Name: a static self-directed method for generating brain organoids from human embryonic stem cells
Uploaded: 2020-03-04T12:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Static Self-Directed Method for Generating Brain Organoids from Human Embryonic Stem Cells at JoVE.com

We thank the Yale Stem Cell Core (YSCC), and the Yale Cancer Center (YCC) for assistance. We thank Dr. Jung Kim for his neuropathology review. This work was supported by Connecticut Regenerative Medicine Research Fund, March of Dimes, and NHLBI R01HL131793 (S.G.K.), the Yale Cancer Center and the Yale Cancer Biology Training Program NCI CA193200 (E.B.) and a generous unrestricted gift from Joseph and Lucille Madri.

1. Stem Cell Maintenance
<ol>
	<li>Maintain H9 hESCs on a layer of growth factor reduced basement membrane matrix (see the Table of Materials, henceforth simply referred to as matrix) according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions.
	<ol>
		<li>To coat one 6-well plate or one 10 cm dish, combine 100 &#181;L of matrix with 5.9 mL of ice-cold Dulbecco&#39;s modified Eagle medium (DMEM)/F12 media. Wrap plates in paraffin film and store overnight at 4 &#176;C. Use them on the next day for passaging cells ...

<ol>
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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cerebral+organoids+model+human+brain+development+and+microcephaly.">Cerebral organoids model human brain development and microcephaly.</a> Nature. 501 (7467), 373-379 (2013).</li><li>Li, X. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specification+of+motoneurons+from+human+embryonic+stem+cells.">Specification of motoneurons from human embryonic stem cells.</a> Nature Biotechnology. 23 (2), 215-221 (2005).</li><li>Zhang, S. C., Wernig, M., Duncan, I. D., Brustle, O., Thomson, J. 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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Matrigel:+a+complex+protein+mixture+required+for+optimal+growth+of+cell+culture.">Matrigel: a complex protein mixture required for optimal growth of cell culture.</a> Proteomics. 10 (9), 1886-1890 (2010).</li><li>Qian, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain-Region-Specific+Organoids+Using+Mini-bioreactors+for+Modeling+ZIKV+Exposure.">Brain-Region-Specific Organoids Using Mini-bioreactors for Modeling ZIKV Exposure.</a> Cell. 165 (5), 1238-1254 (2016).</li><li>Sloan, S. A., Andersen, J., Pasca, A. M., Birey, F., Pasca, S. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+and+assembly+of+human+brain+region-specific+three-dimensional+cultures.">Generation and assembly of human brain region-specific three-dimensional cultures.</a> Nature Protocols. 13 (9), 2062-2085 (2018).</li><li>Kelava, I., Lancaster, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stem+Cell+Models+of+Human+Brain+Development.">Stem Cell Models of Human Brain Development.</a> Cell Stem Cell. 18 (6), 736-748 (2016).</li><li>Boisvert, E. M., Means, R. E., Michaud, M., Madri, J. A., Katz, S. 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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+in+vivo+model+of+functional+and+vascularized+human+brain+organoids.">An in vivo model of functional and vascularized human brain organoids.</a> Nature Biotechnology. 36 (5), 432-441 (2018).</li><li>Pham, M. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+human+vascularized+brain+organoids.">Generation of human vascularized brain organoids.</a> Neuroreport. 29 (7), 588-593 (2018).</li><li>Boisvert, E. M., Denton, K., Lei, L., Li, X. 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Similar to other organoid models, this is an artificial system that comes with several caveats. Although there was little batch to batch variation in terms of overall expression levels, individual organoids did exhibit differences. For example, the location of Sox-2 positive areas were not identical in every organoid (Figure 3). While qPCR is suitable to look for overall changes in batches of cells, additional techniques such as single cell RNAseq will be utilized in future studies to gather more informa...

