Name: stereocilia bundle imaging with nanoscale resolution in live mammalian auditory hair cells
Uploaded: 2021-01-21T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Stereocilia Bundle Imaging with Nanoscale Resolution in Live Mammalian Auditory Hair Cells at JoVE.com

We thank Prof. Yuri Korchev (Imperial College, UK) for the long-term support and advice throughout all stages of the project. We also thank Drs. Pavel Novak and Andrew Shevchuk (Imperial College, UK) as well as Oleg Belov (National Research Centre for Audiology, Russia) for their help with software development. The study was supported by NIDCD/NIH (R01 DC008861 and R01 DC014658 to G.I.F.).

The study was performed in accordance with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institutes of Health. All animal procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) at the University of Kentucky (protocol 00903M2005).
1.&#160;Manufacturing and testing the nanopipettes
<ol>
	<li>Create a program in the micropipette puller to obtain pipettes with a resistance between 200 and 400 M&#8486;, wh...

<ol>
	<li>Beurg, M., Fettiplace, R., Nam, J. H., Ricci, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Localization+of+inner+hair+cell+mechanotransducer+channels+using+high-speed+calcium+imaging.">Localization of inner hair cell mechanotransducer channels using high-speed calcium imaging.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 12 (5), 553-558 (2009).</li><li>Effertz, T., Becker, L., Peng, A. W., Ricci, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phosphoinositol-4,5-bisphosphate+regulates+auditory+hair-cell+mechanotransduction-channel+pore+properties+and+fast+adaptation.">Phosphoinositol-4,5-bisphosphate regulates auditory hair-cell mechanotransduction-channel pore properties and fast adaptation.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 37 (48), 11632-11646 (2017).</li><li>Peng, A. W., Gnanasambandam, R., Sachs, F., Ricci, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adaptation+independent+modulation+of+auditory+hair+cell+mechanotransduction+channel+open+probability+implicates+a+role+for+the+lipid+bilayer.">Adaptation independent modulation of auditory hair cell mechanotransduction channel open probability implicates a role for the lipid bilayer.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 36 (10), 2945-2956 (2016).</li><li>Engstr&#246;m, H., Engstr&#246;m, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+of+the+hairs+on+cochlear+sensory+cells.">Structure of the hairs on cochlear sensory cells.</a> Hearing research. 1 (1), 49-66 (1978).</li><li>Conchello, J. A., Lichtman, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+sectioning+microscopy.">Optical sectioning microscopy.</a> Nature Methods. 2 (12), 920-931 (2005).</li><li>Sigal, Y. M., Zhou, R., Zhuang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+and+discovering+cellular+structures+with+super-resolution+microscopy.">Visualizing and discovering cellular structures with super-resolution microscopy.</a> Science. 361 (6405), 880-887 (2018).</li><li>W&#228;ldchen, S., Lehmann, J., Klein, T., van de Linde, S., Sauer, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Light-induced+cell+damage+in+live-cell+super-resolution+microscopy.">Light-induced cell damage in live-cell super-resolution microscopy.</a> Scientific Reports. 5, 15348 (2015).</li><li>Pickles, J. O., Comis, S. D., Osborne, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cross-links+between+stereocilia+in+the+guinea+pig+organ+of+Corti,+and+their+possible+relation+to+sensory+transduction.">Cross-links between stereocilia in the guinea pig organ of Corti, and their possible relation to sensory transduction.</a> Hearing Research. 15 (2), 103-112 (1984).</li><li>Furness, D. N., Hackney, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cross-links+between+stereocilia+in+the+guinea+pig+cochlea.">Cross-links between stereocilia in the guinea pig cochlea.</a> Hearing Research. 18 (2), 177-188 (1985).</li><li>Jacobs, R. A., Hudspeth, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrastructural+correlates+of+mechanoelectrical+transduction+in+hair+cells+of+the+bullfrog&#8217;s+internal+ear.">Ultrastructural correlates of mechanoelectrical transduction in hair cells of the bullfrog&#8217;s internal ear.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. 55, 547-561 (1990).</li><li>Goodyear, R. J., Marcotti, W., Kros, C. J., Richardson, G. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+and+properties+of+stereociliary+link+types+in+hair+cells+of+the+mouse+cochlea.">Development and properties of stereociliary link types in hair cells of the mouse cochlea.</a> The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 485 (1), 75-85 (2005).</li><li>Kachar, B., Parakkal, M., Kurc, M., Zhao, Y., Gillespie, P. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+structure+of+hair-cell+tip+links.">High-resolution structure of hair-cell tip links.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 97 (24), 13336-13341 (2000).</li><li>V&#233;lez-Ortega, A. C., Freeman, M. J., Indzhykulian, A. A., Grossheim, J. M., Frolenkov, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanotransduction+current+is+essential+for+stability+of+the+transducing+stereocilia+in+mammalian+auditory+hair+cells.">Mechanotransduction current is essential for stability of the transducing stereocilia in mammalian auditory hair cells.</a> eLife. 6, 1-22 (2017).</li><li>Ivanchenko, M. V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Serial+scanning+electron+microscopy+of+anti-PKHD1L1+immuno-gold+labeled+mouse+hair+cell+stereocilia+bundles.">Serial scanning electron microscopy of anti-PKHD1L1 immuno-gold labeled mouse hair cell stereocilia bundles.</a> Scientific Data. 7 (1), 182 (2020).</li><li>Hadi, S., Alexander, A. J., V&#233;lez-Ortega, A. C., Frolenkov, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Myosin-XVa+controls+both+staircase+architecture+and+diameter+gradation+of+stereocilia+rows+in+the+auditory+hair+cell+bundles.">Myosin-XVa controls both staircase architecture and diameter gradation of stereocilia rows in the auditory hair cell bundles.