Name: assessment of dictyostelium discoideum response to acute mechanical stimulation
Uploaded: 2017-11-09T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Dictyostelium discoideum Response to Acute Mechanical Stimulation at JoVE.com

This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grant R35 GM118177 to PND.

1. Preparation of Solutions
<ol>
	<li>Prepare HL-5 media using the following: 10 g/L dextrose, 10 g/L proteose peptone, 5 g/L yeast extract, 0.965 g/L Na2HPO4&#183;7H2O, 0.485 g/L KH2PO4, and, unless otherwise indicated, 0.03 g/L streptomycin in deionized water. Autoclave the medium and store at room temperature. 
	NOTE: Due to differences between proteose peptone and yeast extract acquired from different suppliers, as well as between individual batches, pH of...

<ol>
	<li>Swaney, K. F., Huang, C. H., Devreotes, P. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Eukaryotic+chemotaxis:+a+network+of+signaling+pathways+controls+motility,+directional+sensing,+and+polarity.">Eukaryotic chemotaxis: a network of signaling pathways controls motility, directional sensing, and polarity.</a> Annu Rev Biophys. 39, 265-289 (2010).</li><li>Sasaki, A. T., Chun, C., Takeda, K., Firtel, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Localized+Ras+signaling+at+the+leading+edge+regulates+PI3K,+cell+polarity,+and+directional+cell+movement.">Localized Ras signaling at the leading edge regulates PI3K, cell polarity, and directional cell movement.</a> J Cell Biol. 167 (3), 505-518 (2004).</li><li>Jeon, T. J., Lee, D. -. J., Merlot, S., Weeks, G., Firtel, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rap1+controls+cell+adhesion+and+cell+motility+through+the+regulation+of+myosin+II.">Rap1 controls cell adhesion and cell motility through the regulation of myosin II.</a> J Cell Biol. 176 (7), 1021-1033 (2007).</li><li>Parent, C. A., Blacklock, B. J., Froehlich, W. M., Murphy, D. B., Devreotes, P. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=G+Protein+Signaling+Events+Are+Activated+at+the+Leading+Edge+of+Chemotactic+Cells.">G Protein Signaling Events Are Activated at the Leading Edge of Chemotactic Cells.</a> Cell. 95 (1), 81-91 (1998).</li><li>Funamoto, S., Meili, R., Lee, S., Parry, L., Firtel, R. 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B., Weeks, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RasC+is+required+for+optimal+activation+of+adenylyl+cyclase+and+Akt/PKB+during+aggregation.">RasC is required for optimal activation of adenylyl cyclase and Akt/PKB during aggregation.</a> EMBO J. 20 (16), 4490-4499 (2001).</li><li>Kamimura, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PIP3-Independent+Activation+of+TorC2+and+PKB+at+the+Cell's+Leading+Edge+Mediates+Chemotaxis.">PIP3-Independent Activation of TorC2 and PKB at the Cell's Leading Edge Mediates Chemotaxis.</a> Curr Biol. 18 (14), 1034-1043 (2008).</li><li>Kortholt, A., King, J. S., Keizer-Gunnink, I., Harwood, A. J., Van Haastert, P. J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phospholipase+C+Regulation+of+Phosphatidylinositol+3,4,5-trisphosphate-mediated+Chemotaxis.">Phospholipase C Regulation of Phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate-mediated Chemotaxis.</a> Molecular Biology of the Cell. 18 (12), 4772-4779 (2007).</li><li>Huang, C. H., Tang, M., Shi, C., Iglesias, P. A., Devreotes, P. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+excitable+signal+integrator+couples+to+an+idling+cytoskeletal+oscillator+to+drive+cell+migration.">An excitable signal integrator couples to an idling cytoskeletal oscillator to drive cell migration.</a> Nat Cell Biol. 15 (11), 1307-1316 (2013).</li><li>Nishikawa, M., H&#246;rning, M., Ueda, M., Shibata, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Excitable+Signal+Transduction+Induces+Both+Spontaneous+and+Directional+Cell+Asymmetries+in+the+Phosphatidylinositol+Lipid+Signaling+System+for+Eukaryotic+Chemotaxis.">Excitable Signal Transduction Induces Both Spontaneous and Directional Cell Asymmetries in the Phosphatidylinositol Lipid Signaling System for Eukaryotic Chemotaxis.</a> Biophys J. 106 (3), 723-734 (2014).</li><li>Gerisch, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mobile+Actin+Clusters+and+Traveling+Waves+in+Cells+Recovering+from+Actin+Depolymerization.">Mobile Actin Clusters and Traveling Waves in Cells Recovering from Actin Depolymerization.</a> Biophys J. 87 (5), 3493-3503 (2004).</li><li>Gerisch, G., Ecke, M., Wischnewski, D., Schroth-Diez, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Different+modes+of+state+transitions+determine+pattern+in+the+Phosphatidylinositide-Actin+system.">Different modes of state transitions determine pattern in the Phosphatidylinositide-Actin system.</a> BMC Cell Biol. 12 (1), 42 (2011).</li><li>Bretschneider, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Three-Dimensional+Dynamics+of+Actin+Waves,+a+Model+of+Cytoskeletal+Self-Organization.">The Three-Dimensional Dynamics of Actin Waves, a Model of Cytoskeletal Self-Organization.</a> Biophys J. 96 (7), 2888-2900 (2009).</li><li>Weiner, O. D., Marganski, W. A., Wu, L. F., Altschuler, S. J., Kirschner, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+Actin-Based+Wave+Generator+Organizes+Cell+Motility.">An Actin-Based Wave Generator Organizes Cell Motility.</a> PLOS Biol. 5 (9), e221 (2007).</li><li>Devreotes, P., Horwitz, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Signaling+Networks+that+Regulate+Cell+Migration.">Signaling Networks that Regulate Cell Migration.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 7 (8), (2015).</li><li>Artemenko, Y., Lampert, T. J., Devreotes, P. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Moving+towards+a+paradigm:+common+mechanisms+of+chemotactic+signaling+in+Dictyostelium+and+mammalian+leukocytes.">Moving towards a paradigm: common mechanisms of chemotactic signaling in Dictyostelium and mammalian leukocytes.</a> Cell Mol Life Sci. 71 (19), 3711-3747 (2014).</li><li>Dalous, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reversal+of+cell+polarity+and+actin-myosin+cytoskeleton+reorganization+under+mechanical+and+chemical+stimulation.">Reversal of cell polarity and actin-myosin cytoskeleton reorganization under mechanical and chemical stimulation.</a> Biophys J. 94 (3), 1063-1074 (2008).</li><li>Sato, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Switching+direction+in+electric-signal-induced+cell+migration+by+cyclic+guanosine+monophosphate+and+phosphatidylinositol+signaling.">Switching direction in electric-signal-induced cell migration by cyclic guanosine monophosphate and phosphatidylinositol signaling.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 106 (16), 6667-6672 (2009).</li><li>Zhao, M., Pu, J., Forrester, J. V., McCaig, C. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Membrane+lipids,+EGF+receptors,+and+intracellular+signals+colocalize+and+are+polarized+in+epithelial+cells+moving+directionally+in+a+physiological+electric+field.">Membrane lipids, EGF receptors, and intracellular signals colocalize and are polarized in epithelial cells moving directionally in a physiological electric field.</a> Faseb j. 16 (8), 857-859 (2002).</li><li>Decave, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shear+flow-induced+motility+of+Dictyostelium+discoideum+cells+on+solid+substrate.">Shear flow-induced motility of Dictyostelium discoideum cells on solid substrate.</a> J Cell Sci. 116 (Pt 21), 4331-4343 (2003).</li><li>Artemenko, Y., Axiotakis, L., Borleis, J., Iglesias, P. A., Devreotes, P. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemical+and+mechanical+stimuli+act+on+common+signal+transduction+and+cytoskeletal+networks.">Chemical and mechanical stimuli act on common signal transduction and cytoskeletal networks.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 113 (47), E7500-E7509 (2016).</li><li>Artemenko, Y., Swaney, K. F., Devreotes, P. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+development+and+chemotaxis+in+Dictyostelium+discoideum+mutants.">Assessment of development and chemotaxis in Dictyostelium discoideum mutants.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 769, 287-309 (2011).</li><li>Gaudet, P., Pilcher, K. E., Fey, P., Chisholm, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transformation+of+Dictyostelium+discoideum+with+plasmid+DNA.">Transformation of Dictyostelium discoideum with plasmid DNA.</a> Nat. Protocols. 2 (6), 1317-1324 (2007).</li><li>Veltman, D. M., Lemieux, M. G., Knecht, D. A., Insall, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PIP3-dependent+macropinocytosis+is+incompatible+with+chemotaxis.">PIP3-dependent macropinocytosis is incompatible with chemotaxis.</a> J Cell Biol. 204 (4), 497-505 (2014).</li><li>Cai, H., Huang, C. H., Devreotes, P. N., Iijima, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+chemotaxis+in+Dictyostelium.">Analysis of chemotaxis in Dictyostelium.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 757, 451-468 (2012).</li><li>Schindelin, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fiji:+an+open-source+platform+for+biological-image+analysis.">Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis.</a> Nat Meth. 9 (7), 676-682 (2012).</li><li>Brenner, M., Thoms, S. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caffeine+blocks+activation+of+cyclic+AMP+synthesis+in+Dictyostelium+discoideum.">Caffeine blocks activation of cyclic AMP synthesis in Dictyostelium discoideum.</a> Dev Biol. 101 (1), 136-146 (1984).</li><li>Bretschneider, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+Actin+Patterns+and+Arp2/3+Assembly+at+the+Substrate-Attached+Surface+of+Motile+Cells.">Dynamic Actin Patterns and Arp2/3 Assembly at the Substrate-Attached Surface of Motile Cells.</a> Curr Biol. 14 (1), 1-10 (2004).</li><li>Swaney, K. F., Borleis, J., Iglesias, P. A., Devreotes, P. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+protein+Callipygian+defines+the+back+of+migrating+cells.">Novel protein Callipygian defines the back of migrating cells.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 112 (29), E3845-E3854 (2015).</li><li>Meili, R., Ellsworth, C., Firtel, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+Akt/PKB-related+kinase+is+essential+for+morphogenesis+in+Dictyostelium.">A novel Akt/PKB-related kinase is essential for morphogenesis in Dictyostelium.</a> Curr Biol. 10 (12), 708-717 (2000).</li><li>Westendorf, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actin+cytoskeleton+of+chemotactic+amoebae+operates+close+to+the+onset+of+oscillations.">Actin cytoskeleton of chemotactic amoebae operates close to the onset of oscillations.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 110 (10), 3853-3858 (2013).</li></ol>

