at JoVE.com

Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators

超電導マイクロ波共振器は、光、量子コンピューティングアプリケーションおよび材料特徴付けの検出のために重要です。この作品は、製作と超伝導マイクロ波共振器の散乱パラメータの特性評価のための詳細な手順を示します。

超伝導共振器の作製と評価

Superconducting microwave resonators are of interest for a wide range of applications, including for their use as microwave kinetic inductance detectors ...

fabrication-and-characterization-of-superconducting-resonators

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11.3K ビュー.  NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. 超電導マイクロ波共振器は、光、量子コンピューティングアプリケーションおよび材料特徴付けの検出のために重要です。この作品は、製作と超伝導マイクロ波共振器の散乱パラメータの特性評価のための詳細な手順を示します。 

ビデオ: Fabrication and Characterization of Superconducting Resonators

Fabrication of Silica Ultra High Quality Factor Microresonators

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the quality factor (Q) of the cavity, can be in excess of 500ns for cavities with Q factors above 100 million. As a result of their low material losses, silica microcavities have demonstrated some of the longest photon lifetimes to date1-2. Since a portion of the circulating light extends outside the resonator, these devices can also be used to probe the surroundings. This interaction has enabled numerous experiments in biology, such as single molecule biodetection and antibody-antigen kinetics, as well as discoveries in other fields, such as development of ultra-low-threshold microlasers, characterization of thin films, and cavity quantum electrodynamics studies.3-7
The two primary silica resonant cavity geometries are the microsphere and the microtoroid. Both devices rely on a carbon dioxide laser reflow step to achieve their ultra-high-Q factors (Q&gt;100 million).1-2,8-9 However, there are several notable differences between the two structures. Silica microspheres are free-standing, supported by a single optical fiber, whereas silica microtoroids can be fabricated on a silicon wafer in large arrays using a combination of lithography and etching steps. These differences influence which device is optimal for a given experiment.
Here, we present detailed fabrication protocols for both types of resonant cavities. While the fabrication of microsphere resonant cavities is fairly straightforward, the fabrication of microtoroid resonant cavities requires additional specialized equipment and facilities (cleanroom). Therefore, this additional requirement may also influence which device is selected for a given experiment.
Introduction
An optical resonator efficiently confines light at specific wavelengths, known as the resonant wavelengths of the device. 1-2 The common figure of merit for these optical resonators is the quality factor or Q. This term describes the photon lifetime (&tau;o) within the resonator, which is directly related to the resonator's optical losses. Therefore, an optical resonator with a high Q factor has low optical losses, long photon lifetimes, and very low photon decay rates (1/&tau;o). As a result of the long photon lifetimes, it is possible to build-up extremely large circulating optical field intensities in these devices. This very unique property has allowed these devices to be used as laser sources and integrated biosensors.10
A unique sub-class of resonators is the whispering gallery mode optical microcavity. In these devices, the light is confined in circular orbits at the periphery. Therefore, the field is not completely confined within the device, but evanesces into the environment. Whispering gallery mode optical cavities have demonstrated some of the highest quality factors of any optical resonant cavity to date.9,11 Therefore, these devices are used throughout science and engineering, including in fundamental physics studies and in telecommunications as well as in biodetection experiments. 3-7,12
Optical microcavities can be fabricated from a wide range of materials and in a wide variety of geometries. A few examples include silica and silicon microtoroids, silicon, silicon nitride, and silica microdisks, micropillars, and silica and polymer microrings.13-17 The range in quality factor (Q) varies as dramatically as the geometry. Although both geometry and high Q are important considerations in any field, in many applications, there is far greater leverage in boosting device performance through Q enhancement. Among the numerous options detailed previously, the silica microsphere and the silica microtoroid resonator have achieved some of the highest Q factors to date.1,9 Additionally, as a result of the extremely low optical loss of silica from the visible through the near-IR, both microspheres and microtoroids are able to maintain their Q factors over a wide range of testing wavelengths.18 Finally, because silica is inherently biocompatible, it is routinely used in biodetection experiments.
In addition to high material absorption, there are several other potential loss mechanisms, including surface roughness, radiation loss, and contamination loss.2 Through an optimization of the device size, it is possible to eliminate radiation losses, which arise from poor optical field confinement within the device. Similarly, by storing a device in an appropriately clean environment, contamination of the surface can be minimized. Therefore, in addition to material loss, surface scattering is the primary loss mechanism of concern.2,8
In silica devices, surface scattering is minimized by using a laser reflow technique, which melts the silica through surface tension induced reflow. While spherical optical resonators have been studied for many years, it is only with recent advances in fabrication technologies that researchers been able to fabricate high quality silica optical toroidal microresonators (Q&gt;100 million) on a silicon substrate, thus paving the way for integration with microfluidics.1
The present series of protocols details how to fabricate both silica microsphere and microtoroid resonant cavities. While silica microsphere resonant cavities are well-established, microtoroid resonant cavities were only recently invented.1 As many of the fundamental methods used to fabricate the microsphere are also used in the more complex microtoroid fabrication procedure, by including both in a single protocol it will enable researchers to more easily trouble-shoot their experiments.

