Name: three-dimensional patterning of engineered biofilms with a do-it-yourself bioprinter
Uploaded: 2019-05-16T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Three-dimensional Patterning of Engineered Biofilms with a Do-it-yourself Bioprinter at JoVE.com

This work was supported by an AOARD grant (No. FA2386-18-1-4059), the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO/OCW) as part of the Frontiers of Nanoscience program, and the Advanced Materials NWO-NSFC program (No. 729.001.016). The authors acknowledge laboratory assistance of Ramon van der Valk and Roland Kieffer.

1. Conversion of a commercial 3D printer into a 3D bioprinter
<ol>
	<li>Remove the extruder and the heater of a commercial 3D printer (Table of Materials) from the printer frame, and unplug the wiring controlling these elements from the main circuit board (Figure 1A). Since the sensor that controls the operational temperature of the printer needs to be functional to communicate with the printer software, remove from the printing software the algorithm that delays printing ...

<ol>
	<li>Tibbitt, M. W., Rodell, C. B., Burdick, J. A., Anseth, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Progress+in+material+design+for+biomedical+applications.">Progress in material design for biomedical applications.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (47), 14444-14451 (2015).</li><li>Schmieden, D. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Printing+of+Patterned,+Engineered+E.+coli+Biofilms+with+a+Low-Cost+3D+Printer.">Printing of Patterned, Engineered E. coli Biofilms with a Low-Cost 3D Printer.</a> ACS Synthetic Biology. 7 (5), 1328-1337 (2018).</li><li>Mao, L. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthetic+nacre+by+predesigned+matrix-directed+mineralization.">Synthetic nacre by predesigned matrix-directed mineralization.</a> Science. 354 (6308), 107-110 (2016).</li><li>Gao, H. 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Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=One-step+fermentative+production+of+poly(lactate-co-glycolate)+from+carbohydrates+in+Escherichia+coli.">One-step fermentative production of poly(lactate-co-glycolate) from carbohydrates in Escherichia coli.</a> Nature Biotechnology. 34 (4), 435-440 (2016).</li><li>Mohammadi, P., Toivonen, M. S., Ikkala, O., Wagermaier, W., Linder, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aligning+cellulose+nanofibril+dispersions+for+tougher+fibers.">Aligning cellulose nanofibril dispersions for tougher fibers.</a> Scientific Reports. 7 (1), 11860 (2017).</li><li>Jonkers, H. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacteria-based+self-healing+concrete.">Bacteria-based self-healing concrete.</a> Heron. 56 (1/2), (2011).</li><li>Schmieden, D. T., Meyer, A. S., Aubin-Tam, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+bacteria+to+make+improved,+nacre-inspired+materials.">Using bacteria to make improved, nacre-inspired materials.</a> MRS Advances. 1 (8), 559-564 (2016).</li><li>Zhong, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strong+underwater+adhesives+made+by+self-assembling+multi-protein+nanofibres.">Strong underwater adhesives made by self-assembling multi-protein nanofibres.</a> Nature Nanotechnology. 9 (10), 858-866 (2014).</li><li>Chen, A. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+and+patterning+of+tunable+multiscale+materials+with+engineered+cells.">Synthesis and patterning of tunable multiscale materials with engineered cells.</a> Nature Materials. 13 (5), 515-523 (2014).</li><li>Gatenholm, P., Klemm, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+Nanocellulose+as+a+Renewable+Material+for+Biomedical+Applications.">Bacterial Nanocellulose as a Renewable Material for Biomedical Applications.</a> MRS Bulletin. 35, 208-213 (2010).</li><li>Rodriguez-Carmona, E., Villaverde, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanostructured+bacterial+materials+for+innovative+medicines.">Nanostructured bacterial materials for innovative medicines.