Name: motor and hippocampal dependent spatial learning and reference memory assessment in a transgenic rat model of alzheimer's disease with stroke
Uploaded: 2016-03-22T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Motor and Hippocampal Dependent Spatial Learning and Reference Memory Assessment in a Transgenic Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease with Stroke at JoVE.com

This work was made possible with funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) and the authors would like to thank CIHR for their funding support.

The appropriate institutional animal ethics committee should approve all of the behavioral procedures prior to starting experimentation. All animal work described here was approved by Western University Animal Use Subcommittee and follows the Canadian Council on Animal Care guidelines.&#160;These animal experiments were performed during the light phase.
1. Cylinder Task for Gross Forelimb Motor Assessment
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	<li>Equipment Setup
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		<li>Acquire a Plexiglas cylinder with a perforated lid that will accommoda...

<ol>
	<li>Auld, D., Kornecook, T., Bastianetto, S., Quirion, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alzheimer's+disease+and+the+basal+forebrain+cholinergic+system:+relations+to+&#946;-amyloid+peptides,+cognition,+and+treatment+strategies.">Alzheimer's disease and the basal forebrain cholinergic system: relations to &#946;-amyloid peptides, cognition, and treatment strategies.</a> Prog Neurobiol. 68 (3), 209245 (2002).</li><li>Huang, Y., Mucke, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alzheimer+Mechanisms+and+Therapeutic+Strategies.">Alzheimer Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies.</a> Cell. 148 (6), (2012).</li><li>Querfurth, H., LaFerla, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alzheimer's+disease.">Alzheimer's disease.</a> New Engl J Med. 362 (4), 329-344 (2010).</li><li>Karran, E., Mercken, M., Strooper, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+amyloid+cascade+hypothesis+for+Alzheimer's+disease:+an+appraisal+for+the+development+of+therapeutics.">The amyloid cascade hypothesis for Alzheimer's disease: an appraisal for the development of therapeutics.</a> Nat Rev Drug Discov. 10 (9), 698-712 (2011).</li><li>Akiyama, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inflammation+and+Alzheimer's+disease.">Inflammation and Alzheimer's disease.</a> Neurobiol Aging. 21 (3), (2000).</li><li>Butterfield, D., Drake, J., Pocernich, C., Castegna, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+of+oxidative+damage+in+Alzheimer's+disease+brain:+central+role+for+amyloid+&#946;-peptide.">Evidence of oxidative damage in Alzheimer's disease brain: central role for amyloid &#946;-peptide.</a> Trends Mol Med. 7 (12), 548554 (2001).</li><li>Kalaria, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+cerebral+ischemia+in+Alzheimer's+disease.">The role of cerebral ischemia in Alzheimer's disease.</a> Neurobiol Aging. 21 (2), 321-330 (2000).</li><li>Selkoe, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alzheimer's+disease:+genes,+proteins,+and+therapy.">Alzheimer's disease: genes, proteins, and therapy.</a> Physiol Rev. 81 (2), 741-766 (2001).</li><li>Snowdon, D. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain+infarction+and+the+clinical+expression+of+alzheimer+disease:+The+nun+study.">Brain infarction and the clinical expression of alzheimer disease: The nun study.</a> JAMA. 277 (10), 813 (1997).</li><li>Clarke, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Overexpression+of+APP+provides+neuroprotection+in+the+absence+of+functional+benefit+following+middle+cerebral+artery+occlusion+in+rats.">Overexpression of APP provides neuroprotection in the absence of functional benefit following middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats.