우리 산드라 북 아 일 Manosalvas-Kjono, 푸 림 Ladpli 감사, 장치 설계 및 돌연변이 동물의 세대에서 파라 Memon, Divya Gopisetty, 및 베로니카 산체스에 대 한 지원. 이 연구는 지원 했다 NIH 교부 금 R01EB006745 (BLP)에, (에 MBG) R01NS092099, K99NS089942 (MK)를, (ALN)에 F31NS100318 및 받은 자금 유럽 연합의 지평선 2020 연구 및 혁신 유럽 연구 회의 (ERC)에서 프로그램 ( 부여 계약 번호 715243 MK).

<ol>
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저자는 공개 없다.

이 프로토콜에서는 미세 칩에 갇혀 거 위 피부에 정확한 기계적 자극을 제공 하는 방법을 보여 줍니다. 그것은 생물학 질문에 응답 하기 위한 물리적 자극의 통합을 촉진 하기 위한 것입니다 그리고 생물학 실험실에서 mechanobiology 연구를 합리화 하는 것을 목표로. 이 메서드는 C. 선 충에 mechanosensory 신경의 기능을 평가 하기 위해 이전 분석을 확장 합니다. 이전 양적 및 반 정량적 기법 힘<sup ...

터치의 감각 동물을 그들의 환경에 대 한 중요 한 정보를 제공합니다. 적용 된 힘에 따라 터치 인식으로 무해 한, 즐거운, 또는 고통 스러운. 터치 하는 동안 조직 변형 전문된 mechanoreceptor 세포는 피부에 포함 된 가장 일반적으로 이온 채널, 수용 체 단백질을 표현 하 여 감지 됩니다. 터치와 고통 중에 이온 채널 활성화를 연결 하는 힘 인식 단계는 완전히 이해 되지 않는다. 심지어 어떻게 피부 조직을 기계적 변형 및 몸의 긴장에 있는 변화를 탐지 여부 필터 또는1,2,3스트레스에 대 한 알려져 있다. 이해에이 간격, 부분적으로, 세포 수준에서 응답을 관찰 하는 동안 정확한 기계적 stimulations 살아있는 동물의 피부 표면에 적용할 적당 한 도구의 부족에서 발생 합니다. 원자 힘 현미경 검사 법 사용 되었습니다 광범위 하 게 적용 하 고 격리 된 셀4,5 에 힘을 측정 하 고 또한 생활에 있는 Piezo1 수용 체를 활성화 하는 반면 세포6을 비슷한 실험 특히 살아있는 동물을 사용 하 여 C. 선 충, 악명 때문에 피사체의 본질적인 이동성 도전 되었습니다. 이 문제는 전통적으로 무력화 한 천 패드1,7,,89에 개별 동물을 동물 또는 외과-급 cyanoacrylate 접착제를 사용 하 여 피할. 이 접근은 생산성, 되었지만 접착 및 기계적 규격에 소프트 한 표면에 의해 동원 정지에 필요한 기술에 관련 된 제한 사항에는. 마이크로 전략 gluing에 연결 하는 합병증 중 일부를 피할 수 있는 무료 대안 이다.
선 충 류 선 충 C. 완전히 매핑된 신 경계를, 동물의 크기 때문에 적합 한 마이크로 기술 유전자 모델 생물 이다. 마이크로-기반 장치 그렇지 않으면 매우 모바일 동물 고해상도 이미징 및 관련 modulatory 신경 자극의 전달을 수행 하는 동안 제 지 될 수 있는 이점 제공 합니다. 미세의 도움으로 기술, 동물 생활 해10,11, 전체 수명12,13 이상 행동 활동의 모니터링 및 고해상도 없이 움직일 수 있습니다. 신경 활동14,15,,1617의 이미지입니다. 또한, 통증의 감각 그들의 생리1,8, 기계4,,1819, 특징 수에 필요한 많은 mechanoreceptor 신경 세포 및 분자 레벨20,,2122.
C. 선 충 6 TRNs, 동물의 앞쪽 (ALML/R 및 AVM) 중 3 개는 자극과 중 3 개는 동물의 후부 (PLML/R와 PVM) 자극을 사용 하 여 그것의 몸 벽에 부드러운 기계적 자극을 감지 합니다. 생 화 확 적인 신호에는 적용 된 힘을 시험에 필요한 이온 채널 분자는 그것의 TRNs8에 광범위 하 게 연구 되었습니다. 이 문서에서는 고정된 C. 선 충 의 피부에 정확한 기계적인 힘을 적용 하는 연구원을 가능 하 게 한 미세 플랫폼23 제공 광학 이미징에 의해 그것의 내부 조직 변형 밖으로 읽는 동안 거 위. 잘 정의 된 기계적 자극을 제시 하는 것 외에도 칼슘 과도 subcellular 해상도 mechanoreceptor 뉴런에 기록 된 고 형태학 및 해 부 기능 연관 될 수 있습니다. 하나의 동물을 보유 하 고 (그림 1 및 그림 2) 6 공 압 작동 채널 옆의 피부를 선물 하는 중앙 트래핑 채널 장치에 의하여 이루어져 있다. 6 채널 각 벌레의 6 TRNs의 기계적 자극을 제공 하는 트래핑 채널에 따라 배치 됩니다. 이러한 채널 트래핑 상공에서 외부 공기 압력 소스 (그림 1)에 의해 구동 될 수 있다 얇은 PDMS 격 막에 의해 구분 됩니다. 우리는 압력에 대해 편향 보정 하 고이 문서에 측정을 제공. 각 액추에이터 개별적으로 해결 하 고 선택의 mechanoreceptor 자극 하는 데 사용 될 수 있습니다. 압 전 구동 압력 펌프를 사용 하 여 압력을 전달 하지만 어떤 다른 장치를 사용할 수 있습니다. 우리 TRNs에서 vivo에서 활성화 하 고 운영 기기 성인 C. 선 충에 기계적 자극을 제공, 장치에 성인 동물을 로드, 칼슘 이미징 수행 입증 하 압력 프로토콜을 사용할 수 있음을 보여합니다 실험, 그리고 결과 분석입니다. 장치 제조 두 가지 주요 단계로 구성 됩니다: 1) 수-8;에서 금형을 만들기 위해 사진 평판 그리고 2) PDMS 장치를 만들기 위해 성형. 간결성, 명확성을 위해 독자 이전 게시 된 기사와 프로토콜24,25 금형 및 장치를 생산 하는 방법에 대 한 지침은 이라고 합니다.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chrome mask</td>
			<td>Compugraphics (http://www.compugraphics-photomasks.com/)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>5&#39;&#39;, designed in AutoCAD (Autodesk, Inc.)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chrome mask</td>
			<td>Mitani-Micronics (http://www.mitani-micro.co.jp/en/)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>5&#39;&#39;, designed in AutoCAD (Autodesk, Inc.)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chrome mask</td>
			<td>Kuroda-Electric (http://www.kuroda-electric.eu/</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>5&#39;&#39;, designed in AutoCAD (Autodesk, Inc.)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4&#39;&#39; Silicon wafer (B-test)</td>
			<td>Stanford Nanofabrication Facility</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SU-8 2002</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SU-8 2050</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spin-coater</td>
			<td>Laurell Technologies</td>
			<td>WS-400BZ-6NPP/LITE</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Exposure timer</td>
			<td>Optical Associates, Inc</td>
			<td>OAI 150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illumination controller</td>
			<td>Optical Associates, Inc</td>
			<td>2105C2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SU-8 developer</td>
			<td>MicroChem</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2-Propanol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A426F-1GAL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A18-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trichloromethylsilane (TCMS)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>92361-500ML</td>