</a> Trends in Microbiology. 18 (9), 423-430 (2010).</li><li>Hung, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Escherichia+coli+biofilms+have+an+organized+and+complex+extracellular+matrix+structure.">Escherichia coli biofilms have an organized and complex extracellular matrix structure.</a> MBio. 4 (5), (2013).</li><li>Donlan, R. M., Costerton, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biofilms:+Survival+Mechanisms+of+Clinically+Relevant+Microorganisms.">Biofilms: Survival Mechanisms of Clinically Relevant Microorganisms.</a> Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 15 (2), 167-193 (2002).</li><li>Wu, H., Moser, C., Wang, H. Z., Hoiby, N., Song, Z. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strategies+for+combating+bacterial+biofilm+infections.">Strategies for combating bacterial biofilm infections.</a> International Journal of Oral Science. 7 (1), 1-7 (2015).</li><li>Stewart, P. S., Franklin, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physiological+heterogeneity+in+biofilms.">Physiological heterogeneity in biofilms.</a> Nature Reviews Microbiology. 6 (3), 199-210 (2008).</li><li>Kikuchi, T., Mizunoe, Y., Takade, A., Naito, S., Yoshida, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Curli+Fibers+Are+Required+for+Development+of+Biofilm+Architecture+in+Escherichia+coli+K-12+and+Enhance+Bacterial+Adherence+to+Human+Uroepithelial+Cells.">Curli Fibers Are Required for Development of Biofilm Architecture in Escherichia coli K-12 and Enhance Bacterial Adherence to Human Uroepithelial Cells.</a> Microbiology and Immunology. 49 (9), 875-884 (2005).</li><li>Cranford, S., Buehler, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Materiomics:+biological+protein+materials,+from+nano+to+macro.">Materiomics: biological protein materials, from nano to macro.</a> Nanotechnology, Science and Applications. 3, 127-148 (2010).</li><li>Lehner, B. A. E., Schmieden, D. T., Meyer, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Straightforward+Approach+for+3D+Bacterial+Printing.">A Straightforward Approach for 3D Bacterial Printing.</a> ACS Synthetic Biology. 6 (7), 1124-1130 (2017).</li><li>Wang, X., Smith, D. R., Jones, J. W., Chapman, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+polymerization+of+a+functional+Escherichia+coli+amyloid+protein.">In vitro polymerization of a functional Escherichia coli amyloid protein.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 282 (6), 3713-3719 (2007).</li><li>Hammar, M., Bian, Z., Normark, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nucleator-dependent+intercellular+assembly+of+adhesive+curli+organelles+in+Escherichia+coli.">Nucleator-dependent intercellular assembly of adhesive curli organelles in Escherichia coli.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93 (13), 6562-6566 (1996).</li><li>Huang, Y. J., Xia, A. G., Yang, G., Jin, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bioprinting+Living+Biofilms+through+Optogenetic+Manipulation.">Bioprinting Living Biofilms through Optogenetic Manipulation.</a> ACS Synthetic Biology. 7 (5), 1195-1200 (2018).</li><li>Jin, X. F., Riedel-Kruse, I. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biofilm+Lithography+enables+high-resolution+cell+patterning+via+optogenetic+adhesin+expression.">Biofilm Lithography enables high-resolution cell patterning via optogenetic adhesin expression.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (14), 3698-3703 (2018).</li><li>Stewart, P. S., Franklin, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physiological+heterogeneity+in+biofilms.">Physiological heterogeneity in biofilms.</a> Nature Reviews Microbiology. 6 (3), 199-210 (2008).</li><li>Percival, S. L., Suleman, L., Vuotto, C., Donelli, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Healthcare-associated+infections,+medical+devices+and+biofilms:+risk,+tolerance+and+control.">Healthcare-associated infections, medical devices and biofilms: risk, tolerance and control.</a> Journal of Medical Microbiology. 64, 323-334 (2015).</li></ol>