</a> Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology JARO. 21 (2), 121-135 (2020).</li><li>Metlagel, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electron+cryo-tomography+of+vestibular+hair-cell+stereocilia.">Electron cryo-tomography of vestibular hair-cell stereocilia.</a> Journal of Structural Biology. 206 (2), 149-155 (2019).</li><li>Langer, M. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+stimulation+of+individual+stereocilia+of+living+cochlear+hair+cells+by+atomic+force+microscopy.">Mechanical stimulation of individual stereocilia of living cochlear hair cells by atomic force microscopy.</a> Ultramicroscopy. 82 (1-4), 269-278 (2000).</li><li>Dufr&#234;ne, Y. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Towards+nanomicrobiology+using+atomic+force+microscopy.">Towards nanomicrobiology using atomic force microscopy.</a> Nature Reviews Microbiology. 6 (9), 674-680 (2008).</li><li>Putman, C. A., van der Werf, K. O., de Grooth, B. G., van Hulst, N. F., Greve, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Viscoelasticity+of+living+cells+allows+high+resolution+imaging+by+tapping+mode+atomic+force+microscopy.">Viscoelasticity of living cells allows high resolution imaging by tapping mode atomic force microscopy.</a> Biophysical journal. 67 (4), 1749-1753 (1994).</li><li>Gavara, N., Chadwick, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noncontact+microrheology+at+acoustic+frequencies+using+frequency-modulated+atomic+force+microscopy.">Noncontact microrheology at acoustic frequencies using frequency-modulated atomic force microscopy.</a> Nature Methods. 7 (8), 650-654 (2010).</li><li>Cartagena-Rivera, A. X., Van Itallie, C. M., Anderson, J. M., Chadwick, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Apical+surface+supracellular+mechanical+properties+in+polarized+epithelium+using+noninvasive+acoustic+force+spectroscopy.">Apical surface supracellular mechanical properties in polarized epithelium using noninvasive acoustic force spectroscopy.</a> Nature Communications. 8 (1), 1030 (2017).</li><li>Katsuno, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TRIOBP-5+sculpts+stereocilia+rootlets+and+stiffens+supporting+cells+enabling+hearing.">TRIOBP-5 sculpts stereocilia rootlets and stiffens supporting cells enabling hearing.</a> JCI Insight. 4 (12), (2019).</li><li>Hansma, P. K., Drake, B., Marti, O., Gould, S. A., Prater, C. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+scanning+ion-conductance+microscope.">The scanning ion-conductance microscope.</a> Science. 243 (4891), 641-643 (1989).</li><li>Korchev, Y. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specialized+scanning+ion-conductance+microscope+for+imaging+of+living+cells.">Specialized scanning ion-conductance microscope for imaging of living cells.</a> Journal of Microscopy. 188 (Pt 1), 17-23 (1997).</li><li>Shevchuk, A. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+proteins+in+membranes+of+living+cells+by+high-resolution+scanning+ion+conductance+microscopy.">Imaging proteins in membranes of living cells by high-resolution scanning ion conductance microscopy.</a> Angewandte Chemie (International ed in English. 45 (14), 2212-2216 (2006).</li><li>Novak, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanoscale+live-cell+imaging+using+hopping+probe+ion+conductance+microscopy.">Nanoscale live-cell imaging using hopping probe ion conductance microscopy.</a> Nature Methods. 6 (4), 279-281 (2009).</li><li>V&#233;lez-Ortega, A. C., Frolenkov, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+of+live+cochlear+stereocilia+at+a+nanoscale+resolution+using+hopping+probe+ion+conductance+microscopy.">Visualization of live cochlear stereocilia at a nanoscale resolution using hopping probe ion conductance microscopy.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1427, 203-221 (2016).</li><li>Gu, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+scanning+patch-clamp:+new+insights+into+cell+function.">High-resolution scanning patch-clamp: new insights into cell function.</a> FASEB Journal Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. 16 (7), 748-750 (2002).</li><li>Frolenkov, G. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-channel+recordings+from+the+apical+surface+of+outer+hair+cells+with+a+scanning+ion+conductance+probe.">Single-channel recordings from the apical surface of outer hair cells with a scanning ion conductance probe.</a> Association for Research in Otolaryngology. Abs. 444, (2004).</li><li>S&#225;nchez, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noncontact+measurement+of+the+local+mechanical+properties+of+living+cells+using+pressure+applied+via+a+pipette.">Noncontact measurement of the local mechanical properties of living cells using pressure applied via a pipette.</a> Biophysical Journal. 95 (6), 3017-3027 (2008).</li><li>Korchev, Y. E., Negulyaev, Y. A., Edwards, C. R., Vodyanoy, I., Lab, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+localization+of+single+active+ion+channels+on+the+surface+of+a+living+cell.">Functional localization of single active ion channels on the surface of a living cell.</a> Nature Cell Biology. 2 (9), 616-619 (2000).</li><li>Shevchuk, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Angular+approach+scanning+ion+conductance+microscopy.">Angular approach scanning ion conductance microscopy.</a> Biophysical Journal. 110 (10), 2252-2265 (2016).</li><li>Furness, D. N., Katori, Y., Nirmal Kumar, B., Hackney, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+dimensions+and+structural+attachments+of+tip+links+in+mammalian+cochlear+hair+cells+and+the+effects+of+exposure+to+different+levels+of+extracellular+calcium.">The dimensions and structural attachments of tip links in mammalian cochlear hair cells and the effects of exposure to different levels of extracellular calcium.</a> Neuroscience. 154 (1), 10-21 (2008).</li></ol>