We describe the use of a carbon dioxide laser reflow technique to fabricate silica resonant cavities, including free-standing microspheres and on-chip microtoroids. The reflow method removes surface imperfections, allowing long photon lifetimes within both devices. The resulting devices have ultra high quality factors, enabling applications ranging from telecommunications to biodetection.

シリカ超高品質ファクターMicroresonatorsの作製

Whispering gallery resonant cavities confine light in circular orbits at their periphery.1-2 The photon storage lifetime in the cavity, quantified by the ...

工学

Fabrication And Characterization Of Photonic Crystal Slow Light Waveguides And Cavities

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view and for its considerable potential for practical applications. Slow light photonic crystal waveguides, in particular, have played a major part and have been successfully employed for delaying optical signals1-4 and the enhancement of both linear5-7 and nonlinear devices.8-11
Photonic crystal cavities achieve similar effects to that of slow light waveguides, but over a reduced band-width. These cavities offer high Q-factor/volume ratio, for the realization of optically12 and electrically13 pumped ultra-low threshold lasers and the enhancement of nonlinear effects.14-16 Furthermore, passive filters17 and modulators18-19 have been demonstrated, exhibiting ultra-narrow line-width, high free-spectral range and record values of low energy consumption.
To attain these exciting results, a robust repeatable fabrication protocol must be developed. In this paper we take an in-depth look at our fabrication protocol which employs electron-beam lithography for the definition of photonic crystal patterns and uses wet and dry etching techniques. Our optimised fabrication recipe results in photonic crystals that do not suffer from vertical asymmetry and exhibit very good edge-wall roughness. We discuss the results of varying the etching parameters and the detrimental effects that they can have on a device, leading to a diagnostic route that can be taken to identify and eliminate similar issues.
The key to evaluating slow light waveguides is the passive characterization of transmission and group index spectra. Various methods have been reported, most notably resolving the Fabry-Perot fringes of the transmission spectrum20-21 and interferometric techniques.22-25 Here, we describe a direct, broadband measurement technique combining spectral interferometry with Fourier transform analysis.26 Our method stands out for its simplicity and power, as we can characterise a bare photonic crystal with access waveguides, without need for on-chip interference components, and the setup only consists of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer, with no need for moving parts and delay scans.
When characterising photonic crystal cavities, techniques involving internal sources21 or external waveguides directly coupled to the cavity27 impact on the performance of the cavity itself, thereby distorting the measurement. Here, we describe a novel and non-intrusive technique that makes use of a cross-polarised probe beam and is known as resonant scattering (RS), where the probe is coupled out-of plane into the cavity through an objective. The technique was first demonstrated by McCutcheon et al.28 and further developed by Galli et al.29

Use of photonic crystal slow light waveguides and cavities has been widely adopted by the photonics community in many differing applications. Therefore fabrication and characterization of these devices are of great interest. This paper outlines our fabrication technique and two optical characterization methods, namely: interferometric (waveguides) and resonant scattering (cavities).

フォトニック結晶スローライト導波路とキャビティの作製と評価

Slow light has been one of the hot topics in the photonics community in the past decade, generating great interest both from a fundamental point of view ...