			<td>Caution: TCMS is toxic and water-reactive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sylgard 184 Elastomer Kit</td>
			<td>Dow Corning</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>PDMS prepolymer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biopsy punch, 1 mm</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>95039-090</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygen Plasma Asher</td>
			<td>Branson/IPC</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small metal tubing (0.635 mm OD, 0.4318 mm ID, 12.7 mm long); gage size 23TW</td>
			<td>New England Small Tube Corporation</td>
			<td>NE-1300-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nalgene syringe filter, 0.22 &#956;m</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>725-2520</td>
			<td>to filter all solution, small particles would clog the chip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyethylene tubing; 0.9652 mm OD, 0.5842 mm ID</td>
			<td>Solomon Scientific</td>
			<td>BPE-T50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe, 1 ml</td>
			<td>BD Scientific</td>
			<td>309628</td>
			<td>for worm trapping and release</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe, 20 ml</td>
			<td>BD Scientific</td>
			<td>309661</td>
			<td>for gravity-based flow</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gilson Minipuls 3, Peristaltic pump</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>to suck solutions and worms out of the chip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microfluidic flow controller, equipped with 0&#8211;800 kPa pressure channel</td>
			<td>Elveflow</td>
			<td>OB1 MK3</td>
			<td>pressure delivery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water-Resistant Clear Poly- urethane Tubing, 4 mm ID and 6 mm OD</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>5195 T52</td>
			<td>connection from house air to pressure pump</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water-Resistant Clear Polyurethane Tubing, 2.6mm ID and 4mm OD</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>5195 T51</td>
			<td>connect pressure pump to small tubng</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Push-to-Connect Tube Fitting for Air</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>5111K468</td>
			<td>metric - imperial converter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Straight Connector for 6 mm &#215; 1/4&#8243; Tube OD</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>5779 K258</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leica DMI 4000 B microscopy system</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>63&#215;/1.32 NA HCX PL APO oil objective</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>506081</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hamamatsu Orca-Flash 4.0LT digital CMOS camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>C11440-42U</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lumencor Spectra X light engine</td>
			<td>Lumencor</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>With cyan and green/yellow light source</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Excitation beam splitter</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>59022bs</td>
			<td>in the microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hamamatsu W-view Gemini Image splitting optics</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>A12801-01</td>
			<td>to split green and red emission and project them on different areas on the camera chip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Emission beam splitter</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>T570lpxr</td>
			<td>in the image splitter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Emission filters GCamp6s</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>ET525/50m</td>
			<td>in the image splitter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Emission filters mCherry</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>ET632/60m</td>
			<td>in the image splitter</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using a microfluidics device for mechanical stimulation and high resolution imaging of c. elegans