Due to myriad practical and ethical limitations, there has been a great deal of difficulty in studying the human brain. While studies utilizing rodents have been critical to our understanding of the human brain, the mouse brain has many dissimilarities1,2. Interestingly, mice have a neuronal density that is at least 7 times less than the primate brain3,4. Although primates are closer to humans than rodents from an evolutionary standpoint, it is not practical for most researchers to work with them. The purpose of this protocol was to recapitulate many important features of the human brain using a simplified and less expensive method without the need for a heterologous basement membrane matrix or exogenous growth factors while maintaining brain cell diversity and cellular organization.
Formative work from the Sasai lab used the serum free culture of embryoid bodies (SFEBq) method to generate two- and three- dimensional neuronal cell types from signalized embryonic stem cells (ESCs)5,6. Many human brain organoid methods have followed a relatively similar path from signalized ESCs7,8. In contrast, this protocol starts with clusters of detached human ESCs (hESCs), similar to the initial steps of seminal work of the Thomson and Zhang laboratories prior to the plating steps9,10 as well as the initial step of the brain organoid protocol of the Pasca laboratory before the addition of exogenous growth factors11. Basement membrane matrices (e.g., matrigel) have been utilized in many brain organoid protocols and it has been shown to be an effective scaffold8. However, most commonly used basement membrane matrices do not come without complications as they co-purify with unknown quantities of growth factors with batch to batch variability during production12. In addition, these matrices can complicate imaging, and increase the risk of contamination and cost.
While human brain organoids can be used to answer many questions, there are certain limitations to bear in mind. For one, starting from embryonic stem cells, organoids more closely resemble immature brains than aged brains and as such may not be ideal models for diseases that occur in old age, like Alzheimer&#39;s disease. Second, while our protocol found markers of forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain development which are useful to study the effect of a treatment or disease on cells from multiple brain regions in concert, other protocols can be followed to concentrate on specific brain regions13,14. Finally, another limitation of organoid models is that of size, while the average length of a human brain approximately 167 mm, brain organoids made with the use of agitation grow up to 4 mm8 and the organoids formed by this protocol grow to 1-2 mm by 10 weeks. Nonetheless, this protocol provides an important tool to study human brain tissue and the interaction of multiple cell types.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 488 goat anti-mouse</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>A11029</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 546 goat anti-rabbit</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>A11035</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B27 Supplement</td>
			<td>Gibco, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>17504-044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bFGF</td>
			<td>Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA, USA</td>
			<td>PHG0263</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BSA</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA</td>
			<td>A9647</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BX43 microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI stain</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>D1306</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dispase</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies, Vancouver, Canada</td>
			<td>07913</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM/F12</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>11330-032</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DPBS</td>
			<td>Gibco, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td><a href="https://www.thermofisher.com/order/catalog/product/10010023" target="_blank">10010023</a></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FluroSave</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma, Burlington, MA</td>
			<td>345789</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GFAP antibody</td>
			<td>NeuroMab, Davis, CA</td>
			<td>N206A/8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Growth Factor Reduced Matrigel (Matrix)</td>
			<td>Corning, Corning, NY, USA</td>
			<td>356231</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H9 hESCs</td>
			<td>WiCell, Madison, WI, USA</td>
			<td>WA09</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heparin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA</td>
			<td>9041-08-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>iQ SYBR Green Supermix</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA</td>
			<td>1708880</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>iScript cDNA Synthesis Kit</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA</td>
			<td>1708891</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-glutamine</td>
			<td>Gibco, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>25030-081</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monothioglycerol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA</td>
			<td>M6145</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mTESR media</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies, Vancouver, Canada</td>
			<td>85850</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N2 NeuroPlex</td>
			<td>Gemini Bio Products, West Sacramento, CA, USA</td>
			<td>400-163</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanodrop</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>ND-2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NEAA</td>
			<td>Gibco, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>11140-050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal Donkey Serum (NDS)</td>
			<td>ImmunoResearch Laboratories Inc., West Grove, PA, USA</td>
			<td><a href="https://www.jacksonimmuno.com/catalog/products/017-000-121" target="_blank">017-000-121</a></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OCT</td>
			<td>Sakura Finetek, Torrance, CA, USA</td>
			<td>25608-930</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PFA</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences, Hatfield, PA</td>
			<td>RT15710</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>qPCR machine</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad, CFX96, Hercules, CA, USA</td>
			<td>1855196</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNeasy kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen, Hilden, Germany</td>
			<td>74104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sox2</td>
			<td>MilliporeSigma, Burlington, MA</td>
			<td>AB5603</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TMS-F microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon, Melville, NY, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA</td>
			<td>T8787-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultra-low attachment T75 flasks</td>
			<td>Corning, Corning, NY, USA</td>
			<td>3814</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a static self-directed method for generating brain organoids from human embryonic stem cells