The methods described here offer a convenient way to assess both population and individual cell behavior in response to shear flow. Importantly, while previous studies analyzed localization of leading and lagging edge markers during migration, the current approach allows investigation of immediate effects by applying the shear flow acutely. Using this method we demonstrated that, in fact, the initial response of cells to shear flow does not require cell migration. Instead, the rapid and transient response to the initial ...

Migration of eukaryotic cells is biased by diverse chemical and physical cues in the environment, including gradients of soluble or substrate-bound chemoattractants, variable stiffness of the substrates, electric fields, or shear flow. Although there have been many advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving chemotaxis, less is known about other types of directed migration and how these diverse signals are integrated at the cellular level to produce a unified migratory response.
Directed migration toward an increasing concentration of a chemoattractant involves three behavioral components: motility, directional sensing, and polarity1. Motility refers to random movement of cells achieved by pseudopod protrusion. Directional sensing is the ability of a cell to detect the source of a chemoattractant, which can occur even in immobilized cells. Polarity refers to the more stable asymmetrical distribution of intracellular components between the leading and lagging edge of a cell, which leads to increased persistence in movement.
Cellular response to a chemoattractant depends on the activity of four conceptually defined regulatory networks: receptor/ G protein, signal transduction, actin cytoskeleton, and polarity1. Chemoattractant binding to the G protein-coupled receptor transmits the signal via heterotrimeric G proteins &#945; and &#946;&#947; to the downstream signal transduction network, which amplifies the directional signal. Multiple pathways within the signal transduction network act in parallel and feed into the actin cytoskeleton network to bias actin polymerization, and consequent pseudopod protrusion, in the direction of the gradient. Among important regulators of chemotaxis are Ras GTPase, TorC2, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), and guanylyl cyclase. Feedback mechanisms within the signal transduction network and between the signal transduction and actin cytoskeleton networks further amplify the response. Finally, the poorly defined polarity network receives input from the actin cytoskeleton, and further biases the signal transduction network to promote persistent migration in the direction of the gradient.
Much of our mechanistic understanding of chemotaxis was made possible because of the development of fluorescently-tagged biosensors for various components of the regulatory networks. Many chemotaxis regulators have an asymmetrical distribution either of the regulatory molecule itself or its activity. For example, biosensors that recognize activated versions of small GTPases Ras and Rap1 &#8211; Ras-binding domains of Raf1 (referred to as RBD here) and RalGDS, respectively &#8211; localize to the leading edge of a chemotaxing cell2,3. Similarly, PI3K and its product phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PIP3), recognized by a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain, also show localization at the front of a cell4,5. In contrast, a 3-phosphatase PTEN, which converts PIP3 back to phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate, localizes to the lagging edge of the cell6. Importantly, these biosensors change their localization in response to global stimulation with a chemoattractant. Leading edge markers, which are cytosolic or on the tips of protrusions in a resting cell, relocalize to the cortex, whereas lagging edge markers, which have cortical localization and are absent from the tips of protrusions in a resting cell, become cytosolic after stimulation. Analysis of biosensor distribution in response to global stimulation with a chemoattractant minimizes the contribution of motility and polarity, which often confound the observations. Global or uniform stimulation of a cell suspension with a chemoattractant is also used as a tool to assess population-wide changes in protein activation, often detected by protein phosphorylation7,8,9. This biochemical assay is primarily used to obtain temporal information, whereas microscopy is used to gather both temporal and spatial information about the behavior of various components of the regulatory networks.
The signal transduction network incorporates features of an excitable system10,11. Responses to supra-threshold chemotactic stimuli are &#34;all-or-none&#34; and display refractory periods. Responses are also triggered stochastically and can show oscillatory behavior. Signal transduction events are localized to regions of the cortex that propagate as waves12,13,14,15. Front, or back, markers are recruited to, or dissociate from, the active zones of the propagating waves. Due to the refractory region trailing the active zone, the oppositely directed waves annihilate as they meet. The propagating signal transduction waves underlie the cellular protrusions that mediate cell migration10.
Much of the aforementioned information on chemotaxis came from the studies on the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum, although similar regulatory mechanisms are also applicable to neutrophils and other mammalian cell types16. Dictyostelium is a well-established model organism that has a robust chemotactic response during starvation, when thousands of single cells migrate toward an aggregation center, eventually forming a multicellular fruiting body containing spores. Chemotaxis is also essential during the single-cell growth stage of this organism for locating bacterial food sources. Importantly, migration of single Dictyostelium cells is remarkably similar to the migration of mammalian neutrophils or metastatic cancer cells, all of which undergo very rapid amoeboid-type migration. In fact, both the overall topology of the regulatory networks, as well as many of the individual signal transduction pathways involved in chemotaxis are conserved between Dictyostelium and mammalian leukocytes17. Furthermore, other cells, such as fibroblasts, use receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) instead of GPCRs; however, RTKs may feed into similar networks.
In contrast to chemotaxis, thorough understanding of the signaling mechanisms that drive various other modes of directed migration is lacking. Similarly to cells migrating in a chemoattractant gradient several studies have reported activation and/or localization of typical leading edge markers, including actin polymerization, PIP3 and/or extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, at the front of cells undergoing directed migration in response to shear flow or changes in electric fields18,19,20,21. However, in these studies continuous exposure to the stimulus also resulted in cell migration, leaving open the question whether, for example, the leading edge markers localize specifically in response to a stimulus, or if they simply localize at the leading edge because of increased number of pseudopods at the front of a migrating cell.
We developed assays that allow us to observe the response of cells to acute mechanical perturbation delivered as shear flow both at the population level and as individual cells22. Similar to global stimulation with a chemoattractant, acute stimulation with shear flow allows the study of a cellular response to a mechanical stimulus without the confounding contribution from motility or polarity. Combining these biochemical and microscopic assays with genetic or pharmacological perturbations allows us to learn about how mechanical stimuli are perceived and transmitted. Moreover, this approach also provides a novel method for tapping into the system downstream of the chemoattractant receptor in the absence of a chemoattractant, thereby isolating the signal transduction and actin cytoskeleton networks from the receptor/G protein network.
Using the techniques described below we recently demonstrated that acute shear stress leads to activation of multiple components of the chemotactic signal transduction and actin cytoskeleton networks22. By applying the acute mechanical stimulus at varying intervals, we demonstrated that, similarly to chemoattractants, response to mechanical stimuli also exhibits features of an excitable system, including the all-or-none behavior of the response under saturating conditions and the presence of a refractory period. Finally, by combining mechanical and chemical stimulation we showed that the two stimuli share signal transduction and actin cytoskeleton networks, which likely allow for integration of multiple stimuli to bias cell migration.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dextrose</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>D16-1</td>
			<td>Use to prepare HL-5 media and SM plates (steps 1.1, 1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proteose peptone</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>DF0120-17-6</td>
			<td>Use to prepare HL-5 media (step 1.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>50-550-445</td>
			<td>Use to prepare HL-5 media and SM plates (steps 1.1, 1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2HPO4&#183;7H2O</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>S373-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare HL-5 media, and 10X Phosphate Buffer (steps 1.1, 1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>P386-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare HL-5 media, SM plates, and 10X Phosphate Buffer (steps 1.1-1.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptomycin (dihydrostreptomycin sulfate)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>ICN10040525</td>
			<td>Use to prepare HL-5 media (step 1.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peptone (Bacto)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>DF0118-17-0</td>
			<td>Use to prepare SM plates (step 1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K2HPO4</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>P288-100</td>