The protocol presented here for 3D printing of engineered biofilms has two critical steps. First is the preparation of the agar printing surface, which is the most critical factor to producing a specific printing resolution. It is important to ensure that the printing surface is flat and that the pipette tip on the printhead is positioned at the correct height from the surface. If the surface is not flat, the working distance will change during the printing process. If the working distance is less than 0.1 mm, the CaCl<s...

There is currently an increasing need to develop environmentally-friendly, sustainable solutions for the production of spatially-patterned materials, due to the expanding number of markets for such materials1. This article presents a simple, economical method for the production of such materials and therefore offers a large spectrum of future applications. The method presented here allows three-dimensional (3D) printing of spatially-patterned structures using a bio-ink containing living bacteria. Bacteria remain viable within the printed structures for over one week, enabling the bacteria to perform natural or engineered metabolic activities. Printed bacteria can thereby produce and deposit desired components within the printed structure, for example creating a functional cross-linked biofilm2.
Traditional methods for the production of advanced materials involve high energy expenditures (e.g., high temperatures and/or pressures) and can produce large quantities of chemical waste, often toxic substances that require cost-extensive utilization3,4. In contrast, multiple bacterial species are able to produce materials that can be readily applicable in various industries. These materials include polymers such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)5 or poly(glycolide-co-lactide) (PGLA)6, bacterial cellulose7, bacterial concrete materials8, biomimetic composites9, amyloid-based adhesives10, or bio-based electrical switches11, among others. Moreover, bacterial production of valuable materials typically takes place at near-ambient temperatures and pressures and in aqueous environments, without requiring or producing toxic compounds. While producing materials with bacteria has been demonstrated in the literature and some industrial applications have already emerged12,13, a reliable method for spatial patterning of such materials remains a challenge.
This article demonstrates a straight-forward method of converting a low-cost commercial 3D printer into a 3D bacterial printer. The protocol shows how to prepare a bio-ink containing and sustaining the living bacteria, as well as how to prepare substrates onto which the 3D printing can be performed. This method is appropriate to use with a variety of natural and engineered bacterial strains able to produce materials. These bacteria can be spatially distributed within a 3D printed structure and still continue their metabolic activity, which will result in a spatial distribution of the desired materials produced by the bacteria.
This printing method enables additive manufacturing of biofilms, aggregates of bacteria surrounded by a self-produced extracellular matrix. Biofilms are heterogeneous 3D networks in which proteins, polymers, bacterial cells, oxygen, and nutrients are all spatially structured14. While in the form of a biofilm, bacteria exhibit an increased antibiotic resistance and structural robustness, making them difficult to eradicate from surfaces including medical catheters and implants. The key to biofilm properties, and also the largest challenge to biofilm research, seems to be the heterogeneity of biofilms15,16,17. Production of spatially-controlled model biofilms is of special interest as it would allow for either reproducing or tuning the spatial patterns of biofilm components, aiding the understanding of the stable deposition of biofilms on virtually any surface in nature.
This article presents a method for the production of biofilms using 3D-printed hydrogels containing engineered E. coli bacteria that produce biofilm proteins in the presence of an inducer, as well as methods of verification of biofilm formation2. The major extracellular matrix components of these biofilms are curli amyloid fibers18 that contain self-assembled CsgA proteins. When engineered E. coli bacteria are induced to express CsgA proteins, they form a stable model biofilm that protects the cells against being washed off of the printing surface. Such a 3D printed biofilm can be spatially controlled and can serve as a useful research tool for the investigation of multiscale biofilm structure-function mechanics or materiomics19. These bespoke biofilms will aid the understanding of the principles of biofilm formation and their mechanical properties, enabling further research into the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance among other applications.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>3D printer</td>
			<td>CoLiDo</td>
			<td>3D-P Kit</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3D printing software</td>
			<td>CoLiDo</td>
			<td>Print-Rite ColiDo Repetier-Host v2.0.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>05040</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2 dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C7902</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5810 R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloramphenicol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>3886.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB broth powder</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L3022</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital shaker</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89032-092</td>
			<td>Model 3500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>25384-326</td>
			<td>150 x 15 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rhamnose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>83650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon tubing</td>
			<td>VWR&#160;</td>
			<td>DENE 3100103/25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe pump</td>
			<td>ProSense B.V.&#160;</td>
			<td>NE-300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium alginate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>W201502</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium citrate monobasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>71498</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydrooxide</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>28244.295</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

three-dimensional patterning of engineered biofilms with a do-it-yourself bioprinter

Biofilms are aggregates of bacteria embedded in a self-produced spatially-patterned extracellular matrix. Bacteria within a biofilm develop enhanced antibiotic resistance, which poses potential health dangers, but can also be beneficial for environmental applications such as purification of drinking water. The further development of anti-bacterial therapeutics and biofilm-inspired applications will require the development of reproducible, engineerable methods for biofilm creation. Recently, a novel method of biofilm preparation using a modified three-dimensional (3D) printer with a bacterial ink has been developed. This article describes the steps necessary to build this efficient, low-cost 3D bioprinter that offers multiple applications in bacterially-induced materials processing. The protocol begins with an adapted commercial 3D printer in which the extruder has been replaced with a bio-ink dispenser connected to a syringe pump system enabling a controllable, continuous flow of bio-ink. To develop a bio-ink suitable for biofilm printing, engineered Escherichia coli bacteria were suspended in a solution of alginate, so that they solidify in contact with a surface containing calcium. The inclusion of an inducer chemical within the printing substrate drives expression of biofilm proteins within the printed bio-ink. This method enables 3D printing of various spatial patterns composed of discrete layers of printed biofilms. Such spatially-controlled biofilms can serve as model systems and can find applications in multiple fields that have a wide-ranging impact on society, including antibiotic resistance prevention or drinking water purification, among others.