Human brain organoids differentiated from embryonic stem cells offer the unique opportunity to study complicated interactions of multiple cell types in a three-dimensional system. Here we present a relatively straightforward and inexpensive method that yields brain organoids. In this protocol human pluripotent stem cells are broken into small clusters instead of single cells and grown in basic media without a heterologous basement membrane matrix or exogenous growth factors, allowing the intrinsic developmental cues to shape the organoid&#39;s growth. This simple system produces a diversity of brain cell types including glial and microglial cells, stem cells, and neurons of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Organoids generated from this protocol also display hallmarks of appropriate temporal and spatial organization demonstrated by brightfield images, histology, immunofluorescence and real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Because these organoids contain cell types from various parts of the brain, they can be utilized for studying a multitude of diseases. For example, in a recent paper we demonstrated the use of organoids generated from this protocol for studying the effects of hypoxia on the human brain. This approach can be used to investigate an array of otherwise difficult to study conditions such as neurodevelopmental handicaps, genetic disorders, and neurologic diseases.

Figure 1 shows representative brightfield images of several time points to demonstrate what the cells/organoids look like throughout the different stages of the protocol. The hESCs were removed from the tissue culture plate, broken into small pieces, and placed in a T75 ultra-low attachment flask where they formed spheres. It is important to note that the cells look bright and similar in size, without dark, dying cells in the centers of these clusters. The cells were gradually weaned off bFG...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Static Self-Directed Method for Generating Brain Organoids from Human Embryonic Stem Cells at JoVE.com

A Static Self-Directed Method for Generating Brain Organoids from Human Embryonic Stem Cells

This protocol was generated as a means to produce brain organoids in a simplified, low cost manner without exogenous growth factors or basement membrane matrix while still maintaining the diversity of brain cell types and many features of cellular organization.

Human brain organoids differentiated from embryonic stem cells offer the unique opportunity to study complicated interactions of multiple cell types in a ...