Mechanobiology의 한 중앙 목표 단백질 및 세포에 기계적 스트레스의 상호 효과 이해 하는 것입니다. 그 중요성에도 불구 하 고 세포질 기능에 기계적 스트레스의 영향이 아직도 제대로 이해 된다. 몇 가지 도구를 사용 하면 조직과 세포의 동시 변형, 생체, 세포 활동의 이미지와 달리 매우 모바일 모형 유기 체, 선 충 류 등 운동 성의 효율적 제한 때문에이 기술 격차 존재 하는 부분에서 꼬마 선 충. C. 선 충 의 작은 크기에 게 그들 훌륭한 일치 하는 마이크로-기반 연구 장치, 그리고 동원 정지에 대 한 솔루션 제시 된 미세 장치를 사용 하 여. 이 장치 고해상도 이미징에 대 한 허용, 동물 완전히입니다 (PDMS) 및 기계적 힘 또는 electrophysiological 녹음의 배달에 대 한 물리적 액세스를 제한 하는 유리에 쌌 다. 최근, 우리 고해상도 형광 현미경과 호환 되는 트래핑 디자인 공 압 액츄에이터를 통합 하는 장치를 만들었습니다. 작동 채널 벌레 트랩 채널에서 얇은 PDMS 격 막에 의해 구분 됩니다. 이 다이어 프이 램은 외부 소스에서 압력을 적용 하 여 벌레의 측으로 편향. 장치는 개별 mechanosensitive 신경을 대상 수 있습니다. 이러한 뉴런의 활성화에 몇 군데 유전자 인코딩 칼슘 지표와 고해상도. 이 문서는 그들의 터치 수용 체 신경 (TRNs)에 있는 칼슘-민감한 작동 표시등 (GCaMP6s)를 표현 하는 C. 선 충 종자를 사용 하 여 일반적인 메서드를 제공 합니다. 메서드를 조사로 TRNs도 칼슘 센서에 국한 되지 않습니다 하지만 다른 기계적으로 민감한 세포 또는 센서에 확장 될 수 있다.