			<td>Use to prepare SM plates (step 1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP1423-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare SM plates (step 1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgSO4</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>M65-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare DB Buffer (step 1.4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>C79-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare DB Buffer (step 1.4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Caffeine</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>O1728-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare caffeine (step 1.5)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cAMP (EMD Millipore Calbiochem Adenosine 3 ft.,5 ft.-cyclic Monophosphate, Sodium Salt)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>11-680-1100MG</td>
			<td>Use to prepare cAMP (step 1.6)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Folic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>F7876</td>
			<td>Use to prepare folic acid (step 1.7)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris base</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP152-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare 3X sample buffer (step 1.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP166-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare 3X sample buffer (step 1.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>G33-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare 3X sample buffer (step 1.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610610</td>
			<td>Use to prepare 3X sample buffer (step 1.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bromophenol blue</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610404</td>
			<td>Use to prepare 3X sample buffer (step 1.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaF</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>S299-100</td>
			<td>Use to prepare sample buffer with protease and phosphatase inhibitors (step 1.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na3VO4</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>50-994-911</td>
			<td>Use to prepare sample buffer with protease and phosphatase inhibitors (step 1.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium pyrophosphate decahydrate</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>S390-500</td>
			<td>Use to prepare sample buffer with protease and phosphatase inhibitors (step 1.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Complete EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail (Roche)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>11873580001</td>
			<td>Use to prepare sample buffer with protease and phosphatase inhibitors (step 1.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Latrunculin A</td>
			<td>Enzo Life Sciences</td>
			<td>BML-T119-0100</td>
			<td>Use to prepare Latrunculin A (step 1.9)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4-15% Tris-HCl polyacrylamide gel</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>3450029</td>
			<td>Use for immunoblotting (step 3.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyvinylidene fluoride membrane</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1620177</td>
			<td>Use for immunoblotting (step 3.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phospho-PKC (pan) (zeta Thr410) (190D10) Rabbit antibody</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>2060</td>
			<td>Primary antibody for use in immunoblotting (step 3.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phospho-p44/42 MAPK (Erk1/2) (Thr202/Tyr204) (D13.14.4E) XP antibody</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling</td>
			<td>4370</td>
			<td>Primary antibody for use in immunoblotting (step 3.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit IgG HRP Linked Whole Ab (from Donkey)</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>NA934-100UL</td>
			<td>Secondary antibody for use in immunoblotting (step 3.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Enhanced chemiluminescence substrate (Clarity Western ECL Substrate)</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1705060</td>
			<td>Use for immunoblotting (step 3.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stripping buffer (Restore Plus Western blot stripping buffer)</td>
			<td>Pierce</td>
			<td>PI46430</td>
			<td>Use for immunoblotting (step 3.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coomassie Brilliant Blue</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>PI20278</td>
			<td>Use for immunoblotting (step 3.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K. aerogenes strain (non-pathogenic)</td>
			<td>Dicty Stock Center (dictybase.org)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Materials and Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital shaker (model G-33, or a comparable alternative)</td>
			<td>New Brunswick Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Use to grow K. aerogenes (step 2.1.1), and to basalate and stimulate D. discoideum cells (step 3). The radius of gyration for this shaker is 9.5 mm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 cm Petri dish</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>FB0875712</td>
			<td>Use to prepare SM plates (step 1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemocytometer</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>02-671-51B</td>
			<td>Use to count D. discoideum cells (step 2.1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>35 mm dish (Corning Falcon Easy-Grip Tissue Culture Dish)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>08-772A</td>
			<td>Use to plate D. discoideumcells for mechanical stimulation followed by cell lysis (step 3.1.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polystyrene cup (5 mL)</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>13915-985</td>
			<td>Use to stimulate D. discoideum cell suspension with a chemoattractant (step 3.2.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluidic unit with pump (ibidi Pump System)</td>
			<td>Ibidi</td>
			<td>10902</td>
			<td>Use to deliver mechanical stimulation to D. discoideum cells in a channel (steps 4.1, 4.2, and 5)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Slide with a channel (&#956;-Slide III 3in1 ibiTreat: #1.5 polymer coverslip, tissue culture treated, sterilized)</td>
			<td>Ibidi</td>
			<td>80316</td>
			<td>Use to plate D. discoideum cells for mechanical stimulation delivered by a fluidic device (steps 4.1, 4.2, and 5)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL reservoirs (Ibidi Reservoir Holder for Fluidic Unit)</td>
			<td>Ibidi</td>
			<td>10978</td>
			<td>Use to setup the fluidic device for delivering mechanical stimulation to D. discoideum cells in a channel (steps 4.1, 4.2, and 5)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lines for the fluidic unit (Perfusion Set YELLOW-and-GREEN)</td>
			<td>Ibidi</td>
			<td>10964</td>
			<td>Use to setup the fluidic device for delivering mechanical stimulation to D. discoideum cells in a channel (steps 4.1, 4.2, and 5). Note: the two lines can also be cut from the 1.6 mm tubing (catalog number 10842).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Line for the drain (1.6 mm ID tubing)</td>
			<td>Ibidi</td>
			<td>10842</td>
			<td>Use to setup the fluidic device for delivering mechanical stimulation to D. discoideum cells in a channel (steps 4.1, 4.2, and 5).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zeiss Observer.Z1 inverted microscope equipped with a 40X/1.3 oil objective and a 20X/0.3 air objective (or a comparable alternative)</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used to image D. discoideum cells with phase-contrast or fluorescence illumination (steps 4 and 5)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UltraView spinning disk confocal microscope equipped with a 40&#215;/1.25&#8211;0.75 oil objective (or a comparable alternative)</td>
			<td>Perkin-Elmer</td>
			<td>DM 16000</td>
			<td>An alternative used to image D. discoideum cells (step 4.1.4)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FemtoJet Microinjector (Eppendorf; model 5247, or a comparable alternative) with Eppendorf InjectMan</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5252000021D and 5192000027</td>
			<td>Use to deliver mechanical stimulation to D. discoideum cells by a micropipette (step 4.3). Note: catalog number are for the newest version of the equipment (4i).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette (Femtotip; 1 &#956;m outside diameter, 0.5 &#956;m inside diameter )</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>930000035</td>
			<td>Use to deliver mechanical stimulation to D. discoideum cells by a micropipette (step 4.3)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microloader tips (Eppendorf Femtotips Microloader Tips for Femtojet Microinjector)</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5242956.003</td>
			<td>Use to fill the micropipette (femtotip) with buffer (step 4.3.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1-well chamber (Thermo Scientific Nunc Lab-Tek Chambered Coverglass)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>12-565-472</td>
			<td>Use to plate D. discoideum cells for mechanical stimulation delivered by a micropipette (step 4.3.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>8-well chamber (Thermo Scientific Nunc Lab-Tek II Chambered Coverglass)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>12-565-338</td>
			<td>Use to plate D. discoideum cells for mechanical stimulation delivered by bulk buffer addition (step 4.4.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image Analysis Software (Fiji)</td>
			<td>NIH</td>
			<td>https://fiji.sc/</td>
			<td>Use to quantify response to mechanical stimulation (step 4.5)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Migration analysis software (Tracking Tool PRO)</td>
			<td>Gradientech</td>
			<td>http://gradientech.se/tracking-tool-pro/</td>
			<td>Use to quantify cell speed and persistence (step 5.4)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assessment of dictyostelium discoideum response to acute mechanical stimulation