</a> Eur J Neurosci. 26 (7), 1845-1852 (2007).</li><li>Whitehead, S., Hachinski, V., Cechetto, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interaction+Between+a+Rat+Model+of+Cerebral+Ischemia+and+&#946;-Amyloid+Toxicity+Inflammatory+Responses.">Interaction Between a Rat Model of Cerebral Ischemia and &#946;-Amyloid Toxicity Inflammatory Responses.</a> Stroke. 36 (1), 107-112 (2005).</li><li>Agca, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+transgenic+rats+producing+human+&#946;-amyloid+precursor+protein+as+a+model+for+Alzheimer's+disease:+Transgene+and+endogenous+APP+genes+are+regulated+tissue-specifically.">Development of transgenic rats producing human &#946;-amyloid precursor protein as a model for Alzheimer's disease: Transgene and endogenous APP genes are regulated tissue-specifically.</a> BMC Neuroscience. 9 (1), 28 (2008).</li><li>Bayona, N. A., Gelb, A. W., Jiang, Z., Wilson, J. X., Urquhart, B. L., Cechetto, D. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Propofol+neuroprotection+in+cerebral+ischemia+and+its+effects+on+low-molecular-weight+antioxidants+and+skilled+motor+tasks.">Propofol neuroprotection in cerebral ischemia and its effects on low-molecular-weight antioxidants and skilled motor tasks.</a> Anesthesiology. 100 (5), 1151-1159 (2004).</li><li>Langdon, K., Clarke, J., Corbett, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long-term+exposure+to+high+fat+diet+is+bad+for+your+brain:+exacerbation+of+focal+ischemic+brain+injury.">Long-term exposure to high fat diet is bad for your brain: exacerbation of focal ischemic brain injury.</a> Neuroscience. 182, 82-87 (2011).</li><li>Brownlow, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Partial+rescue+of+memory+deficits+induced+by+calorie+restriction+in+a+mouse+model+of+tau+deposition.">Partial rescue of memory deficits induced by calorie restriction in a mouse model of tau deposition.</a> Behav Brain Res. 271, 7988 (2014).</li><li>Halagappa, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intermittent+fasting+and+caloric+restriction+ameliorate+age-related+behavioral+deficits+in+the+triple-transgenic+mouse+model+of+Alzheimer's+disease.">Intermittent fasting and caloric restriction ameliorate age-related behavioral deficits in the triple-transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.</a> Neurobiol Dis. 26 (1), (2007).</li><li>Maalouf, M., Rho, J., Mattson, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+neuroprotective+properties+of+calorie+restriction,+the+ketogenic+diet,+and+ketone+bodies.">The neuroprotective properties of calorie restriction, the ketogenic diet, and ketone bodies.</a> Behav Brain Res. 59 (2), (2008).</li><li>Tillerson, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Forced+limb-use+effects+on+the+behavioral+and+neurochemical+effects+of+6-hydroxydopamine.">Forced limb-use effects on the behavioral and neurochemical effects of 6-hydroxydopamine.</a> Neuroscience. 21 (12), 4427-4435 (2001).</li><li>Sierksma, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improvement+of+spatial+memory+function+in+APPswe/PS1dE9+mice+after+chronic+inhibition+of+phosphodiesterase+type+4D.">Improvement of spatial memory function in APPswe/PS1dE9 mice after chronic inhibition of phosphodiesterase type 4D.</a> Neuropharmacology. 77, (2013).</li><li>D'Hooge, R., De Deyn, P. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Applications+of+the+Morris+water+maze+in+the+study+of+learning+and+memory.">Applications of the Morris water maze in the study of learning and memory.</a> Behav Brain Res. 36 (1), 60-90 (2001).</li><li>Vorhees, C., Williams, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Morris+water+maze:+procedures+for+assessing+spatial+and+related+forms+of+learning+and+memory.">Morris water maze: procedures for assessing spatial and related forms of learning and memory.</a> Nat Protoc. 1 (2), 848-858 (2006).</li></ol>