수-8 리소 그래피와 칩 본딩 리소 그래피 프로토콜 및 PDMS 성형 표준 절차를 따릅니다. 자세한 내용은 다른23,,2425,26찾을 수 있습니다. PDMS는 경화 후 문제 없이 웨이퍼를 벗기다 한다. 수-8 기능 PDMS 필 링 하는 동안 벗어 버리고, 경우 SU-8 접착 레이어 또는 silanizati...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using a Microfluidics Device for Mechanical Stimulation and High Resolution Imaging of C. elegans at JoVE.com

Using a Microfluidics Device for Mechanical Stimulation and High Resolution Imaging of C. elegans

Mechanobiology 연구에 대 한 새로운 도구 어떻게 기계적 스트레스를 이해 하는 데 필요한 생화학 경로 활성화 하 고 elicits 생물학 응답. 여기, 우리 세포 응답의 고해상도 이미지를 수 있도록 미세 트랩으로 움직이지 동물의 선택적 기계적 자극에 대 한 새로운 방법을 전시.

기계적 자극 및 높은 해상도 C. 선 충 의 이미징에 대 한 마이크로 장치를 사용 하 여

One central goal of mechanobiology is to understand the reciprocal effect of mechanical stress on proteins and cells. Despite its importance, the ...

using-microfluidics-device-for-mechanical-stimulation-high-resolution

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Using a Microfluidics Device for Mechanical Stimulation and High Resolution Imaging of C. elegans

9.7K 조회수.  Stanford University. Mechanobiology 연구에 대 한 새로운 도구 어떻게 기계적 스트레스를 이해 하는 데 필요한 생화학 경로 활성화 하 고 elicits 생물학 응답. 여기, 우리 세포 응답의 고해상도 이미지를 수 있도록 미세 트랩으로 움직이지 동물의 선택적 기계적 자극에 대 한 새로운 방법을 전시.

비디오: Using a Microfluidics Device for Mechanical Stimulation and High Resolution Imaging of C. elegans

Enabling High Grayscale Resolution Displays and Accurate Response Time Measurements on Conventional Computers

Display systems based on conventional computer graphics cards are capable of generating images with 8-bit gray level resolution. However, most experiments in vision research require displays with more than 12 bits of luminance resolution. Several solutions are available. Bit++ 1 and DataPixx 2 use the Digital Visual Interface (DVI) output from graphics cards and high resolution (14 or 16-bit) digital-to-analog converters to drive analog display devices. The VideoSwitcher 3 described here combines analog video signals from the red and blue channels of graphics cards with different weights using a passive resister network 4 and an active circuit to deliver identical video signals to the three channels of color monitors. The method provides an inexpensive way to enable high-resolution monochromatic displays using conventional graphics cards and analog monitors. It can also provide trigger signals that can be used to mark stimulus onsets, making it easy to synchronize visual displays with physiological recordings or response time measurements.
Although computer keyboards and mice are frequently used in measuring response times (RT), the accuracy of these measurements is quite low. The RTbox is a specialized hardware and software solution for accurate RT measurements. Connected to the host computer through a USB connection, the driver of the RTbox is compatible with all conventional operating systems. It uses a microprocessor and high-resolution clock to record the identities and timing of button events, which are buffered until the host computer retrieves them. The recorded button events are not affected by potential timing uncertainties or biases associated with data transmission and processing in the host computer. The asynchronous storage greatly simplifies the design of user programs. Several methods are available to synchronize the clocks of the RTbox and the host computer. The RTbox can also receive external triggers and be used to measure RT with respect to external events. 
Both VideoSwitcher and RTbox are available for users to purchase. The relevant information and many demonstration programs can be found at <a href="http://lobes.usc.edu/">http://lobes.usc.edu/</a>.

Conventional computer hardware can not generate visual stimuli with sufficiently high grayscale resolution and measure response times with sufficient accuracy. We describe how to use the VideoSwitcher to produce high-resolution monochromatic displays, and the RTbox to measure response times with high accuracy on conventional computer hardware.

사용 높음 - 해상도 디스플레이와 종래의 컴퓨터에 정확한 응답 시간 측정 그레이 스케일

Display systems based on conventional computer graphics cards are capable of generating images with 8-bit gray level resolution. However, most experiments ...