The first step for successful 3D printing of biofilms is converting a commercial 3D printer into a bioprinter. This conversion is achieved by removing the extruder and heater of the printer, designed for printing with a polymeric ink, and replacing these with components appropriate for printing bio-ink containing living bacteria (Figure 1A). The extruder is replaced by a pipette tip (or tips, if multiple bio-inks will be used in the printing process) attached...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Three-dimensional Patterning of Engineered Biofilms with a Do-it-yourself Bioprinter at JoVE.com

Three-dimensional Patterning of Engineered Biofilms with a Do-it-yourself Bioprinter

This article describes a method of transforming a low-cost commercial 3D printer into a bacterial 3D printer that can facilitate printing of patterned biofilms. All necessary aspects of preparing the bioprinter and bio-ink are described, as well as verification methods to assess the formation of biofilms.

Biofilms are aggregates of bacteria embedded in a self-produced spatially-patterned extracellular matrix. Bacteria within a biofilm develop enhanced ...

3D bioprinting with bacteria is a newly developed technique. This protocol provides an easy way of constructing engineered biofilms 3D printed with bacteria. The main advantage of this technique is the ability to produce 3D printed biofilms using an inexpensive home-built 3D printer.One possible application of our 3D printer is to create reproducible model biofilms that can be used to develop new antibacterial therapies. Our 3D printing approach can be applied to any type of bacteria that is compatible with our alginate based bioink. Preparation of the bioink and of the printing substrates are fairly standard procedures, while the 3D printing process, especially the calibration of the Z-axis is a crucial step that requires some practice.Calibration of the set access height will influence the resolution of our 3D printer, and is strongly dependent on personal experience. This procedure requires manual adjustments, and it's difficult to be described in a written format. Connect a 200 microliter pipette tip to a length of silicone tubing, and mount the pipette tip onto the 3D printer's extruder head as a replacement for the original extruder.Next, add four milliliters of a five molar calcium chloride solution to 400 milliliters of 1%agar dissolved in Luria-Bertani broth, and supplement it with the appropriate antibiotics and inducers. Then, dispense 20 milliliters of the LB agar solution into each 150 millimeter by 15 millimeter Petri dish. Dry the dish for 30 minutes at room temperature, with the lid half open.Prepare a 3%sodium alginate solution, and heat it to the boiling point three times to sterilize the solution. Then, store the sterile solution at four degrees Celsius until it is used. To prepare the bacterial component of the bioink, grow E.coli bacteria carrying plasmids for constitutive GFP expression in 50 milliliters of LB medium containing antibiotics.Shake the culture at 250 RPM and 37 degrees Celsius overnight. After overnight growth of the culture, pellet the bacteria for five minutes at 3, 220 times gravity and then remove the supernatant. Resuspend the bacteria pellet in 10 milliliters of LB medium, and add 10 milliliters of 3%sodium alginate.Connect the 3D printer to a computer, and open the 3D printing software. Click the Home button for the X, Y, and Z axes, to move the print head to its home position. For each print, place a prepared printing substrate onto a particular location on the printing bed.Raise the print head to a height of over 22 millimeters under manual control, so that it will not collide with the edge of the Petri dish during movement. Position the print head over the top of the plate and move it down until the pipette tip contacts the printing surface. Assign this Z-axis position as Z1, the height of the printing surface.Next, raise the print head and manually move it outside of the plate area. If the working distance between the print head and the plate surface is defined as Z2, enter the height of the printing surface plus the working distance into the printing program as the Z value during printing. Load a pre-programmed G-code file containing commands for printing the desired shape.At each command line, the position of the print head may be changed in the X, Y, and or Z axes. Be sure to input the Z value during all printing steps as the height of printing surface plus the working distance. Load the liquid bioink into syringes and mount them in the syringe pump of the 3D bioprinter.Then, set the extrusion speed to 0.3 milliliters per hour. Print the bioink onto the printing substrate by clicking the Print button. Wait to start the syringe pump until after the printing has started, and before the print head comes into contact with the printing surface.During printing, control the print head movement entirely by the software. Stop the syringe pump as soon as the print head arrives at the last point of printing, otherwise excess bioink will drop onto the printing substrate and reduce the printing resolution. For the construction of 3D structures, all the movements of the print head are controlled