The combination of stroke and Alzheimer&#39;s disease results in very distinct behavioral pathologies that can affect both motor and cognitive function depending on the severity of each condition. Thus, it is necessary to make use of a variety of behavioral tasks to determine the individual contributions of these conditions, as well as give some insight into the combined and potentially interactive effects in the co-morbid condition. The data presented demonstrate three cost-efficient, time-efficient and sensitive behavi...

Alzheimer&#39;s Disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia in the elderly population and a debilitating neurodegenerative disease. Histopathologically, AD presents itself as amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal loss. Amyloid plaques consist primarily of beta-amyloid peptide (A&#946;) that has been produced through an altered proteolytic cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by &#946;-secretase and &#947;-secretase enzymes1,2,3. The cleavage product, A&#946;, deposits in the brain creating pathological amyloid plaques and has toxic effects on the brain that can lead to the characteristic learning impairments and memory loss. All of these steps together are referred to as the &#34;amyloid cascade hypothesis&#34;3,4. While this hypothesis is important when investigating AD, other cellular changes have been found to precede these plaque formations that strays from the original amyloid cascade pathway. These other cellular changes are thought to contribute to early memory loss, learning impairments and other cognitive dysfunctions involved in AD prior to plaque formation3,5,6.
With AD becoming increasingly prevalent, risk factors for developing AD are becoming an extremely important focus of research. Although age is the principal risk factor for sporadic forms of AD, other risk factors have been identified, including stroke7,8. Stroke is not only a risk factor, but it can also exacerbate already present dementias. For example, clinically, the progression of AD has been shown to be worse in patients who had previously experienced stroke9. Moreover, increased APP expression and A&#946; accumulation has been found in experimental animal models of A&#946; toxicity combined with induced stroke10,11. Since there is this important interaction between stroke and AD, it is essential that these two pathologies be further researched together in co-morbid models to better understand pathophysiology and behaviors implicated in both conditions.
To investigate co-morbid conditions, an appropriate model had to be developed in which a stroke could interact with A&#946; to produce AD-like pathology. For the first time, an APP21 transgenic rat that has a mutated human APP gene incorporated into its DNA was used to achieve an appropriate model of AD. The mutations are the Swedish double missense and Indiana single missense mutations, which have both been implicated in familial forms of AD4,8,12. In the absence of an additional insult, this rat model ages without developing the characteristic A&#946; plaques or neurofibrillary tangles12. Therefore, in an effort to induce AD-like behavioral pathology, a small stroke is introduced into the right striatum to mimic the small subcortical strokes often present in dementia patients9. The stroke in the APP21 transgenic rat embodies the co-morbid condition and allows investigation of various types of behavioral changes implicated in both disease conditions. In particular, this induction of AD-like pathology and cognitive deficits in the adult rat allows us investigate the earliest molecular and cognitive changes preceding AD.
Since the goal is to determine the first signs of behavioral changes and since both stroke and AD have very distinct behavioral pathologies, when studying the co-morbid model, behavior tasks need to assess a variety of behavioral phenotypes. There are a battery of relatively sensitive tests that can be done to analyze motor and cognitive behavior in rodent models that involve a variety of paradigms and equipment. To specifically analyze forelimb and hindlimb motor function, the cylinder task and beam-walk task have been implemented to detect motor deficits and monitor locomotion in this model. Other sensitive tasks designed to specifically assess fine forelimb motor skill (i.e. the staircase task and single pellet reaching task) require food deprivation11,13,14. To avoid any of the known effects of food deprivation on disease pathologies15,16,17, these tests have been deemed unsuitable for this study. The cylinder task assesses the spontaneous use of the rat&#39;s forelimbs during rearing in a novel environment and can detect asymmetry between forelimbs in rats with unilateral stroke10,18. A major benefit to this task is that the apparatus can be utilized for other behavior tasks, such as the Porsolt forced swim task19. Contrary to the cylinder task, the beam-walk task also allows analysis of hindlimb and forelimb motor control, in addition to locmotion10,14. Beam walking includes a locomotor component, a balance component and skilled foot placement. Both of these tests are cost-efficient, straightforward, and time-efficient and elucidate the effects of stroke and AD on differences in limb functioning.
Aside from changes in motor function, AD involves memory deficits that can present in early stages of the disease progression. When addressing AD-like pathologies in a rodent model, it is crucial that hippocampal dependent learning and memory is assessed because the hippocampus is an important brain structure largely affected in AD2. The hippocampus is an essential brain region for spatial learning and memory and its function can be tested using various maze paradigms in rodents. One of the mostly widely used maze tasks for rodent models of different diseases is the Morris water maze20. The Morris water maze utilizes spatial cues to assist the rat in locating a stationary hidden platform and tests spatial reference memory when the platform is removed. A valuable advantage of the water maze setup is that it is highly adaptable depending on the proposed research question20.
For the first time, the techniques described have been used to assess motor and cognitive function in a novel co-morbid rat model of stroke and AD. involving small strokes in an APP21 transgenic rat model.&#160;Co-morbidity was achieved by inducing vasoconstriction of the blood vessels in the striatum to produce a small stroke in APP21 transgenic rats. This stroke model has been well established as a co-morbid condition in an alternative rat model of AD11. Advancement into this novel APP21 transgenic rat model was intended to produce a more translationally valuable model. While the behavioural tasks are described using a co-morbid stroke and AD rat model, these tasks can be further applied to other models of stroke or models of other neurological diseases (i.e. Parkinson&#8217;s disease). The general methodology described will be widely applicable to these other disease states, but behavior timelines and paradigms may require alteration based on the proposed research question and model. In addition to being adaptable, the tasks described are effective in demonstrating minor deficits, while also being cost and time-efficient.&#160;