Chemotaxis, or migration up a gradient of a chemoattractant, is the best understood mode of directed migration. Studies using social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum revealed that a complex signal transduction network of parallel pathways amplifies the response to chemoattractants, and leads to biased actin polymerization and protrusion of a pseudopod in the direction of a gradient. In contrast, molecular mechanisms driving other types of directed migration, for example, due to exposure to shear flow or electric fields, are not known. Many regulators of chemotaxis exhibit localization at the leading or lagging edge of a migrating cell, as well as show transient changes in localization or activation following global stimulation with a chemoattractant. To understand the molecular mechanisms of other types of directed migration we developed a method that allows examination of cellular response to acute mechanical stimulation based on brief (2 - 5 s) exposure to shear flow. This stimulation can be delivered in a channel while imaging cells expressing fluorescently-labeled biosensors to examine individual cell behavior. Additionally, cell population can be stimulated in a plate, lysed, and immunoblotted using antibodies that recognize active versions of proteins of interest. By combining both assays, one can examine a wide array of molecules activated by changes in subcellular localization and/or phosphorylation. Using this method we determined that acute mechanical stimulation triggers activation of the chemotactic signal transduction and actin cytoskeleton networks. The ability to examine cellular responses to acute mechanical stimulation is important for understanding the initiating events necessary for shear flow-induced motility. This approach also provides a tool for studying the chemotactic signal transduction network without the confounding influence of the chemoattractant receptor.