To obtain successful HPICM images, users need to establish a low noise and low vibration system and manufacture appropriate pipettes. We strongly recommend the use of AFM calibration standards to test the stability of the system before attempting to perform any live cell imaging. Once the resolution of the system is tested, users can consider imaging fixed organ of Corti samples to get familiar with the imaging settings before attempting any live cell imaging.
The optimal setpoint for imaging ...

Despite the fact that stereocilia bundles in the auditory hair cells are big enough to be visualized by optical microscopy and deflected in live cells in a patch clamp experiment, the essential structural components of the transduction machinery such as tip links could be imaged only with the electron microscopy in dead cells. In the mammalian auditory hair cells, the transduction machinery is located at the lower ends of the tip links, i.e., at the tips of the shorter row stereocilia1 and regulated locally through the signaling at the tips of stereocilia2,3. Yet, label-free imaging of the surface structures at this location in live hair cells is not possible due to the small sizes of stereocilia.
The mammalian cochlea has two types of auditory sensory cells: inner and outer hair cells. In the inner hair cells, stereocilia are longer and thicker compared to those in the outer hair cells4. The first and second row of stereocilia have a diameter of 300-500 nm in mouse or rat inner hair cells. Due to the diffraction of light, the maximum resolution achievable with a label-free optical microscopy is approximately 200 nm. Hence, visualization of individual stereocilia within first and second rows of the inner hair cell bundle is relatively easy&#160;with optical microscopy. In contrast, shorter row stereocilia in the inner hair cells and all stereocilia of the outer hair cells have diameters around 100-200 nm and cannot be visualized with optical microscopy5. Despite recent progress in super-resolution imaging, this fundamental limitation persists in any optical label-free imaging. All current commercially available super-resolution techniques do require some sort of fluorescent molecules6, which limits their applications. In addition to limitations due to the need for specific fluorescently tagged molecules, exposure to intense light irradiation has been shown to induce cellular damage and might influence cellular processes, which is a great disadvantage when studying live cells7.
Our current knowledge of the ultrastructural details of hair cell stereocilia bundles has been obtained mostly with various electron microscopy (EM) techniques, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), freeze-fracture EM, and recently with 3D techniques such as serial sectioning with focused ion beam or cryo-EM tomography8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16. Unfortunately, all these EM techniques require chemical or cryofixation of the sample. Depending on the time scale of the phenomena, this requirement makes a study of the dynamic processes at the tips of stereocilia either impossible or very labor intensive.
Limited efforts have been made to image hair bundles of live hair cells with atomic force microscopy (AFM)17,18. Since AFM operates in physiological solutions, it could, in theory, visualize dynamic changes in the stereocilia bundles of live hair cells over time. The problem lies in the principles of high-resolution AFM, which implies certain physical contact between the AFM probe and the sample, even in the least damaging &#34;tapping&#34; mode19. When the AFM probe encounters a stereocilium, it usually crashes against it, damaging the structure of the hair bundle. As a result, this technique is not suitable for visualizing live, or even fixed, hair cells bundles17,18. The problem may be partially alleviated by using a large ball-shaped AFM probe that imposes only hydrodynamic forces to the surface of the sample20. However, even though such a probe is ideally suited to test mechanical properties of the sample21, it provides only a sub-micrometer resolution when imaging the organ of Corti22 and still applies to the sample a force that may be substantial for the highly sensitive stereocilia bundles.
Scanning ion conductance microscopy (SICM) is a version of scanning probe microscopy that uses a glass pipette probe filled with a conductive solution23. SICM detects the surface when the pipette approaches the cell and the electric current through the pipette decreases. Since this is happening well before touching the cell, the SICM is ideally suited for non-contact imaging of live cells in physiological solution24. The best resolution of SICM is on the order of single nanometers, which allows resolving individual protein complexes at the plasma membrane of a living cell25. However, similar to other scanning probe techniques, SICM is able to image only relatively flat surfaces. We overcame this limitation by inventing hopping probe ion conductance microscope (HPICM)26, in which the nanopipette approaches the sample at each imaging point (Figure 1A). Using HPICM, we were able to image stereocilia bundles in live auditory hair cells with nanoscale resolution27.