in the G-code editor.To increase the printing height for the second layer, type in the printing height of the first layer, and increase the Z value in the code by 0.2 millimeters. Thereafter, increase the Z value by 0.1 millimeter, when moving to a higher layer. Incubate the printed samples at room temperature for three to six days to allow the production of the biofilm components such as Curli fibers.Then, place the plate on a fluorescent scanner and image the plates. To dissolve the alginate matrix, add 20 milliliters of a 0.5 molar sodium citrate solution at pH 7, to the printed substrate. Incubate the plate at room temperature for two hours while shaking at 30 rpm.Then, discard the liquid and image the plates again, to compare with the images of the plates before and after the citrate treatment. The 3D bioprinter can create bacteria encapsulating hydrogels in a variety of two-dimensional and three-dimensional shapes. These printed shapes can then be used to assess whether the formation of biofilm was successful or if the alginate matrix is completely dissolved using a sodium citrate solution.In the case of bioink without the inducible Curli production plasmid, the printed pattern was completely dissolved after the sodium citrate treatment, signifying that no biofilm Curli network had formed. The bacteria containing the inducible Curli production plasmid was not dissolved after sodium citrate treatment, indicating that the printed bacteria were able to form a Curli network extensive enough to stabilize the printed pattern of bacteria. To construct multi-layered structures, additional layers can be printed by controlling the G-code editor.Increasing the number of printed layers in a sample caused the width and the height of the printed structures to increase incrementally. When E.coli engineered to inducibly produce Curli proteins were printed into multi-layered structures, sodium citrate treatment did not dissolve the samples, whereas multilayer structures containing non Curli producing E.coli were dissolved. The most critical parts of the 3D printing procedure are the calibration of the Z-axis, and the coordination of starting the print and starting the syringe pump.The bioink developed for this process is fairly soft, with low toughness. Further modification could be made to the bioink, in order to provide and improve mechanical stability. This 3D printing technique enables production of biofilms with excellent mechanical properties, which may enable fabricating biomimetic materials.When handling these bacteria, wear proper protection, such as gloves.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Three-dimensional Optical-resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As the mainstays of in vivo three-dimensional (3-D) optical microscopy, single-/multi-photon fluorescence microscopy and optical coherence tomography (OCT) have demonstrated their extraordinary sensitivities to fluorescence and optical scattering contrasts, respectively. However, the optical absorption contrast of biological tissues, which encodes essential physiological/pathological information, has not yet been assessable. 
The emergence of biomedical photoacoustics has led to a new branch of optical microscopy optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM)1, where the optical irradiation is focused to the diffraction limit to achieve cellular1 or even subcellular2 level lateral resolution. As a valuable complement to existing optical microscopy technologies, OR-PAM brings in at least two novelties. First and most importantly, OR-PAM detects optical absorption contrasts with extraordinary sensitivity (i.e., 100%). Combining OR-PAM with fluorescence microscopy3 or with optical-scattering-based OCT4 (or with both) provides comprehensive optical properties of biological tissues. Second, OR-PAM encodes optical absorption into acoustic waves, in contrast to the pure optical processes in fluorescence microscopy and OCT, and provides background-free detection. The acoustic detection in OR-PAM mitigates the impacts of optical scattering on signal degradation and naturally eliminates possible interferences (i.e., crosstalks) between excitation and detection, which is a common problem in fluorescence microscopy due to the overlap between the excitation and fluorescence spectra. 
Unique for optical absorption imaging, OR-PAM has demonstrated broad biomedical applications since its invention, including, but not limited to, neurology5, 6, ophthalmology7, 8, vascular biology9, and dermatology10. In this video, we teach the system configuration and alignment of OR-PAM as well as the experimental procedures for in vivo functional microvascular imaging.

Optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) is an emerging technology capable of imaging optical absorption contrasts in vivo with cellular resolution and sensitivity. Here, we provide a visualized instruction on the experimental protocols of OR-PAM, including system configuration, system alignment, typical in vivo experimental procedures, and functional imaging schemes.

Optical microscopy, providing valuable insights at the cellular and organelle levels, has been widely recognized as an enabling biomedical technology. As ...