Temporal response of chemotaxis regulators to acute mechanical stimulation
To assess the response of D. discoideum cells to mechanical stimulation, adherent aggregation-competent cells were exposed to a brief pulse of shear flow. Aggregation-competent D. discoideum cells secrete cAMP, which can be sensed by neighboring cells. To overcome the contribution of cell-cell signaling, cells were treated with caffeine, wh...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Dictyostelium discoideum Response to Acute Mechanical Stimulation at JoVE.com

Assessment of Dictyostelium discoideum Response to Acute Mechanical Stimulation

Here we describe methods for assessing cellular response to acute mechanical stimulation. In the microscopy-based assay, we examine localization of fluorescently-labeled biosensors following brief stimulation with shear flow. We also test activation of various proteins of interest in response to acute mechanical stimulation biochemically.

Assessment of Dictyostelium discoideum Response to Acute Mechanical Stimulation

Chemotaxis, or migration up a gradient of a chemoattractant, is the best understood mode of directed migration. Studies using social amoeba Dictyostelium ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to examine the activity of various components of the intracellular signal transduction network following brief mechanical perturbation. This method can help answer key questions in the field of cell migration such as how cells sense and directionally migrate toward diverse environmental cues including mechanical stimuli. The main advantage of this technique is that it allows examination of the initial response to mechanical stimulus without the confounding contribution of motility or polarity to the response.We first had the idea for this method when we tested the response of adherent cells to chemoattractant which was delivered with a slight agitation and we noticed a robust response of cells stimulated with vehicle control. To begin, prepare Klebsiella aerogenes by inoculating a small number of cells from frozen stock into HL5 medium without antibiotics and incubate the culture overnight. Growth of Dictyostelium in the presence of Klebsiella aerogenes bacteria will reduce the number of macropinosomes which will improve cell responsiveness to external stimuli.Time the experiment so that when the bacteria are ready, there are Dictyostelium growing exponentially. Collect these Dictyostelium cells and count them using a hemocytometer. Then, spread 260 microliters of the bacterial suspension containing 100, 000 Dictyostelium cells onto an SM plate.Also for insurance, prepare plates with twice as many and half as many Dictyostelium cells. After one day of growth at room temperature, invert the plate and continue culturing the plate until the Dictyostelium cells start clearing the bacterial lawn but haven't yet begun aggregating. Then, add five milliliters of DB buffer to the plate and scrape off the Dictyostelium using a glass spreader.Transfer the cells and solution to a 50 milliliter polypropylene tube, then rinse the plate with five more milliliters of DB and also add this to the 50 milliliter tube. Repeat if necessary. To wash the Dictyostelium, top the tube up to 50 milliliters with DB, pellet the cells, and then aspirate and discard the supernatant.Wash the cells repeatedly until the supernatant is clear. Finally, resuspend the Dictyostelium in DB buffer to approximately five million cells per milliliter. To begin, plate two million aggregation-competent Dictyostelium onto 35 millimeter dishes with two milliliters of DB.Prepare one plate for each time point and a nonstimulated control.At room temperature, allow the cells 10 minutes to attach to the plate. Then, wash the unattached cells off the plate using two rinses with one milliliter of DB.Once the plates are cleared of unattached Dictyostelium, incubate the attached cells in basolation buffer for 30 minutes without disturbing the plates. It is very important to avoid any movement of the plates during the half-hour incubation to prevent premature stimulation of the cells.Now, to apply a controlled amount of mechanical stimulation, individually transfer a plate to an orbital shaker and run the shaker at 150 rpm for five seconds. Then, after the desired time, aspirate the buffer and promptly put the plate on ice. Immediately add 100 microliters of sample buffer with protease and phosphatase inhibitors and scrape off the cells.Collect the lysate into 1.5 milliliter tubes and promptly heat them at 95 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes. Proceed with analyzing the lysate or transfer them to minus 20 degrees Celsius for storage. After making suspensions of vegetative or aggregation-competent cells, load about 600 microliters into the microfluidic chamber slide.The inlets must be completely filled so top them off with buffer if needed. Allow the cells to attach for 10 minutes. Connect an input line for the device to an electronic pump with a 15 milliliter reservoir.Using software control for the pump, close the valve and then fill the reservoir with DB.Now, set the pressure to 50 millibar and turn on the pump. Fill and rinse the line with DB by clicking on the valve to open it. After rinsing for about 30 seconds, turn the pressure back to zero and then close the valve.Next, connect the line to one of the three inlets on one side of the slide. Do not trap any air bubbles and once the connection is made, cover the other two inlets on that side of the slide. Now, complete the setup by connecting the line from the drain to the single outlet on the opposite side of the slide.Then, under a brightfield or phase illumination on a fluorescent microscope, view the channel with a 20X air objective and rinse the channel. Next, set the pressure to about 50 millibar and open the valve. Once the liquid comes out of the drain, reduce the external pressure to zero, wait about 30 seconds, and close the valve.Next, switch to the 40X oil objective, focus on the widest part of the channel, and prepare the software to collect images every three seconds with RFP or GFP illumination. With the valve closed, set the pressure to the desired value. Then, acquire five pre-stimulation images on three-second intervals.Next, briefly open the valve the deliver the stimulus. Now, collect at least 15 more frames of data over 45 seconds. Quantify the response as described in the text protocol.First, load a microfluidic slide with Dictyostelium as described in the previous section. For this experiment, prepare two input lines. To close the lines, use a physical clamp on the line carrying the treatment solution and the software-controlled valve to close the line carrying the DB solution with vehicle.Now, fill the two lines with the appropriate solution, buffer plus vehicle alone or buffer with the treatment such as an inhibitor. After the lines have been rinsed, connect them to two inlets on the side of the slide with the channel and cap the unused inlet. Then, connect the drain line to the outlet on the opposite side.Now, wash the slide using the buffer plus vehicle as previously described. Then, fill the channel with the treatment. First, reduce the flow to zero millibars.Next, switch the valves, flow the treatment for about 15 seconds, and start timing the incubation. Every 10 minutes or so, flow fresh treatment solution over the cells for about 15 seconds to replenish oxygen levels in the chamber. Adherent aggregation-competent cells were exposed to five seconds of shear flow using an orbital shaker.The Dictyostelium were pre-treated with caffeine to reduce their basal activity. As a result, there was very low basal activity of PKBR1 and ERK2 and robust increase in phosphorylation of the key residues of these kinases with the stimulation. In aggregation-competent cells expressing various fluorescently-labeled biosensors, two leading edge markers, PHcrac and LimE, which are recruited by PIP3 or newly polymerized actin both showed mostly cytosolic localization in resting cells.Following five seconds of shear flow, these biosensors rapidly re-localized to the cortex and returned to the cytosol. Effects of actin-depolymerizing drug Latrunculin A were tested using a similar shear force experiment. In this case, vegetative cells were first exposed to control conditions and then switched to the buffer that contained the desired test agent.Latrunculin A treatment blocked the re-localization of the leading edge markers to the cortex. Intriguingly, if the flow was not shut off after two seconds but remained on for the duration of the experiment, a transient global response was still observed. Following the global response, vegetative cells migrated against the flow.Proper preparation of cells is extremely important for the success of these assays. Vegetative cells have to be grown in association with bacteria to ensure their responsiveness to mechanical stimulation. For aggregation-competent cells, cells that are either under or over developed, tend to respond poorly.Biochemical and microscopic approaches compliment each other and that's allowed us to assess a large number of signal transduction intermediates for their response to mechanical stimulation. By adding pharmacological as well as genetic perturbations, we can learn how mechanical stimuli are perceived and transmitted. This is important for understanding directed cell migration that is guided by physical stimuli such as shear flow.Since mechanical stimulation triggers activation of the same signal transduction network as chemoattractants, we can now examine the integration of various stimuli on cells. Ultimately, these studies will help us understand how migrating cells such as our own immune cells and metastatic cancer cells navigate through the body.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Mechanical Stimulation of Stem Cells Using Cyclic Uniaxial Strain