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			<td height="125" style="height:125px;width:216px;">Cylinder</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Western University</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Plexiglas Cylinder 
			Cylinder Diameter: 23 cm 
			Cylinder Height: 40 cm 
			Platform Height: 30 cm 
			Mirror Length: 35 cm 
			Mirror Width: 26.5 cm</td>
			<td style="width:320px;">This was made specifically by Western University Machine Services for our lab. Please contact your own chosen manufacturer to design this product.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Handheld Video Camera</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">JVC</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">GZ-E200</td>
			<td style="width:320px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Video Camera Tripod</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Slik</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">F163</td>
			<td style="width:320px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">AM/FM Clock Radio</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Sylvania</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">SCR1388</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">White Board</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Walmart</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Width: 71.12 cm 
			Height: 55.88 cm</td>
			<td style="width:320px;">These can be purchased at any store (i.e. Walmart, University bookstores)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Dry-erase Marker</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Expo</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Expo Dry-erase Original Marker</td>
			<td style="width:320px;">These can be purchased at any store (i.e. Walmart, University bookstores)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Wooden Beam</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Rona</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Plywood 
			Width: 2 cm 
			Length: 100cm</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">VWR General Purpose Laboratory Tape</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">VWR Intl.</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">89097-920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">iMovie &#39;11</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Apple Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Version 9.0.9 (1795)</td>
			<td style="width:320px;">This is the version used in this manuscript, but any other iMovie version or video editing software could be used.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="44">
			<td height="44" style="height:44px;width:216px;">Morris Water Maze Pool with Platform</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Stoelting Co.</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">60136/60035</td>
			<td style="width:320px;">These are not the exact products used in the video, but these are essentially identical.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Platform Cue</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:320px;">The platform cue used was created using a small metal stand and white spherical foam ball. These can likely be purchased at any store with home improvement materials (i.e. Walmart, Rona etc.)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mainstays 71&#34; Floor Lamp</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Walmart</td>
			<td>HW-F0377SLV</td>
			<td style="width:320px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">ANY-Maze Behavioural Tracking Software</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Stoelting Co.</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">60000</td>
			<td style="width:320px;">There are ANY-maze&#174; bundles that include the camera with or without a computer and accessories.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Compact Video Camera</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Logitech</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">V-U0023</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Laptop</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Hewlett-Packard</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">HP&#174; Pavilion dv6 Notebook PC</td>
			<td style="width:320px;">Laptop Specifics: AMD A6-3420M APU with Radeon&#8482; HD Graphics 1.50 GHz, 6.00 GB RAM, 64-bit operating system.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="62">
			<td height="62" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Americana Non-toxic Acrylic Paint</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">DecoArt</td>
			<td>DAO67-9</td>
			<td style="width:320px;">This can be ordered on the DecoArt site or purchased in store at DecoArt&#174; retailers.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Poster Board</td>
			<td style="width:115px;">Walmart</td>
			<td>PA-1961</td>
			<td style="width:320px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

motor and hippocampal dependent spatial learning and reference memory assessment in a transgenic rat model of alzheimer's disease with stroke

Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease that results in neurodegeneration and memory loss. While age is a major risk factor for AD, stroke has also been implicated as a risk factor and an exacerbating factor. The co-morbidity of stroke and AD results in worsened stroke-related motor control and AD-related cognitive deficits when compared to each condition alone. To model the combined condition of stroke and AD, a novel transgenic rat model of AD, with a mutated form of amyloid precursor protein (a key protein involved in the development of AD) incorporated into its DNA, is given a small unilateral striatal stroke.
For a model with the combination of both stroke and AD, behavioral tests that assess stroke-related motor control, locomotion and AD-related cognitive function must be implemented. The cylinder task involves a cost-efficient, multipurpose apparatus that assesses spontaneous forelimb motor use. In this task, a rat is placed in a cylindrical apparatus, where the rat will spontaneously rear and contact the wall of the cylinder with its forelimbs. These contacts are considered forelimb motor use and quantified during video analysis after testing. Another cost-efficient motor task implemented is the beam-walk task, which assesses forelimb control, hindlimb control and locomotion. This task involves a rat walking across a wooden beam allowing for the assessment of limb motor control through analysis of forelimb slips, hindlimb slips and falls. Assessment of learning and memory is completed with Morris water maze for this behavioral paradigm. The protocol starts with spatial learning, whereby the rat locates a stationary hidden platform. After spatial learning, the platform is removed and both short-term and long-term spatial reference memory is assessed. All three of these tasks are sensitive to behavioral differences and completed within 28 days for this model, making this paradigm time-efficient and cost-efficient.

The behavioral tasks described were used to demonstrate the effects of stroke in an APP21 transgenic rat model of Alzheimer&#39;s disease. The combination of stroke and the APP21 transgene is expected to result in greater motor deficit in the affected limbs, as well as increased memory deficits.
The cylinder task assessed gross forelimb motor function and is represented as the use of the affected forelimb. Furthermore, the beam-...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Motor and Hippocampal Dependent Spatial Learning and Reference Memory Assessment in a Transgenic Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease with Stroke at JoVE.com

Motor and Hippocampal Dependent Spatial Learning and Reference Memory Assessment in a Transgenic Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease with Stroke

To investigate the co-morbid Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) and stroke condition in a novel model, three behavior tasks are described that assess both motor control and cognitive behaviors. These tasks include the beam-walk task, cylinder task and Morris water maze.

Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease that results in neurodegeneration and memory loss. While age is a major risk ...

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