Another fundamental advantage of this technique is that HPICM is not only an imaging tool. In contrast to other scanning probe techniques, the HPICM/SICM probe is an electrode widely used in cell physiology for electrical recordings and local delivery of various stimuli. Ion channel activity does not usually interfere with HPICM imaging, because the total current through the HPICM probe is several orders of magnitude larger than the extracellular current generated by the largest ion channels25. However, HPICM allows precise positioning of the nanopipette over a structure of interest and subsequent single-channel patch-clamp recording from this structure28. This is how we obtained the first preliminary recordings of single channel activity at the tips of the outer hair cell stereocilia29. It is worth mentioning that even a large current through the nanopipette cannot produce significant changes of the potential across the plasma membrane due to enormous electrical shunt of the extracellular medium. However, individual ion channels can be activated mechanically by flow of liquid through the nanopipette30 or chemically by local application of an agonist31.
In HPICM, the image is generated when a nanopipette sequentially approaches the sample at one point, retracts, and then moves in lateral direction to repeat the approach (Figure 1A). A patch clamp amplifier constantly applies voltage to an AgCl wire in the pipette (Figure 1B) to generate a current of ~1 nA in the bath solution. The value of this current when the pipette is away from the surface of the cell is determined as a reference current (Iref, Figure 1C). Then, the pipette moves in the Z axis to approach the sample until the current is reduced by an amount predefined by the user (setpoint), usually 0.2%-1% of the Iref (Figure 1C, top trace). The system then saves Z value at this moment as the height of the sample, together with X and Y coordinates of this imaging point. Then, the pipette is retracted away from the surface (Figure 1C, bottom trace) at a speed defined by the user, usually 700-900 nm/ms. After retraction, the pipette (or, in our case, the sample - see Figure 1B) is moved laterally to the next imaging point, a new reference current value is obtained, and the pipette once again approaches the sample, repeating the process. The X-Y movement of the pipette is preferred in an upright microscope setup that is typically used for recordings of the hair cell mechanotransduction currents. In this setting, the HPICM probe approaches the hair cell bundles not from the top but at an angle32. However, the best resolution of HPICM imaging is achieved in an inverted microscope setup (Figure 1A,B), where the movement of the sample in X-Y directions is de-coupled from Z-movement of the nanopipette, thereby eliminating potential mechanical artefacts.
Using HPICM, we obtained topographic images of mouse and rat inner and outer hair cell stereocilia bundles, and even visualized the links between the stereocilia that are about 5 nm in diameter26,27. The success of hair cell bundle imaging with this technique relies on several factors. First, the noise (variance) of the nanopipette current should be as small as possible to allow the lowest possible setpoint for HPICM imaging. A low setpoint allows HPICM probe to &#8220;sense&#8221; stereocilia surface at a larger distance and at any angle to the probe approach and, surprisingly, improves X-Y resolution of HPICM imaging (see Discussion). Second, the vibrations and drifts in the system should be decreased to less than 10 nm, since they contribute directly to the imaging artefacts. Finally, even though the HPICM probe and the specimen stage are moved in Z and X-Y axes by the calibrated feedback-controlled piezo actuators that have an accuracy of a single nanometer or better, the diameter of the nanopipette tip determines the spread of the current (sensing volume) and hence the resolution (Figure 1A). Therefore, before imaging live hair cells, it is vital to pull the adequate pipettes, reach the desired resolution with calibration samples, and achieve low noise in the recording system.
For at least a couple of decades, the SICM technique has not been commercially available and it has been developing by only few labs in the world with the leading lab of Prof. Korchev in the Imperial College (UK). Recently, several SICM systems became commercially available (see Table of Materials), all of which are based on the original HPICM principles. However, imaging stereocilia bundles in the hair cells requires several custom modifications that are technically challenging (or even impossible) in the closed &#8220;ready-to-go&#8221; systems. Therefore, some component integration is needed. Since HPICM setup represents a patch clamp rig with more stringent vibration and drift requirements and a piezo-driven movement of the HPICM probe and the sample (Figure 1D), this integration is relatively easy for any researcher, who is proficient in patch clamping. However, a scientist without proper background would definitely need some training in electrophysiology first. Despite remaining challenges such as increasing the speed of imaging (see Discussion), we have been able to image stereocilia bundles in live hair cells with nanoscale resolution without damaging them.&#160;
This paper presents a detailed protocol to perform successful HPICM imaging of the live auditory hair cell bundles in young postnatal rat or mouse cochlear explants using our custom system. The integrated components are listed in the Table of Materials. The paper also describes common problems that can be encountered and how to troubleshoot them.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Analog oscilloscope</td>
			<td>B&#38;K Precision</td>
			<td>2160C</td>
			<td>Analog oscilloscope for real-time monitoring of nanopipette current and Z-axis approach</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AFM calibration standards</td>
			<td>TED PELLA Inc</td>
			<td>HS-100MG; HS-20MG</td>
			<td>These 100 and 20 nm calibration standards are used to test the performance of HPICM system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benchtop vibration Isolator</td>
			<td>AMETEK/TMC</td>