Planar and Three-Dimensional Printing of Conductive Inks

Printed electronics rely on low-cost, large-area fabrication routes to create flexible or multidimensional electronic, optoelectronic, and biomedical devices1-3. In this paper, we focus on one- (1D), two- (2D), and three-dimensional (3D) printing of conductive metallic inks in the form of flexible, stretchable, and spanning microelectrodes.
Direct-write assembly4,5 is a 1-to-3D printing technique that enables the fabrication of features ranging from simple lines to complex structures by the deposition of concentrated inks through fine nozzles (~0.1 - 250 &mu;m). This printing method consists of a computer-controlled 3-axis translation stage, an ink reservoir and nozzle, and 10x telescopic lens for visualization. Unlike inkjet printing, a droplet-based process, direct-write assembly involves the extrusion of ink filaments either in- or out-of-plane. The printed filaments typically conform to the nozzle size. Hence, microscale features (&lt; 1 &mu;m) can be patterned and assembled into larger arrays and multidimensional architectures.
In this paper, we first synthesize a highly concentrated silver nanoparticle ink for planar and 3D printing via direct-write assembly. Next, a standard protocol for printing microelectrodes in multidimensional motifs is demonstrated. Finally, applications of printed microelectrodes for electrically small antennas, solar cells, and light-emitting diodes are highlighted.

Planar and three-dimensional printing of conductive metallic inks is described. Our approach provides new avenues for fabricating printed electronic, optoelectronic, and biomedical devices in unusual layouts at the microscale.

Printed electronics rely on low-cost, large-area fabrication routes to create flexible or multidimensional electronic, optoelectronic, and biomedical ...

Investigating the Three-dimensional Flow Separation Induced by a Model Vocal Fold Polyp

The fluid-structure energy exchange process for normal speech has been studied extensively, but it is not well understood for pathological conditions. Polyps and nodules, which are geometric abnormalities that form on the medial surface of the vocal folds, can disrupt vocal fold dynamics and thus can have devastating consequences on a patient&#39;s ability to communicate. Our laboratory has reported particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements, within an investigation of a model polyp located on the medial surface of an in&#160;vitro driven vocal fold model, which show that such a geometric abnormality considerably disrupts the glottal jet behavior. This flow field adjustment is a likely reason for the severe degradation of the vocal quality in patients with polyps. A more complete understanding of the formation and propagation of vortical structures from a geometric protuberance, such as a vocal fold polyp, and the resulting influence on the aerodynamic loadings that drive the vocal fold dynamics, is necessary for advancing the treatment of this pathological condition. The present investigation concerns the three-dimensional flow separation induced by a wall-mounted prolate hemispheroid with a 2:1 aspect ratio in cross flow, i.e. a model vocal fold polyp, using an oil-film visualization technique. Unsteady, three-dimensional flow separation and its impact of the wall pressure loading are examined using skin friction line visualization and wall pressure measurements.

Vocal fold polyps can disrupt vocal fold dynamics and thus can have devastating consequences on a patient&#39;s ability to communicate. Three-dimensional flow separation induced by a wall-mounted model polyp and its impact on the wall pressure loading are examined using particle image velocimetry, skin friction line visualization, and wall pressure measurements.

The fluid-structure energy exchange process for normal speech has been studied extensively, but it is not well understood for pathological conditions. ...

Analysis of Cell Migration within a Three-dimensional Collagen Matrix

The ability to migrate is a hallmark of various cell types and plays a crucial role in several physiological processes, including&#160;embryonic development, wound healing, and immune responses. However, cell migration is also a key mechanism in cancer enabling these cancer cells to detach from the primary tumor to start metastatic spreading. Within the past years various cell migration assays have been developed to analyze the migratory behavior of different cell types. Because the locomotory behavior of cells markedly differs between a two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) environment it can be assumed that the analysis of the migration of cells that are embedded within a 3D environment would yield in more significant cell migration data. The advantage of the described 3D collagen matrix migration assay is that cells are embedded within a physiological 3D network of collagen fibers representing the major component of the extracellular matrix. Due to time-lapse video microscopy real cell migration is measured allowing the determination of several migration parameters as well as their alterations in response to pro-migratory factors or inhibitors. Various cell types could be analyzed using this technique, including lymphocytes/leukocytes, stem cells, and tumor cells. Likewise, also cell clusters or spheroids could be embedded within the collagen matrix concomitant with analysis of the emigration of single cells from the cell cluster/ spheroid into the collagen lattice. We conclude that the 3D collagen matrix migration assay is a versatile method to analyze the migration of cells within a physiological-like 3D environment.

Cell migration is a biological phenomenon that is involved in a plethora of physiological, such as wound healing and immune responses, and pathophysiological processes, like cancer. The 3D-collagen matrix migration assay is a versatile tool to analyze the migratory properties of different cell types within in a 3D physiological-like environment.

The ability to migrate is a hallmark of various cell types and plays a crucial role in several physiological processes, including&#160;embryonic ...