Microwave Photonics Systems Based on Whispering-gallery-mode Resonators

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various areas of technology and applied science, such as aerospace and communication engineering, sensing, metrology, nonlinear photonics, and quantum optics. In this article, we present the principal techniques used in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators. First detailed in this article is the protocol for resonator polishing, which is based on a grind-and-polish technique close to the ones used to polish optical components such as lenses or telescope mirrors. Then, a white light interferometric profilometer measures surface roughness, which is a key parameter to characterize the quality of the polishing. In order to launch light in the resonator, a tapered silica fiber with diameter in the micrometer range is used. To reach such small diameters, we adopt the "flame-brushing" technique, using simultaneously computer-controlled motors to pull the fiber apart, and a blowtorch to heat the fiber area to be tapered. The resonator and the tapered fiber are later approached to one another to visualize the resonance signal of the whispering gallery modes using a wavelength-scanning laser. By increasing the optical power in the resonator, nonlinear phenomena are triggered until the formation of a Kerr optical frequency comb is observed with a spectrum made of equidistant spectral lines. These Kerr comb spectra have exceptional characteristics that are suitable for several applications in science and technology. We consider the application related to ultra-stable microwave frequency synthesis and demonstrate the generation of a Kerr comb with GHz intermodal frequency.

The customized techniques developed in our lab to build microwave photonics systems based on ultra-high Q whispering gallery mode resonators are presented. The protocols to obtain and characterize these resonators are detailed, and an explanation of some of their applications in microwave photonics is given.

ウィスパリングギャラリーモード共振器に基づいたマイクロ波フォトニクスシステム

Microwave photonics systems rely fundamentally on the interaction between microwave and optical signals. These systems are extremely promising for various ...

Fabrication and Testing of Microfluidic Optomechanical Oscillators

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including microresonators. However, because of the increased acoustic radiative losses during direct liquid immersion of optomechanical devices, almost all published optomechanical experiments have been performed in solid phase. This paper discusses a recently introduced hollow microfluidic optomechanical resonator. Detailed methodology is provided to fabricate these ultra-high-Q microfluidic resonators, perform optomechanical testing, and measure radiation pressure-driven breathing mode and SBS-driven whispering gallery mode parametric vibrations. By confining liquids inside the capillary resonator, high mechanical- and optical- quality factors are simultaneously maintained.

Parametric optomechanical excitations have recently been experimentally demonstrated in microfluidic optomechanical resonators by means of optical radiation pressure and stimulated Brillouin scattering. This paper describes the fabrication of these microfluidic resonators along with methodologies for generating and verifying optomechanical oscillations.

作製とマイクロ流体光力学発振器のテスト

Cavity optomechanics experiments that parametrically couple the phonon modes and photon modes have been investigated in various optical systems including ...

Stimulated Stokes and Antistokes Raman Scattering in Microspherical Whispering Gallery Mode Resonators

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres can be thought as a store of energy with a huge variety of applications: compact laser sources, highly sensitive biochemical sensors and nonlinear phenomena. A protocol for the fabrication of both the microspheres and coupling system is given. The couplers described here are tapered fibers. Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS). A proof of the cavity-enhanced phenomenon is given by the lack of correlation among the pump, signal and idler: a resonant mode has to exist in order to obtain the pair of signal and idler. In the case of hyperparametric oscillations (four wave mixing and stimulated anti-stokes Raman scattering), the modes must fulfill the energy and momentum conservation and, last but not least, have a good spatial overlap.

Efficient generation of nonlinear phenomena related to third order optical non-linear susceptibility &#935;(3) interactions in triply resonant silica microspheres is presented in this paper. The interactions here reported are: Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS), and four wave mixing processes comprising Stimulated Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (SARS).

微小球ウィスパリングギャラリーモード共振器で刺激ストークスとAntistokesラマン散乱

Dielectric microspheres can confine light and sound for a length of time through high quality factor whispering gallery modes (WGM). Glass microspheres ...