			<td>Everstill K-400</td>
			<td>Active vibration isolation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass capillaries</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments (WPI)</td>
			<td>1B100F-4</td>
			<td>Borosilicate glass capillaries for the nanopipettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-(+)-Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8270</td>
			<td>To be added to the bath solution to adjust osmolarity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digitizer</td>
			<td>National Instruments Corporation</td>
			<td>PCI-6221</td>
			<td>Multi-channel input/output digitizer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fast analog Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control for Z movement</td>
			<td>Standford Research Systems</td>
			<td>SIM900, SIM960, SIM980</td>
			<td>Instrumentation modules integrated in an external PID controller for Z movement. It requires a fast response that is usually not implemented in commercial piezo amplifiers.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Faraday cage</td>
			<td>AMETEK/TMC</td>
			<td>Type II</td>
			<td>Required to shield electromagnetic interference</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass bottom dish</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments (WPI)</td>
			<td>FD5040-100</td>
			<td>Used as the dish for the chamber for the tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hanks&#39; Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS)</td>
			<td>Gibco, Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14025092</td>
			<td>Extracellular (bath) solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Instrumentation amplifier</td>
			<td>Brownlee Precision</td>
			<td>Model 440</td>
			<td>Instrumentation amplifier provides required offsets, filtering, and secondary magnification or attenuation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser-based micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>P-2000/G</td>
			<td>Micropipette puller to fabricate the nanopipettes. Laser is needed for sharp quartz pipettes.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lebovitz&#39;s L-15, without phenol red</td>
			<td>Gibco, Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>21083027</td>
			<td>Extracellular (bath) solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Scientifica</td>
			<td>PatchStar</td>
			<td>Used for &#34;course&#34; positioning of the Z piezo actuator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Eclipse TS100</td>
			<td>Inverted optical microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Patch amplifier</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>Axopatch 200B</td>
			<td>The patch clamp amplifier measures the current through the nanopipette</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Piezo amplifier (XY axes)</td>
			<td>Physik Instrumente (PI)</td>
			<td>E-500.00, E-505.00, E-509.C2A</td>
			<td>Amplification and PID control for XY piezo translation stage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Piezo amplifier (Z axis)</td>
			<td>Piezosystem jena</td>
			<td>ENT 400 &#38; 800</td>
			<td>Custom amplifier consisting of ENT 400 power supply and two ENT 800 amplifiers in parallel to achieve max current of 1.6 nA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic Coverslips</td>
			<td>TED PELLA Inc</td>
			<td>26028</td>
			<td>Used in the fabrication of the chambers for the tissue&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SICM controller &#38; software*</td>
			<td>Ionscope, UK (ionscope.com)</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Custom controller based on SBC6711 digital signal processing board from Innovative Integration Ltd</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicone elastomer (Sylgard)</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments (WPI)</td>
			<td>SYLG184</td>
			<td>Used to attach the flexible glass fibers to the chamber for the tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon glue</td>
			<td>The Dow Chemical Company</td>
			<td>734</td>
			<td>Used to glue the different parts of the chamber for the tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tungsten rod</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>717500</td>
			<td>Used for holding the dental floss strands in the chamber for the tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XY piezo nanopositioner</td>
			<td>Physik Instrumente (PI)</td>
			<td>P-733.2DD</td>
			<td>XY translation stage with capacitive sensors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Z piezo nanopositioner</td>
			<td>Piezosystem jena</td>
			<td>RA 12/24 SG</td>
			<td>Ring piezoactuator with a strain gage sensor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">*Ionscope does not sell separate SICM controllers anymore. There are few other commercial systems:&#160; NX12-Bio and NX10 SICM,&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Park Systems, Korea and SICM modules from ICAPPIC Limited, UK (icappic.com). All these systems are based on the original&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">HPICM principles. However, imaging stereocilia bundles in the hair cells requires several custom modifications that are technically&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">challenging (or even impossible) in the closed &#8220;ready-to-go&#8221; systems such as Ionscope or NX12-Bio/NX10. Currently, there is only one&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">modular system (ICAPPIC) that has the flexibility to suit any SICM/HPICM experiment but requires some component integration.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