Human brain organoids are a significant tool to study disease in a system that is easily manipulated and incorporates a human setting and the appropriate interaction of multiple cell types. This technique can be applied to study numerous diseases of the brain, including neurodevelopmental disorders, toxic insults, and the growth and treatment of cancer in the brain. The main advantage of this protocol is the ability to generate highly reproducible brain organoids with a broad variety of neuronal cell types.This is done using a very simplistic workflow that could be accomplished by most laboratories. And these are produced in a temporary appropriate manner without the influence from specialized growth factors or undefined matrices making it a very simple and cost effective system. To begin, combine 100 microliters of matrix with 5.9 milliliters of ice cold Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium or F12 media in a 15 milliliter conical tube.Coat each well in a six-well plate with one milliliter of the membrane matrix. Wrap the plate in paraffin film and store overnight at four degrees Celsius. The next day, aspirate excess media from each well, rinse the wells with F12, and add H9 hESCS in a total volume of two milliliters of mTeSR1 media per well.Culture the cells from week to week. Supply daily with two milliliters of mTeSR1 media and place the plate in a 37 degree Celsius low oxygen incubator with 5%oxygen and 5%carbon dioxide. Use glass tools to weed out differentiating cells from the culture between passages.Refresh the media daily. Cells should be passaged four to six days prior to utilizing the H9 cells for organoid production. To passage the cells, start by rinsing them with DMEM F12 media and aspirating the excess liquid.After rinsing, add protease solution and incubate the cells for 40 minutes in order for colonies to float within the well. Next, wash the cells three times using DMEM F12 and if necessary titrate to make the pieces smaller. Then distribute the cells at an approximate one-to-eight ratio over four six-well plates and place the plates in the incubator and feed daily.After four to six days, the cells reach approximately 80%confluency. Transition them to a regular incubator. Dilute the protease stock solution to a working concentration by adding one milliliter of the stock solution to five milliliters of DMEM or F12 medium per each six-well plate of hESCS.Aspirate and remove the cell culture media, then cover the hESCS with the protease solution. Place the plates in the incubator for 10 to 15 minutes or until the edges of the colonies round up and begin to separate from the matrix but before they round up completely. Tilt the plate, aspirate the protease solution, and gently wash the cells with two milliliters of DMEM or F12 for each well three times.Make sure the colonies stay attached to the matrix. So it's critical that the pieces of ES cells are in the appropriate size so make sure that they're in dispase for the appropriate amount of time. If they're in there for too short of a time, it can be very difficult to flush them off and break them apart.And if they're in there for too long, they can actually just come off during the wash steps. Add back about one to 1.5 milliliters of fresh mTeSR media to each well and flush the cells off the plate into a 50 milliliter conical tube using gentle pipetting. Aspirate and dispense hESCS within the plate until they reach approximately 1/30th of their original size.Now the colony clusters resemble 250 to 350 micrometer sized pieces. Transfer the cells into a single ultra low attachment T75 flask containing 30 milliliters of mTeSR media without bFGF. The next day, tilt the flask such that the live cells pool in the corner.If there are a large number of cells that have adhered to the bottom of the flask, use a 10 milliliter pipette to transfer the cells to a new flask. Expect to have a high population of dead cells for the first few days. Once the cells settle, aspirate off the media and dead cells leaving about 10 milliliters of media containing the live cells and add 20 milliliters of low bFGF media supplemented with 30 nanograms per milliliter of bFGF.After two days, check the cells. Most of the cells should look healthy and bright. However, if more than a third of the cells appear dark, tilt the flask and replace 20 milliliters of media with 20 milliliters of low bFGF media supplemented with 20 nanograms per milliliter of bFGF.On day three, remove half of the media and replace with 15 milliliters of hESC media supplemented with 10 nanograms per milliliter of bFGF. On day five, replace half of the media with 15 milliliters of neural induction media. After that, every other day, replace half of the medium with neural induction media.After three weeks in culture, add 100X Penicillin-Streptomycin to the media at a final concentration of 1X if desired. Refresh half the media every other day. In this protocol, the formed brain organoids looked bright and similar in size without dark dying cells in the centers of these clusters.The cells were gradually weaned off bFGF. On day five, they were placed into neural induction media and they remained in this media throughout the culture period. Although the organoids got larger and thus darker over time, the neural rosette-like structures expanded which indicates the initiation of neural differentiation and contains features of the embryonic neural tube.To take a more in-depth look at the gene expression within the cells, qPCR analysis was performed. The glutamate transporter VLGUT1 was expressed at two and a half weeks, increased at five weeks, and remained consistent through five months of culture. A forebrain marker Foxg1 was expressed at low levels until five weeks in culture.The deep layer marker Tbr1 peaked around five weeks and decreased subsequently. Whereas the expression of the upper layer marker Satb2, the ventral marker Eng1, the hindbrain spinal cord marker Hoxb4, as well as the oligodendrocyte marker Olig2 all increased over time. In contrast, the stem cell marker Sox2 decreased over time.The glial marker GFAP peaked at five weeks and remained relatively constant subsequently. Remember to take the utmost care when handling ES cells in early stage organoids to avoid contamination as they're grown without antibiotics and also remember to feed according to schedule. Following this procedure, you can evaluate the organoids using techniques such as quantitative RT-PCR for gene expression and immunofluorescence for protein expression and localization.Using this technique, we were able to study the ability of a small molecule to alleviate aspects of human neonatal hypoxic injury as modeled in a hypoxia chamber. It is significant that these human brain organoids behaved similarly to in vivo mouse experiments.