연구

신경과학

High-resolution Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Methods for Human Midbrain

Functional MRI (fMRI) is a widely used tool for non-invasively measuring correlates of human brain activity. However, its use has mostly been focused upon measuring activity on the surface of cerebral cortex rather than in subcortical regions such as midbrain and brainstem. Subcortical fMRI must overcome two challenges: spatial resolution and physiological noise. Here we describe an optimized set of techniques developed to perform high-resolution fMRI in human SC, a structure on the dorsal surface of the midbrain; the methods can also be used to image other brainstem and subcortical structures.
High-resolution (1.2 mm voxels) fMRI of the SC requires a non-conventional approach. The desired spatial sampling is obtained using a multi-shot (interleaved) spiral acquisition1. Since, T2* of SC tissue is longer than in cortex, a correspondingly longer echo time (TE ~ 40 msec) is used to maximize functional contrast. To cover the full extent of the SC, 8-10 slices are obtained. For each session a structural anatomy with the same slice prescription as the fMRI is also obtained, which is used to align the functional data to a high-resolution reference volume.
In a separate session, for each subject, we create a high-resolution (0.7 mm sampling) reference volume using a T1-weighted sequence that gives good tissue contrast. In the reference volume, the midbrain region is segmented using the ITK-SNAP software application2. This segmentation is used to create a 3D surface representation of the midbrain that is both smooth and accurate3. The surface vertices and normals are used to create a map of depth from the midbrain surface within the tissue4.
Functional data is transformed into the coordinate system of the segmented reference volume. Depth associations of the voxels enable the averaging of fMRI time series data within specified depth ranges to improve signal quality. Data is rendered on the 3D surface for visualization.
In our lab we use this technique for measuring topographic maps of visual stimulation and covert and overt visual attention within the SC1. As an example, we demonstrate the topographic representation of polar angle to visual stimulation in SC.

This article describes techniques to perform high-resolution functional magnetic resonance imaging with 1.2 mm sampling in human midbrain and subcortical structures using a 3T scanner. Use of these techniques to resolve topographic maps of visual stimulation in the human superior colliculus (SC) is given as an example.

인간 Midbrain위한 고해상도 기능성 자기 공명 영상 방법

Functional MRI (fMRI) is a widely used tool for non-invasively measuring correlates of human brain activity. However, its use has mostly been focused upon ...

High-resolution Live Imaging of Cell Behavior in the Developing Neuroepithelium

The embryonic spinal cord consists of cycling neural progenitor cells that give rise to a large percentage of the neuronal and glial cells of the central nervous system (CNS). Although much is known about the molecular mechanisms that pattern the spinal cord and elicit neuronal differentiation1, 2, we lack a deep understanding of these early events at the level of cell behavior. It is thus critical to study the behavior of neural progenitors in real time as they undergo neurogenesis.
In the past, real-time imaging of early embryonic tissue has been limited by cell/tissue viability in culture as well as the phototoxic effects of fluorescent imaging. Here we present a novel assay for imaging such tissue for long periods of time, utilizing a novel ex vivo slice culture protocol and wide-field fluorescence microscopy (Fig. 1). This approach achieves long-term time-lapse monitoring of chick embryonic spinal cord progenitor cells with high spatial and temporal resolution.
This assay may be modified to image a range of embryonic tissues3, 4 In addition to the observation of cellular and sub-cellular behaviors, the development of novel and highly sensitive reporters for gene activity (for example, Notch signaling5) makes this assay a powerful tool with which to understand how signaling regulates cell behavior during embryonic development.

Imaging embryonic tissue in real-time is challenging over long periods of time. Here we present an assay for monitoring cellular and sub-cellular changes in chick spinal cord for long periods with high spatial and temporal resolution. This technique can be adapted for other regions of the nervous system and developing embryo.

개발 Neuroepithelium의 세포 문제의 고해상도 라이브 영상

The embryonic spinal cord consists of cycling neural progenitor cells that give rise to a large percentage of the neuronal and glial cells of the central ...