stereocilia bundle imaging with nanoscale resolution in live mammalian auditory hair cells

Inner ear hair cells detect sound-induced displacements and transduce these stimuli into electrical signals in a hair bundle that consists of stereocilia that are arranged in rows of increasing height. When stereocilia are deflected, they tug on tiny (~5 nm in diameter) extracellular tip links interconnecting stereocilia, which convey forces to the mechanosensitive transduction channels. Although mechanotransduction has been studied in live hair cells for decades, the functionally important ultrastructural details of the mechanotransduction machinery at the tips of stereocilia (such as tip link dynamics or transduction-dependent stereocilia remodeling) can still be studied only in dead cells with electron microscopy. Theoretically, scanning probe techniques, such as atomic force microscopy, have enough resolution to visualize the surface of stereocilia. However, independent of imaging mode, even the slightest contact of the atomic force microscopy probe with the stereocilia bundle usually damages the bundle. Here we present a detailed protocol for the hopping probe ion conductance microscopy (HPICM) imaging of live rodent auditory hair cells. This non-contact scanning probe technique allows time lapse imaging of the surface of live cells with a complex topography, like hair cells, with single nanometers resolution and without making physical contact with the sample. The HPICM uses an electrical current passing through the glass nanopipette to detect the cell surface in close vicinity to the pipette, while a 3D-positioning piezoelectric system scans the surface and generates its image. With HPICM, we were able to image stereocilia bundles and the links interconnecting stereocilia in live auditory hair cells for several hours without noticeable damage. We anticipate that the use of HPICM will allow direct exploration of ultrastructural changes in the stereocilia of live hair cells for better understanding of their function.