Generation of a Three-dimensional Full Thickness Skin Equivalent and Automated Wounding

In vitro models are a cost effective and ethical alternative to study cutaneous wound healing processes. Moreover, by using human cells, these models reflect the human wound situation better than animal models. Although two-dimensional models are widely used to investigate processes such as cellular migration and proliferation, models that are more complex are required to gain a deeper knowledge about wound healing. Besides a suitable model system, the generation of precise and reproducible wounds is crucial to ensure comparable results between different test runs. In this study, the generation of a three-dimensional full thickness skin equivalent to study wound healing is shown. The dermal part of the models is comprised of human dermal fibroblast embedded in a rat-tail collagen type I hydrogel. Following the inoculation with human epidermal keratinocytes and consequent culture at the air-liquid interface, a multilayered epidermis is formed on top of the models. To study the wound healing process, we additionally developed an automated wounding device, which generates standardized wounds in a sterile atmosphere.

The goal of this protocol is to build up a three-dimensional full thickness skin equivalent, which resembles natural skin. With a specifically constructed automated wounding device, precise and reproducible wounds can be generated under maintenance of sterility.

In vitro models are a cost effective and ethical alternative to study cutaneous wound healing processes. Moreover, by using human cells, these models ...

Engineering Three-dimensional Epithelial Tissues Embedded within Extracellular Matrix

The architecture of branched organs such as the lungs, kidneys, and mammary glands arises through the developmental process of branching morphogenesis, which is regulated by a variety of soluble and physical signals in the microenvironment. Described here is a method created to study the process of branching morphogenesis by forming engineered three-dimensional (3D) epithelial tissues of defined shape and size that are completely embedded within an extracellular matrix (ECM). This method enables the formation of arrays of identical tissues and enables the control of a variety of environmental factors, including tissue geometry, spacing, and ECM composition. This method can also be combined with widely used techniques such as traction force microscopy (TFM) to gain more information about the interactions between cells and their surrounding ECM. The protocol can be used to investigate a variety of cell and tissue processes beyond branching morphogenesis, including cancer invasion.

This manuscript describes a soft lithography-based technique to engineer uniform arrays of three-dimensional (3D) epithelial tissues of defined geometry surrounded by extracellular matrix. This method is amenable to a wide variety of cell types and experimental contexts and allows for high-throughput screening of identical replicates.

The architecture of branched organs such as the lungs, kidneys, and mammary glands arises through the developmental process of branching morphogenesis, ...

Rapid Subtractive Patterning of Live Cell Layers with a Microfluidic Probe

The microfluidic probe (MFP) facilitates performing local chemistry on biological substrates by confining nanoliter volumes of liquids. Using one particular implementation of the MFP, the hierarchical hydrodynamic flow confinement (hHFC), multiple liquids are simultaneously brought in contact with a substrate. Local chemical action and liquid shaping using the hHFC, is exploited to create cell patterns by locally lysing and removing cells. By utilizing the scanning ability of the MFP, user-defined patterns of cell monolayers are created. This protocol enables rapid, real-time and spatially controlled cell patterning, which can allow selective cell-cell and cell-matrix interaction studies.

We present a protocol to perform subtractive patterning of live cell monolayers on a surface. This is achieved by local and selective lysis of adherent cells using a microfluidic probe (MFP). The cell lysate retrieved from local regions can be used for downstream analysis, enabling molecular profiling studies.

The microfluidic probe (MFP) facilitates performing local chemistry on biological substrates by confining nanoliter volumes of liquids. Using one ...

Three-dimensional Tissue Engineered Aligned Astrocyte Networks to Recapitulate Developmental Mechanisms and Facilitate Nervous System Regeneration