The role of mechanical forces in the development and maintenance of biological tissues is well documented, including several mechanically regulated phenomena such as bone remodeling, muscular hypertrophy, and smooth muscle cell plasticity. However, the forces involved are often extremely complex and difficult to monitor and control in vivo. To better investigate the effects of mechanical forces on cells, we have developed an in vitro method for applying uniaxial cyclic tensile strain to adherent cells cultured on elastic membranes. This method utilizes a custom-designed bioreactor with a motorized cam-rotor system to apply the desired force. Here we present a step-by-step video protocol demonstrating how to assemble the various components of each "stretch chamber", including, in this case, a silicone membrane with micropatterned topography to orient the cells with the direction of the strain. We also describe procedures for sterilizing the chambers, seeding cells onto the membrane, latching the chamber into the bioreactor, and adjusting the mechanical parameters (i.e. magnitude and rate of strain). The procedures outlined in this particular protocol are specific for seeding human mesenchymal stem cells onto silicone membranes with 10 &micro;m wide channels oriented parallel to the direction of strain. However, the methods and materials presented in this system are flexible enough to accommodate a number of variations on this theme: strain rate, magnitude, duration, cell type, membrane topography, membrane coating, etc. can all be tailored to the desired application or outcome. This is a robust method for investigating the effects of uniaxial tensile strain applied to cells in vitro.

It is widely understood that mechanical forces in the body can influence cell differentiation and proliferation. Here we present a video protocol demonstrating the use of a custom-built bioreactor for delivering uniaxial cyclic tensile strain to stem cells cultured on flexible micropatterned substrates.

The role of mechanical forces in the development and maintenance of biological tissues is well documented, including several mechanically regulated ...

Using Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) to Develop Diagnostic Tools

Using Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems MEMS to Develop Diagnostic Tools

Quantification of &gamma;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA lesions with respect to survival and preservation of genomic integrity. An early response to the induction of DSBs is phosphorylation of the H2A histone variant, H2AX, at the serine-139 residue, in the highly conserved C-terminal SQEY motif, forming &gamma;H2AX1. Following induction of DSBs, H2AX is rapidly phosphorylated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PIKK) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)2. Typically, only a few base-pairs (bp) are implicated in a DSB, however, there is significant signal amplification, given the importance of chromatin modifications in DNA damage signalling and repair. Phosphorylation of H2AX mediated predominantly by ATM spreads to adjacent areas of chromatin, affecting approximately 0.03% of total cellular H2AX per DSB2,3. This corresponds to phosphorylation of approximately 2000 H2AX molecules spanning ~2 Mbp regions of chromatin surrounding the site of the DSB and results in the formation of discrete &gamma;H2AX foci which can be easily visualized and quantitated by immunofluorescence microscopy2. The loss of &gamma;H2AX at DSB reflects repair, however, there is some controversy as to what defines complete repair of DSBs; it has been proposed that rejoining of both strands of DNA is adequate however, it has also been suggested that re-instatement of the original chromatin state of compaction is necessary4-8. The disappearence of &gamma;H2AX involves at least in part, dephosphorylation by phosphatases, phosphatase 2A and phosphatase 4C5,6. Further, removal of &gamma;H2AX by redistribution involving histone exchange with H2A.Z has been implicated7,8. Importantly, the quantitative analysis of &gamma;H2AX foci has led to a wide range of applications in medical and nuclear research. Here, we demonstrate the most commonly used immunofluorescence method for evaluation of initial DNA damage by detection and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci in &gamma;-irradiated adherent human keratinocytes9.