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Developmental Biology

Generating CRISPR/Cas9 Mediated Monoallelic Deletions to Study Enhancer Function in Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells

Enhancers control cell identity by regulating tissue-specific gene expression in a position and orientation independent manner. These enhancers are often located distally from the regulated gene in intergenic regions or even within the body of another gene. The position independent nature of enhancer activity makes it difficult to match enhancers with the genes they regulate. Deletion of an enhancer region provides direct evidence for enhancer activity and is the gold standard to reveal an enhancer's role in endogenous gene transcription. Conventional homologous recombination based deletion methods have been surpassed by recent advances in genome editing technology which enable rapid and precisely located changes to the genomes of numerous model organisms. CRISPR/Cas9 mediated genome editing can be used to manipulate the genome in many cell types and organisms rapidly and cost effectively, due to the ease with which Cas9 can be targeted to the genome by a guide RNA from a bespoke expression plasmid. Homozygous deletion of essential gene regulatory elements might lead to lethality or alter cellular phenotype whereas monoallelic deletion of transcriptional enhancers allows for the study of cis-regulation of gene expression without this confounding issue. Presented here is a protocol for CRISPR/Cas9 mediated deletion in F1 mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells (Mus musculus129 x Mus castaneus). Monoallelic deletion, screening and expression analysis is facilitated by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) between the two alleles which occur on average every 125 bp in these cells.

Experimental validation of enhancer activity is best approached by loss-of-function analysis. Presented here is an efficient protocol that uses CRISPR/Cas9 mediated deletion to study allele-specific regulation of gene transcription in F1 ES cells which contain a hybrid genome (Mus musculus129 x Mus castaneus).

Enhancers control cell identity by regulating tissue-specific gene expression in a position and orientation independent manner. These enhancers are often ...

A Quick and Efficient Method for the Purification of Endoderm Cells Generated from Human Embryonic Stem Cells

The differentiation capabilities of pluripotent stem cells such as embryonic stem cells (ESCs) allow a potential therapeutic application for cell replacement therapies. Terminally differentiated cell types could be used for the treatment of various degenerative diseases. In vitro differentiation of these cells towards tissues of the lung, liver and pancreas requires as a first step the generation of definitive endodermal cells. This step is rate-limiting for further differentiation towards terminally matured cell types such as insulin-producing beta cells, hepatocytes or other endoderm-derived cell types. Cells that are committed towards the endoderm lineage highly express a multitude of transcription factors such as FOXA2, SOX17, HNF1B, members of the GATA family, and the surface receptor CXCR4. However, differentiation protocols are rarely 100% efficient. Here, we describe a method for the purification of a CXCR4+ cell population after differentiation into the DE by using magnetic microbeads. This purification additionally removes cells of unwanted lineages. The gentle purification method is quick and reliable and might be used to improve downstream applications and differentiations.

Here, we describe a method for the purification of differentiated human embryonic stem cells that are committed towards the definitive endoderm for the improvement of downstream applications and further differentiations.

The differentiation capabilities of pluripotent stem cells such as embryonic stem cells (ESCs) allow a potential therapeutic application for cell ...