Neurotrauma and neurodegenerative disease often result in lasting neurological deficits due to the limited capacity of the central nervous system (CNS) to replace lost neurons and regenerate axonal pathways. However, during nervous system development, neuronal migration and axonal extension often occur along pathways formed by other cells, referred to as &#34;living scaffolds&#34;. Seeking to emulate these mechanisms and to design a strategy that circumvents the inhibitory environment of the CNS, this manuscript presents a protocol to fabricate tissue engineered astrocyte-based &#34;living scaffolds&#34;. To create these constructs, we employed a novel biomaterial encasement scheme to induce astrocytes to self-assemble into dense three-dimensional bundles of bipolar longitudinally-aligned somata and processes. First, hollow hydrogel micro-columns were assembled, and the inner lumen was coated with collagen extracellular-matrix. Dissociated cerebral cortical astrocytes were then delivered into the lumen of the cylindrical micro-column and, at a critical inner diameter of &#60;350 &#181;m, spontaneously self-aligned and contracted to produce long fiber-like cables consisting of dense bundles of astrocyte processes and collagen fibrils measuring &#60;150 &#181;m in diameter yet extending several cm in length. These engineered living scaffolds exhibited &#62;97% cell viability and were virtually exclusively comprised of astrocytes expressing a combination of the intermediate filament proteins glial-fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), vimentin, and nestin. These aligned astrocyte networks were found to provide a permissive substrate for neuronal attachment and aligned neurite extension. Moreover, these constructs maintain integrity and alignment when extracted from the hydrogel encasement, making them suitable for CNS implantation. These preformed constructs structurally emulate key cytoarchitectural elements of naturally occurring glial-based &#34;living scaffolds&#34; in vivo. As such, these engineered living scaffolds may serve as test-beds to study neurodevelopmental mechanisms in vitro or facilitate neuroregeneration by directing neuronal migration and/or axonal pathfinding following CNS degeneration in vivo.

We showcase the development of self-assembled, three-dimensional bundles of longitudinally aligned astrocytic somata and processes within a novel biomaterial encasement. These engineered &#34;living scaffolds&#34;, exhibiting micron-scale diameter yet extending centimeters in length, may serve as test-beds to study neurodevelopmental mechanisms or facilitate neuroregeneration by directing neuronal migration and/or axonal pathfinding.

Neurotrauma and neurodegenerative disease often result in lasting neurological deficits due to the limited capacity of the central nervous system (CNS) to ...

A Net Mold-based Method of Scaffold-free Three-Dimensional Cardiac Tissue Creation

This protocol describes a novel and easy net mold-based method to create three-dimensional (3-D) cardiac tissues without additional scaffold material. Human-induced pluripotent stem-cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs), human cardiac fibroblasts (HCFs), and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) are isolated and used to generate a cell suspension with 70% iPSC-CMs, 15% HCFs, and 15% HUVECs. They are co-cultured in an ultra-low attachment "hanging drop" system, which contains micropores for condensing hundreds of spheroids at one time. The cells aggregate and spontaneously form beating spheroids after 3 days of co-culture. The spheroids are harvested, seeded into a novel mold cavity, and cultured on a shaker in the incubator. The spheroids become a mature functional tissue approximately 7 days after seeding. The resultant multilayered tissues consist of fused spheroids with satisfactory structural integrity and synchronous beating behavior. This new method has promising potential as a reproducible and cost-effective method to create engineered tissues for the treatment of heart failure in the future.

This protocol describes a net mold-based method to create three-dimensional scaffold-free cardiac tissues with satisfactory structural integrity and synchronous beating behavior.

This protocol describes a novel and easy net mold-based method to create three-dimensional (3-D) cardiac tissues without additional scaffold material. ...

Lab-on-a-CD Platform for Generating Multicellular Three-dimensional Spheroids

A three-dimensional spheroid cell culture can obtain more useful results in cell experiments because it can better simulate cell microenvironments of the living body than two-dimensional cell culture. In this study, we fabricated an electrical motor-driven lab-on-a-CD (compact disc) platform, called a centrifugal microfluidic-based spheroid (CMS) culture system, to create three-dimensional (3D) cell spheroids implementing high centrifugal force. This device can vary rotation speeds to generate gravity conditions from 1 x g to 521 x g. The CMS system is 6 cm in diameter, has one hundred 400 &#956;m microwells, and is made by molding with polydimethylsiloxane in a polycarbonate mold premade by a computer numerical control machine. A barrier wall at the channel entrance of the CMS system uses centrifugal force to spread cells evenly inside the chip. At the end of the channel, there is a slide region that allows the cells to enter the microwells. As a demonstration, spheroids were generated by monoculture and coculture of human adipose-derived stem cells and human lung fibroblasts under high gravity conditions using the system. The CMS system used a simple operation scheme to produce coculture spheroids of various structures of concentric, Janus, and sandwich. The CMS system will be useful in cell biology and tissue engineering studies that require spheroids and organoid culture of single or multiple cell types.

We present a motor-powered centrifugal microfluidic device that can cultivate cell spheroids. Using this device, spheroids of single or multiple cell types could be easily cocultured under high gravity conditions.

A three-dimensional spheroid cell culture can obtain more useful results in cell experiments because it can better simulate cell microenvironments of the ...