Quantification of &amp;#947;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

Quantification of DNA double-strand streaks using &gamma;H2AX formation as a molecular marker has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we demonstrate the use of an immunofluorescence assay for quantification of &gamma;H2AX foci after exposure of cells to radiation.

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA ...

Live Cell Response to Mechanical Stimulation Studied by Integrated Optical and Atomic Force Microscopy

To understand the mechanism by which living cells sense mechanical forces, and how they respond and adapt to their environment, a new technology able to investigate cells behavior at sub-cellular level with high spatial and temporal resolution was developed. Thus, an atomic force microscope (AFM) was integrated with total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy and fast-spinning disk (FSD) confocal microscopy. The integrated system is broadly applicable across a wide range of molecular dynamic studies in any adherent live cells, allowing direct optical imaging of cell responses to mechanical stimulation in real-time. Significant rearrangement of the actin filaments and focal adhesions was shown due to local mechanical stimulation at the apical cell surface that induced changes into the cellular structure throughout the cell body. These innovative techniques will provide new information for understanding live cell restructuring and dynamics in response to mechanical force. A detailed protocol and a representative data set that show live cell response to mechanical stimulation are presented.

This paper aims to instruct the reader in the operation of an integrated atomic force-optical imaging microscope for mechanical stimulation of live cells in culture. A step-by-step protocol is presented. A representative data set that shows live cell response to mechanical stimulation is presented.

To understand the mechanism by which living cells sense mechanical forces, and how they respond and adapt to their environment, a new technology able to ...

Intravenous Microinjections of Zebrafish Larvae to Study Acute Kidney Injury

In this video article we describe a zebrafish model of AKI using gentamicin as the nephrotoxicant.  The technique consists of intravenous microinjections on 2 dpf zebrafish. This technique represents an efficient and rapid method to deliver soluble substances into the bloodstream of zebrafish larvae, allowing for the injection of 15-20 fish per hour. In addition to AKI studies, this microinjection technique can also be used for other types of experimental studies such as angiography.  We provide a detailed protocol of the technique from equipment required to visual measures of decreased kidney function. In addition, we also demonstrate the process of fixation, whole mount immunohistochemistry with a kidney tubule marker, plastic embedding and sectioning of the larval zebrafish. We demonstrate that zebrafish larvae injected with gentamicin show morphological features consistent with AKI: edema, loss of cell polarity in proximal tubular epithelial cells, and morphological disruption of the tubule.

We describe a technique of microinjecting the aminoglycoside, gentamicin, into 2 days post-fetilization (dpf) zebrafish larvae to induce acute kidney injury (AKI). We also describe a method for whole mount immunohistochemistry, plastic embedding and sectioning of zebrafish larvae to visualize the AKI mediated damage.

In this video article we describe a zebrafish model of AKI using gentamicin as the nephrotoxicant.  The technique consists of intravenous microinjections ...

Imaging G-protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR)-mediated Signaling Events that Control Chemotaxis of Dictyostelium Discoideum

Many eukaryotic cells can detect gradients of chemical signals in their environments and migrate accordingly 1. This guided cell migration is referred as chemotaxis, which is essential for various cells to carry out their functions such as trafficking of immune cells and patterning of neuronal cells 2, 3. A large family of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) detects variable small peptides, known as chemokines, to direct cell migration in vivo 4. The final goal of chemotaxis research is to understand how a GPCR machinery senses chemokine gradients and controls signaling events leading to chemotaxis. To this end, we use imaging techniques to monitor, in real time, spatiotemporal concentrations of chemoattractants, cell movement in a gradient of chemoattractant, GPCR mediated activation of heterotrimeric G-protein, and intracellular signaling events involved in chemotaxis of eukaryotic cells 5-8. The simple eukaryotic organism, Dictyostelium discoideum, displays chemotaxic behaviors that are similar to those of leukocytes, and D. discoideum is a key model system for studying eukaryotic chemotaxis. As free-living amoebae, D. discoideum cells divide in rich medium. Upon starvation, cells enter a developmental program in which they aggregate through cAMP-mediated chemotaxis to form multicullular structures. Many components involved in chemotaxis to cAMP have been identified in D. discoideum. The binding of cAMP to a GPCR (cAR1) induces dissociation of heterotrimeric G-proteins into G&gamma; and G&beta;&gamma; subunits 7, 9, 10. G&beta;&gamma; subunits activate Ras, which in turn activates PI3K, converting PIP2 into PIP3 on the cell membrane 11-13. PIP3 serve as binding sites for proteins with pleckstrin Homology (PH) domains, thus recruiting these proteins to the membrane 14, 15. Activation of cAR1 receptors also controls the membrane associations of PTEN, which dephosphorylates PIP3 to PIP2 16, 17. The molecular mechanisms are evolutionarily conserved in chemokine GPCR-mediated chemotaxis of human cells such as neutrophils 18. We present following methods for studying chemotaxis of D. discoideum cells. 1. Preparation of chemotactic component cells. 2. Imaging chemotaxis of cells in a cAMP gradient. 3. Monitoring a GPCR induced activation of heterotrimeric G-protein in single live cells. 4. Imaging chemoattractant-triggered dynamic PIP3 responses in single live cells in real time. Our developed imaging methods can be applied to study chemotaxis of human leukocytes.

Imaging G-protein Coupled Receptor GPCR-mediated Signaling Events that Control Chemotaxis of Dictyostelium Discoideum

Here, we describe detailed live cell imaging methods for investigating chemotaxis. We present fluorescence microscopic methods to monitor spatiotemporal dynamics of signaling events in migrating cells. Measurement of signaling events permits us to further understand how a GPCR-signaling network achieves gradient sensing of chemoattractants and controls directional migration of eukaryotic cells.

Many eukaryotic cells can detect gradients of chemical signals in their environments and migrate accordingly 1.  This guided cell migration is referred as ...