Fabrication of Nanopillar-Based Split Ring Resonators for Displacement Current Mediated Resonances in Terahertz Metamaterials

Terahertz (THz) split ring resonator (SRR) metamaterials (MMs) has been studied for gas, chemical, and biomolecular sensing applications because the SRR is not affected by environmental characteristics such as the temperature and pressure surrounding the resonator. Electromagnetic radiation in THz frequencies is biocompatible, which is a critical condition especially for the application of the biomolecular sensing. However, the quality factor (Q-factor) and frequency responses of traditional thin-film based split ring resonator (SRR) MMs are very low, which limits their sensitivities and selectivity as sensors. In this work, novel nanopillar-based SRR MMs, utilizing displacement current, are designed to enhance the Q-factor up to 450, which is around 45 times higher than that of traditional thin-film-based MMs. In addition to the enhanced Q-factor, the nanopillar-based MMs induce a larger frequency shifts (17 times compared to the shift obtained by the traditional thin-film based MMs). Because of the significantly enhanced Q-factors and frequency shifts as well as the property of biocompatible radiation, the THz nanopillar-based SRR are ideal MMs for the development of biomolecular sensors with high sensitivity and selectivity without inducing damage or distortion to biomaterials. A novel fabrication process has been demonstrated to build the nanopillar-based SRRs for displacement current mediated THz MMs. A two-step gold (Au) electroplating process and an atomic layer deposition (ALD) process are used to create sub-10 nm scale gaps between Au nanopillars. Since the ALD process is a conformal coating process, a uniform aluminum oxide (Al2O3) layer with nanometer-scale thickness can be achieved. By sequentially electroplating another Au thin film to fill the spaces between Al2O3 and Au, a close-packed Au-Al2O3-Au structure with nano-scale Al2O3 gaps can be fabricated. The size of the nano-gaps can be well defined by precisely controlling the deposition cycles of the ALD process, which has an accuracy of 0.1 nm.

A protocol for the design and fabrication of a novel nanopillar-based split ring resonator (SRR) is presented.

テラヘルツメタマテリアルにおける変位電流仲介共鳴のためのナノピラーベースのスプリットリング共振器の作製

Terahertz (THz) split ring resonator (SRR) metamaterials (MMs) has been studied for gas, chemical, and biomolecular sensing applications because the SRR ...

Fabrication of Polymer Microspheres for Optical Resonator and Laser Applications

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, interface precipitation, and mini-emulsion. In all methods, well-defined, micrometer-sized spheres are obtained from a self-assembling process in solution. The vapor diffusion method can result in spheres with the highest sphericity and surface smoothness, yet the types of the polymers able to form these spheres are limited. On the other hand, in the mini-emulsion method, microspheres can be made from various types of polymers, even from highly crystalline polymers with coplanar, &#960;-conjugated backbones. The photoluminescent (PL) properties from single isolated microspheres are unusual: the PL is confined inside the spheres, propagates at the circumference of the spheres via the total internal reflection at the polymer/air interface, and self-interferes to show sharp and periodic resonant PL lines. These resonating modes are so-called "whispering gallery modes" (WGMs). This work demonstrates how to measure WGM PL from single isolated spheres using the micro-photoluminescence (&#181;-PL) technique. In this technique, a focused laser beam irradiates a single microsphere, and the luminescence is detected by a spectrometer. A micromanipulation technique is then used to connect the microspheres one by one and to demonstrate the intersphere PL propagation and color conversion from coupled microspheres upon excitation at the perimeter of one sphere and detection of PL from the other microsphere. These techniques, &#181;-PL and micromanipulation, are useful for experiments on micro-optic application using polymer materials.

Protocols for the synthesis of microspheres from polymers, the manipulation of microspheres, and micro-photoluminescence measurements are presented.

光共振器およびレーザ応用のためのポリマーマイクロスフェアの作製

This paper describes three methods of preparing fluorescent microspheres comprising &#960;-conjugated or non-conjugated polymers: vapor diffusion, ...