Rapid, Directed Differentiation of Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells from Human Embryonic or Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

We describe a robust method to direct the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into retinal pigment epithelial cells (RPE). The purpose of providing a detailed and thorough protocol is to clearly demonstrate each step and to make this readily available to researchers in the field. This protocol results in a homogenous layer of RPE with minimal or no manual dissection needed. The method presented here has been shown to be effective for induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) and human embryonic stem cells. Additionally, we describe methods for cryopreservation of intermediate cell banks that allow long-term storage. RPE generated using this protocol might be useful for iPSC disease-in-a-dish modeling or clinical application.

This protocol describes how to produce retinal pigment epithelial cells (RPE) from pluripotent stem cells. The method uses a combination of growth factors and small molecules to direct the differentiation of stem cells into immature RPE in fourteen days and mature, functional RPE after three months.

We describe a robust method to direct the differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into retinal pigment epithelial cells (RPE). The purpose of providing ...

Generation of Standardized and Reproducible Forebrain-type Cerebral Organoids from Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

The human cortex is highly expanded and exhibits a complex structure with specific functional areas, providing higher brain function, such as cognition. Efforts to study human cerebral cortex development have been limited by the availability of model systems. Translating results from rodent studies to the human system is restricted by species differences and studies on human primary tissues are hampered by a lack of tissue availability as well as ethical concerns. Recent development in human pluripotent stem cell (PSC) technology include the generation of three-dimensional (3D) self-organizing organotypic culture systems, which mimic to a certain extent human-specific brain development in vitro. Currently, various protocols are available for the generation of either whole brain or brain-region specific organoids. The method for the generation of homogeneous and reproducible forebrain-type organoids from induced PSC (iPSC), which we previously established and describe here, combines the intrinsic ability of PSC to self-organize with guided differentiation towards the anterior neuroectodermal lineage and matrix embedding to support the formation of a continuous neuroepithelium. More specifically, this protocol involves: (1) the generation of iPSC aggregates, including the conversion of iPSC colonies to a confluent monolayer culture; (2) the induction of anterior neuroectoderm; (3) the embedding of neuroectodermal aggregates in a matrix scaffold; (4) the generation of forebrain-type organoids from neuroectodermal aggregates; and (5) the fixation and validation of forebrain-type organoids. As such, this protocol provides an easily applicable system for the generation of standardized and reproducible iPSC-derived cortical tissue structures in vitro.

Cerebral organoids represent a new model system to investigate early human brain development in vitro. This article provides the detailed methodology to efficiently generate homogeneous dorsal forebrain-type organoids from human induced pluripotent stem cells including critical characterization and validation steps.

The human cortex is highly expanded and exhibits a complex structure with specific functional areas, providing higher brain function, such as cognition. ...

Engineering Transplantation-suitable Retinal Pigment Epithelium Tissue Derived from Human Embryonic Stem Cells

Several pathological conditions of the eye affect the functionality and/or the survival of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). These include some forms of retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Cell therapy is one of the most promising therapeutic strategies proposed to cure these diseases, with already encouraging preliminary results in humans. However, the method of preparation of the graft has a significant impact on its functional outcomes in vivo. Indeed, RPE cells grafted as a cell suspension are less functional than the same cells transplanted as a retinal tissue. Herein, we describe a simple and reproducible method to engineer RPE tissue and its preparation for an in vivo implantation. RPE cells derived from human pluripotent stem cells are seeded on a biological support, the human amniotic membrane (hAM). Compared to artificial scaffolds, this support has the advantage of having a basement membrane that is close to the Bruch&#39;s membrane where endogenous RPE cells are attached. However, its manipulation is not easy, and we developed several strategies for its proper culturing and preparation for grafting in vivo.

We describe a method to engineer a retinal tissue composed of retinal pigment epithelial cells derived from human pluripotent stem cells cultured on top of human amniotic membranes and its preparation for grafting in animal models.

Several pathological conditions of the eye affect the functionality and/or the survival of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). These include some forms ...