Mechanical Stimulation of Chondrocyte-agarose Hydrogels

Articular cartilage suffers from a limited repair capacity when damaged by mechanical insult or degraded by disease, such as osteoarthritis. To remedy this deficiency, several medical interventions have been developed. One such method is to resurface the damaged area with tissue-engineered cartilage; however, the engineered tissue typically lacks the biochemical properties and durability of native cartilage, questioning its long-term survivability. This limits the application of cartilage tissue engineering to the repair of small focal defects, relying on the surrounding tissue to protect the implanted material. To improve the properties of the developed tissue, mechanical stimulation is a popular method utilized to enhance the synthesis of cartilaginous extracellular matrix as well as the resultant mechanical properties of the engineered tissue. Mechanical stimulation applies forces to the tissue constructs analogous to those experienced in vivo. This is based on the premise that the mechanical environment, in part, regulates the development and maintenance of native tissue1,2. The most commonly applied form of mechanical stimulation in cartilage tissue engineering is dynamic compression at physiologic strains of approximately 5-20% at a frequency of 1 Hz1,3. Several studies have investigated the effects of dynamic compression and have shown it to have a positive effect on chondrocyte metabolism and biosynthesis, ultimately affecting the functional properties of the developed tissue4-8. In this paper, we illustrate the method to mechanically stimulate chondrocyte-agarose hydrogel constructs under dynamic compression and analyze changes in biosynthesis through biochemical and radioisotope assays. This method can also be readily modified to assess any potentially induced changes in cellular response as a result of mechanical stimuli.

The biosynthesis of cartilaginous extracellular matrix by chondrocytes can be affected by application of mechanical stimuli. This method describes the technique of applying dynamic compressive strains to chondrocytes encapsulated in 3D constructs and the evaluation of induced changes in chondrocyte metabolism.

Articular cartilage suffers from a limited repair capacity when damaged by mechanical insult or degraded by disease, such as osteoarthritis. To remedy ...

Mechanical Stimulation-induced Calcium Wave Propagation in Cell Monolayers: The Example of Bovine Corneal Endothelial Cells

Intercellular communication is essential for the coordination of physiological processes between cells in a variety of organs and tissues, including the brain, liver, retina, cochlea and vasculature. In experimental settings, intercellular Ca2+-waves can be elicited by applying a mechanical stimulus to a single cell. This leads to the release of the intracellular signaling molecules IP3 and Ca2+ that initiate the propagation of the Ca2+-wave concentrically from the mechanically stimulated cell to the neighboring cells. The main molecular pathways that control intercellular Ca2+-wave propagation are provided by gap junction channels through the direct transfer of IP3 and by hemichannels through the release of ATP. Identification and characterization of the properties and regulation of different connexin and pannexin isoforms as gap junction channels and hemichannels are allowed by the quantification of the spread of the intercellular Ca2+-wave, siRNA, and the use of inhibitors of gap junction channels and hemichannels. Here, we describe a method to measure intercellular Ca2+-wave in monolayers of primary corneal endothelial cells loaded with Fluo4-AM in response to a controlled and localized mechanical stimulus provoked by an acute, short-lasting deformation of the cell as a result of touching the cell membrane with a micromanipulator-controlled glass micropipette with a tip diameter of less than 1 &mu;m. We also describe the isolation of primary bovine corneal endothelial cells and its use as model system to assess Cx43-hemichannel activity as the driven force for intercellular Ca2+-waves through the release of ATP. Finally, we discuss the use, advantages, limitations and alternatives of this method in the context of gap junction channel and hemichannel research.

Intercellular Ca2+-waves are driven by gap junction channels and hemichannels. Here, we describe a method to measure intercellular Ca2+-waves in cell monolayers in response to a local single-cell mechanical stimulus and its application to investigate the properties and regulation of gap junction channels and hemichannels.

Intercellular communication is essential for the coordination of physiological processes between cells in a variety of organs and tissues, including the ...

Investigating the Function of Coronin A in the Early Starvation Response of Dictyostelium discoideum by Aggregation Assays

Dictyostelium discoideum amoeba are found in soil, feeding on bacteria. When food sources become scarce, they secrete factors to initiate a multicellular development program, during which single cells chemotax towards aggregation centers1-4. This process is dependent on the release of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)5. cAMP is produced in waves through the concerted action of adenylate cyclase and phosphodiesterases, and binds to G protein-coupled cAMP receptors6,7. A widely used assay to analyze the mechanisms involved in the developmental cycle of the lower eukaryote Dictyostelium discoideum is based on the observation of cell aggregation in submerged conditions8,9. This protocol describes the analysis of the role of coronin A in the developmental cycle by starvation in tissue-culture plates submerged in balanced salt solution (BSS)10. Coronin A is a member of the widely conserved protein family of coronins that have been implicated in a wide variety of activities11,12. Dictyostelium cells lacking coronin A are unable to form multicellular aggregates, and this defect can be rescued by supplying pulses of cAMP, suggesting that coronin A acts upstream of the cAMP cascade10. The techniques described in these studies provide robust tools to investigate functions of proteins during the initial stages of the developmental cycle of Dictyostelium discoideum upstream of the cAMP cascade. Therefore, utilizing this aggregation assay may allow the further study of coronin A function and advance our understanding of coronin biology.

Investigating the Function of Coronin A in the Early Starvation Response of Dictyostelium discoideum by Aggregation Assays

The social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum undergoes a developmental transition into a multicellular organism when starved. The evolutionary conserved protein coronin A plays a crucial role in the initiation of development. Using aggregation assays as our main method, we aim to elucidate the role of coronin A in early development.

Dictyostelium discoideum amoeba are found in soil, feeding on bacteria. When food sources become scarce, they secrete factors to initiate a multicellular ...

Nephrotoxin Microinjection in Zebrafish to Model Acute Kidney Injury

The kidneys are susceptible to harm from exposure to chemicals they filter from the bloodstream. This can lead to organ injury associated with a rapid decline in renal function and development of the clinical syndrome known as acute kidney injury (AKI). Pharmacological agents used to treat medical circumstances ranging from bacterial infection to cancer, when administered individually or in combination with other drugs, can initiate AKI. Zebrafish are a useful animal model to study the chemical effects on renal function in vivo, as they form an embryonic kidney comprised of nephron functional units that are conserved with higher vertebrates, including humans. Further, zebrafish can be utilized to perform genetic and chemical screens, which provide opportunities to elucidate the cellular and molecular facets of AKI and develop therapeutic strategies such as the identification of nephroprotective molecules. Here, we demonstrate how microinjection into the zebrafish embryo can be utilized as a paradigm for nephrotoxin studies.

Renal injuries incurred from nephrotoxins, which include drugs ranging from antibiotics to chemotherapeutics, can result in complex disorders whose pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. This protocol demonstrates how zebrafish can be used for disease modeling of these conditions, which can be applied to the identification of renoprotective measures.

The kidneys are susceptible to harm from exposure to chemicals they filter from the bloodstream. This can lead to organ injury associated with a rapid ...