Design and Characterization Methodology for Efficient Wide Range Tunable MEMS Filters

Here, we demonstrate the advantages of the laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) over conventional techniques (the network analyzer), as well as the techniques to create an application-based microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) filter and how to use it efficiently (i.e., tuning the tuning-capability and avoiding both failure and stiction). LDV enables crucial measurements that are impossible with the network analyzer, such as higher mode detection (highly sensitive biosensor application) and resonance measurement for very small devices (fast prototyping). Accordingly, LDV was used to characterize the frequency tuning range and resonance frequency at different modes of the MEMS filters built for this study. This wide range frequency tuning mechanism is based simply on Joule heating from the embedded heaters and relatively high thermal stress with respect to the temperature of a fixed-fixed beam. However, we demonstrate that another limitation of this method is the resulting high thermal stress, which can burn the devices. Further improvement was achieved and shown for the first time in this study, such that the tuning capability was increased by 32% through an increase in the applied DC bias voltage (25 V to 35 V) between the two adjacent beams. This important finding eliminates the need for the extra Joule heating at the wider frequency tuning range. Another possible failure is through stiction and requirement of structure optimization: We propose a simple and easy technique of low frequency square wave signal application that can successfully separate the beams and eliminates the need for the more sophisticated and complicated methods given in the literature. The above findings necessitate a design methodology, and so we also provide an application-based design.

A protocol for a fixed-fixed beam design using a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV), including the measurement of frequency tuning, modification of tuning capability, and avoidance of device failure and stiction, is presented. The superiority of the LDV method over the network analyzer is demonstrated due to its higher mode capability.

デザインと効率的な広帯域波長可変 MEMS フィルター特性評価手法

Here, we demonstrate the advantages of the laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) over conventional techniques (the network analyzer), as well as the techniques ...

Rapid Repetition Rate Fluctuation Measurement of Soliton Crystals in a Microresonator

Temporal solitons have attracted great interest in the past decades for their behavior in a steady state, where the dispersion is balanced by the nonlinearity in a propagation Kerr medium. The development of dissipative Kerr solitons (DKSs) in high-Q microcavities drives a novel, compact, chip-scale soliton source. When DKSs serve as femtosecond pulses, the repetition rate fluctuation can be applied to ultrahigh precision metrology, high-speed optical sampling, and optical clocks, etc. In this paper, the rapid repetition rate fluctuation of soliton crystals (SCs), a special state of DKSs where particle-like solitons are tightly packed and fully occupy a resonator, is measured based on the well-known delayed self-heterodyne method. The SCs are generated using a thermal-controlled method. The pump is a frequency fixed laser with a linewidth of 100 Hz. The integral time in frequency fluctuation measurements is controlled by the length of the delay fiber. For a SC with a single vacancy, the repetition rate fluctuations are ~53.24 Hz within 10 &#181;s and ~509.32 Hz within 125 &#181;s, respectively.

Here, we present a protocol to generate soliton crystals in a butterfly-packaged micro-ring resonator using a thermal tuned method. Further, the repetition rate fluctuations of a soliton crystal with a single vacancy are measured using a delayed self-heterodyne method.

マイクロレゾナレーターにおけるソリトン結晶の迅速反復率変動測定

Temporal solitons have attracted great interest in the past decades for their behavior in a steady state, where the dispersion is balanced by the ...

Fabrication of Surface Acoustic Wave Devices on Lithium Niobate

Manipulation of fluids and particles by acoustic actuation at small scale is aiding the rapid growth of lab-on-a-chip applications. Megahertz-order surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices generate enormous accelerations on their surface, up to 108 m/s2, in turn responsible for many of the observed effects that have come to define acoustofluidics: acoustic streaming and acoustic radiation forces. These effects have been used for particle, cell, and fluid handling at the microscale&#8212;and even at the nanoscale. In this paper we explicitly demonstrate two major fabrication methods of SAW devices on lithium niobate: the details of lift-off and wet etching techniques are described step-by-step. Representative results for the electrode pattern deposited on the substrate as well as the performance of SAW generated on the surface are displayed in detail. Fabrication tricks and troubleshooting are covered as well. This procedure offers a practical protocol for high frequency SAW device fabrication and integration for future microfluidics applications.

Two fabrication techniques, lift-off and wet etching, are described in producing interdigital electrode transducers upon a piezoelectric substrate, lithium niobate, widely used to generate surface acoustic waves now finding broad utility in micro to nanoscale fluidics. The as-produced electrodes are shown to efficiently induce megahertz order Rayleigh surface acoustic waves.&#160;

ニオブエートリチウムにおける表面音響波装置の作製

Manipulation of fluids and particles by acoustic actuation at small scale is aiding the rapid growth of lab-on-a-chip applications. Megahertz-order ...