In Vitro Generation of Somite Derivatives from Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

In response to signals such as WNTs, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and sonic hedgehog (SHH) secreted from surrounding tissues, somites (SMs) give rise to multiple cell types, including the myotome (MYO), sclerotome (SCL), dermatome (D), and syndetome (SYN), which in turn develop into skeletal muscle, axial skeleton, dorsal dermis, and axial tendon/ligament, respectively. Therefore, the generation of SMs and their derivatives from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) is critical to obtain pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) for application in regenerative medicine and for disease research in the field of orthopedic surgery. Although the induction protocols for MYO and SCL from PSCs have been previously reported by several researchers, no study has yet demonstrated the induction of SYN and D from iPSCs. Therefore, efficient induction of fully competent SMs remains a major challenge. Here, we recapitulate human SM patterning with human iPSCs in vitro by mimicking the signaling environment during chick/mouse SM development, and report on methods of systematic induction of SM derivatives (MYO, SCL, D, and SYN) from human iPSCs under chemically defined conditions through the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) and SM states. Knowledge regarding chick/mouse&#160;SM development was successfully applied to the induction of SMs with human iPSCs. This method could be a novel tool for studying human somitogenesis and patterning without the use of embryos and for cell-based therapy and disease modeling.

We present here a protocol for the differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells into each somite derivative (myotome, sclerotome, dermatome, and syndetome) in chemically defined conditions, which has applications in future disease modeling and cell-based therapies in orthopedic surgery.

In response to signals such as WNTs, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and sonic hedgehog (SHH) secreted from surrounding tissues, somites (SMs) give ...

Generation and Culture of Lingual Organoids Derived from Adult Mouse Taste Stem Cells

The sense of taste is mediated by taste buds on the tongue, which are composed of rapidly renewing taste receptor cells (TRCs). This continual turnover is powered by local progenitor cells and renders taste function prone to disruption by a multitude of medical treatments, which in turn severely impacts the quality of life. Thus, studying this process in the context of drug treatment is vital to understanding if and how taste progenitor function and TRC production are affected. Given the ethical concerns and limited availability of human taste tissue, mouse models, which have a taste system similar to humans, are commonly used. Compared to in vivo methods, which are time-consuming, expensive, and not amenable to high throughput studies, murine lingual organoids can enable experiments to be run rapidly with many replicates and fewer mice. Here, previously published protocols have been adapted and a standardized method for generating taste organoids from taste progenitor cells isolated from the circumvallate papilla (CVP) of adult mice is presented. Taste progenitor cells in the CVP express LGR5 and can be isolated via EGFP fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) from mice carrying an Lgr5EGFP-IRES-CreERT2 allele. Sorted cells are plated onto a matrix gel-based 3D culture system and cultured for 12 days. Organoids expand for the first 6 days of the culture period via proliferation and then enter a differentiation phase, during which they generate all three taste cell types along with non-taste epithelial cells. Organoids can be harvested upon maturation at day 12 or at any time during the growth process for RNA expression and immunohistochemical analysis. Standardizing culture methods for production of lingual organoids from adult stem cells will improve reproducibility and advance lingual organoids as a powerful drug screening tool in the fight to help patients experiencing taste dysfunction.

The protocol presents a method for culturing and processing lingual organoids derived from taste stem cells isolated from the posterior taste papilla of adult mice.

The sense of taste is mediated by taste buds on the tongue, which are composed of rapidly renewing taste receptor cells (TRCs). This continual turnover is ...