The protocol presented in this paper can be used to visualize any live cells with complex topography. Following these steps, we routinely obtain images of live rat auditory hair cell bundles (Figure 6B,D). In spite of having lower X-Y resolution when compared to SEM images, our HPICM images can successfully resolve the different rows of stereocilia, the shape of the stereocilia tips, and even the small links (~5 nm in diameter) connecting adjacent stereocilia (<strong class=...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Stereocilia Bundle Imaging with Nanoscale Resolution in Live Mammalian Auditory Hair Cells at JoVE.com

Stereocilia Bundle Imaging with Nanoscale Resolution in Live Mammalian Auditory Hair Cells

Here we present a protocol for the Hopping Probe Ion Conductance Microscopy (HPICM), a non-contact scanning probe technique that allows nanoscale imaging of stereocilia bundles in live auditory hair cells.

Inner ear hair cells detect sound-induced displacements and transduce these stimuli into electrical signals in a hair bundle that consists of stereocilia ...

This practical can help us study dynamic changes of the nano structural components of the mechanical electrical transduction machinery at the surface of the hair cell stereocilia bundles. The main advantage of this technique is the time-lapse imaging of the surface of living cells with complex topography at single nanometer resolution, and without making physical contact with the sample. This technique can be applied to nearly any living cell.We previously matched the surface of lung epithelial cell lines infected with viruses, muscle cells, in My Image Bacteria Soon. Test the nanopipettes at the beginning of each imaging session. After fabricating a nanopipette, check for bubbles, remove any bubbles if present, and mount the nanopipette onto the hopping probe ion conductance microscope pipette holder.At four milliliters of bath solution to the chamber and place the chamber onto the HPICM stage. Introduce the ground electrode to the bath solution and make sure that the voltage being applied to the pipette through the patch clamp amplifier is zero. After placing the micro manipulator in the vertical position, move the pipette in Z until it touches the liquid and set the amplifier offset to zero, before adding plus 100 millivolts to check the pipette current.Use silicon glue to attach the AFM calibration standard to the chamber and cover the sample with four milliliters of HBSS. Use double-sided tape to secure the chamber to the X Y stage of the HPICM setup, and load a new nanopipette onto the holder as demonstrated. After testing the nanopipette resistance and diameter, set the current to one nano amp.Use a coarse patch clamp manipulator to position the nanopipette approximately above the center of the calibration standard and increase the set point while monitoring the signal from the sensor of the Z piezo actuator on an oscilloscope in real time. After establishing a stable repeatable Z approach cycle, decrease the set point to the value just above the point of instability and move the pipette down at a speed of approximately five microns per second, until it reaches the sample. The bottom level of the real-time Z positioning signal will increase, indicating that the nanopipette is withdrawn due to sensing the sample surface.Due to uneven mounting on the AFM standard, the highest point of the area of interest may be unknown. Therefore, set the amplitude of the pipette retraction to at least 200 to 500 nanometers. Taking care not to exceed the upper limit of the Z piezo actuator movement, begin imaging at low resolution.Once the highest point of the sample in the imaging area has been identified, decrease the hop amplitude and retract the pipette about 200 microns along the Z axis to prevent any undesired collision with the sample before moving it to a new X Y location. When the area of interest has been located, begin imaging at a higher resolution. For auditory hair cell imaging, firmly secure a freshly isolated organ of Corti to a chamber using either dental floss, or flexible glass pipettes.Use double-sided tape to firmly secure the chamber to the X Y piezo stage and load a new nanopipette onto the holder as demonstrated. After checking the nanopipette resistance, use the patch clamp micro manipulator to position the nanopipette over the hair cell region while observing the organ of Corti X plant in an inverted microscope. Record, the real-time current and Z positioning signal on the oscilloscope to check if the system is stable with a set point of 0.5%6or lower, and determine the optimal set point and approach the sample as demonstrated.Perform low resolution imaging of the sample as demonstrated using a hop amplitude of at least six to eight microns. If the nanopipette needs to moved to a new X Y location, retract the pipette about 500 nanometers to avoid a collision with any tall features within the tissue and repeat the low resolution HPICM imaging until the region of interest where the hair cells is located. Then image the region of interest at a higher resolution in 15 minutes or less.The HPICM protocol can be used to visualize any live cells with a complex topography, such as live rat auditory hair cell bundles. Despite demonstrating a lower X Y resolution compared to scanning electron microscopy images, HPICM images can successfully resolve the different rows of stereocilia. The shape of the stereocilia tips and even the small five nanometer links connecting the adjacent stereocilia.Given the non-contact nature of HPICM imaging, continuous time-lapse imaging of the same hair cell bundle can be performed for several hours without damaging the bundle cohesiveness. Note that with a very low set point, the system might interpret small fluctuations in the current as encountering the cell surface, leading to white dot noise in the image. Similarly, large hop amplitudes might increase the lateral resonance of the pipette, also resulting in the production of noisy pixels.In contrast, if the hop amplitude is too small, or the setpoint is too high, the nanopipette might collide with the sample resulting in imaging artifacts or hair bundle damage. The most important thing to remember when attempting this procedure is to spend less than 15 minutes per hair cell bundle when working with live cells. After getting an image of the hair bundle, one could attempt to obtain single channel recordings from specific locations on the surface of stereocilia to answer questions about mechanotransduction channel properties.