A Simplified Method for Generating Kidney Organoids from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Kidney organoids generated from hPSCs have provided an unlimited source of renal tissue. Human kidney organoids are an invaluable tool for studying kidney disease and injury, developing cell-based therapies, and testing new therapeutics. For such applications, large numbers of uniform organoids and highly reproducible assays are needed. We have built upon our previously published kidney organoid protocol to improve the overall health of the organoids. This simple, robust 3D protocol involves the formation of uniform embryoid bodies in minimum component medium containing lipids, insulin-transferrin-selenium-ethanolamine supplement and polyvinyl alcohol with GSK3 inhibitor (CHIR99021) for 3 days, followed by culture in knock-out serum replacement (KOSR)-containing medium. In addition, agitating assays allows for reduction in clumping of the embryoid bodies and maintaining a uniform size, which is important for reducing variability between organoids. Overall, the protocol provides a fast, efficient, and cost-effective method for generating large quantities of kidney organoids.

Here we describe a protocol to generate kidney organoids from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). This protocol generates kidney organoids within two weeks. The resulting kidney organoids can be cultured in large-scale spinner flasks or multi-well magnetic stir plates for parallel drug-testing approaches.

Kidney organoids generated from hPSCs have provided an unlimited source of renal tissue. Human kidney organoids are an invaluable tool for studying kidney ...

Establishing Organoids from Human Tooth as a Powerful Tool Toward Mechanistic Research and Regenerative Therapy

Teeth are of key importance in life not only for food mastication and speech but also for psychological well-being. Knowledge on human tooth development and biology is scarce. In particular, not much is known about the tooth's epithelial stem cells and their function. We succeeded in developing a novel organoid model starting from human tooth tissue (i.e., dental follicle, isolated from extracted wisdom teeth). The organoids are robustly and long-term expandable and recapitulate the proposed human tooth epithelial stem cell compartment in terms of marker expression as well as functional activity. In particular, the organoids are capable to unfold an ameloblast differentiation process as occurring in vivo during amelogenesis. This unique organoid model will provide a powerful tool to study not only human tooth development but also dental pathology, and may pave the way toward tooth-regenerative therapy. Replacing lost teeth with a biological tooth based on this new organoid model could be an appealing alternative to the current standard implantation of synthetic materials.

We present a protocol to develop epithelial organoid cultures starting from human tooth. The organoids are robustly expandable and recapitulate the tooth's epithelial stem cells, including their ameloblast differentiation capacity. The unique organoid model provides a promising tool to study human dental (stem cell) biology with perspectives for tooth-regenerative approaches.

Teeth are of key importance in life not only for food mastication and speech but also for psychological well-being. Knowledge on human tooth development ...

Generation of Retinal Organoids from Healthy and Retinal Disease-Specific Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

Pluripotent stem cells can generate complex tissue organoids that are useful for in vitro disease modeling studies and for developing regenerative therapies. This protocol describes a simpler, robust, and stepwise method of generating retinal organoids in a hybrid culture system consisting of adherent monolayer cultures during the first 4 weeks of retinal differentiation till the emergence of distinct, self-organized eye field primordial clusters (EFPs). Further, the doughnut-shaped, circular, and translucent neuro-retinal islands within each EFP are manually picked and cultured under suspension using non-adherent culture dishes in a retinal differentiation medium for 1-2 weeks to generate multilayered 3D optic cups (OC-1M). These immature retinal organoids contain PAX6+ and ChX10+ proliferating, multipotent retinal precursors. The precursor cells are linearly self-assembled within the organoids and appear as distinct radial striations. At 4 weeks after suspension culture, the retinal progenitors undergo post-mitotic arrest and lineage differentiation to form mature retinal organoids (OC-2M). The photoreceptor lineage committed precursors develop within the outermost layers of retinal organoids. These CRX+ and RCVRN+ photoreceptor cells morphologically mature to display inner segment-like extensions. This method can be adopted for generating retinal organoids using human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). All steps and procedures are clearly explained and demonstrated to ensure replicability and for wider applications in basic science and translational research.

This protocol describes an efficient method of differentiating hiPSCs into eye field clusters and generating neuro-retinal organoids using simplified culture conditions involving both adherent and suspension culture systems. Other ocular cell types, such as the RPE and corneal epithelium, can also be isolated from mature eye fields in retinal cultures.