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Live-imaging of PKC Translocation in Sf9 Cells and in Aplysia Sensory Neurons

Protein kinase Cs (PKCs) are serine threonine kinases that play a central role in regulating a wide variety of cellular processes such as cell growth and ...

Time-lapse Live Imaging of Clonally Related Neural Progenitor Cells in the Developing Zebrafish Forebrain

Precise patterns of division, migration and differentiation of neural progenitor cells are crucial for proper brain development and function1,2. To ...

Live-cell Imaging of Sensory Organ Precursor Cells in Intact Drosophila Pupae

Live-cell Imaging of Sensory Organ Precursor Cells in Intact Drosophila Pupae

Since the discovery of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), there has been a revolutionary change in the use of live-cell imaging as a tool for understanding ...

High-resolution Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Methods for Human Midbrain

Functional MRI (fMRI) is a widely used tool for non-invasively measuring correlates of human brain activity. However, its use has mostly been focused upon ...

High-resolution Live Imaging of Cell Behavior in the Developing Neuroepithelium

The embryonic spinal cord consists of cycling neural progenitor cells that give rise to a large percentage of the neuronal and glial cells of the central ...

Patch Clamp Recordings in Inner Ear Hair Cells Isolated from Zebrafish

Patch  clamp analyses of the voltage-gated channels in sensory hair cells isolated  from a variety of species have been described previously1-4 but this  ...

Functional Imaging of Auditory Cortex in Adult Cats using High-field fMRI

Current knowledge of sensory processing in the mammalian auditory system is mainly derived from electrophysiological studies in a variety of animal ...

Super-resolution Imaging of Neuronal Dense-core Vesicles

Detection of fluorescence provides the foundation for many widely utilized and rapidly advancing microscopy techniques employed in modern biological and ...

Optogenetic Stimulation of the Auditory Nerve

Direct electrical stimulation of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) by cochlear implants (CIs) enables open speech comprehension in the majority of implanted ...

High Resolution Quantitative Synaptic Proteome Profiling of Mouse Brain Regions After Auditory Discrimination Learning

The molecular synaptic mechanisms underlying auditory learning and memory remain largely unknown. Here, the workflow of a proteomic study on auditory ...