Automated Quantification of Synaptic Fluorescence in C. elegans

Synapse strength refers to the amplitude of postsynaptic responses to presynaptic neurotransmitter release events, and has a major impact on overall neural circuit function. Synapse strength critically depends on the abundance of neurotransmitter receptors clustered at synaptic sites on the postsynaptic membrane. Receptor levels are established developmentally, and can be altered by receptor trafficking between surface-localized, subsynaptic, and intracellular pools, representing important mechanisms of synaptic plasticity and neuromodulation. Rigorous methods to quantify synaptically-localized neurotransmitter receptor abundance are essential to study synaptic development and plasticity. Fluorescence microscopy is an optimal approach because it preserves spatial information, distinguishing synaptic from non-synaptic pools, and discriminating among receptor populations localized to different types of synapses. The genetic model organism Caenorhabditis elegans is particularly well suited for these studies due to the small size and relative simplicity of its nervous system, its transparency, and the availability of powerful genetic techniques, allowing examination of native synapses in intact animals.
Here we present a method for quantifying fluorescently-labeled synaptic neurotransmitter receptors in C. elegans. Its key feature is the automated identification and analysis of individual synapses in three dimensions in multi-plane confocal microscope output files, tabulating position, volume, fluorescence intensity, and total fluorescence for each synapse. This approach has two principal advantages over manual analysis of z-plane projections of confocal data. First, because every plane of the confocal data set is included, no data are lost through z-plane projection, typically based on pixel intensity averages or maxima. Second, identification of synapses is automated, but can be inspected by the experimenter as the data analysis proceeds, allowing fast and accurate extraction of data from large numbers of synapses. Hundreds to thousands of synapses per sample can easily be obtained, producing large data sets to maximize statistical power. Considerations for preparing C. elegans for analysis, and performing confocal imaging to minimize variability between animals within treatment groups are also discussed. Although developed to analyze C. elegans postsynaptic receptors, this method is generally useful for any type of synaptically-localized protein, or indeed, any fluorescence signal that is localized to discrete clusters, puncta, or organelles.
The procedure is performed in three steps: 1) preparation of samples, 2) confocal imaging, and 3) image analysis. Steps 1 and 2 are specific to C. elegans, while step 3 is generally applicable to any punctate fluorescence signal in confocal micrographs.

Automated Quantification of Synaptic Fluorescence in C. elegans

The abundance of neurotransmitter receptors clustered at synapses strongly influences synaptic strength. This method quantifies fluorescently-labeled neurotransmitter receptors in three dimensions with single-synapse resolution in C. elegans, allowing hundreds of synapses to be rapidly characterized within a single sample without distortions introduced by z-plane projection.

에서 시냅틱 형광의 자동 부량<em&gt; C. elegans</em

Synapse strength refers to the amplitude of postsynaptic responses to presynaptic neurotransmitter release events, and has a major impact on overall ...

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the surface of an agar plate. For the study of the genetic, biochemical, and neuronal basis of behavior, C. elegans is an ideal organism because it is genetically tractable, amenable to microscopy, and shows a number of complex behaviors, including taxis, learning, and social interaction1,2. Behavioral analysis based on tracking the movements of worms as they crawl on agar plates have been particularly useful in the study of sensory behavior3, locomotion4, and general mutational phenotyping5. Our system works by moving the camera and illumination system as the worms crawls on a stationary agar plate, which ensures no mechanical stimulus is transmitted to the worm. Our tracking system is easy to use and includes a semi-automatic calibration feature. A challenge of all video tracking systems is that it generates an enormous amount of data that is intrinsically high dimensional. Our image processing and data analysis programs deal with this challenge by reducing the worms shape into a set of independent components, which comprehensively reconstruct the worms behavior as a function of only 3-4 dimensions6,7. As an example of the process we show that the worm enters and exits its reversal state in a phase specific manner.

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed a video-rate tracking microscope system that can record and quantify C. elegans behavior at high resolution and high speeds. We have also developed computational methods to reduce the dimensionality of the worm images to a fundamental set of measurements that completely describe the shape of the worm.

C. elegans 추적 및 행동 측정

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the ...

A Molecular Readout of Long-term Olfactory Adaptation in C. elegans

During sustained stimulation most sensory neurons will adapt their response by decreasing their sensitivity to the signal. The adaptation response helps shape attention and also protects cells from over-stimulation. Adaptation within the olfactory circuit of C. elegans was first described by Colbert and Bargmann1,2. Here, the authors defined parameters of the olfactory adaptation paradigm, which they used to design a genetic screen to isolate mutants defective in their ability to adapt to volatile odors sensed by the Amphid Wing cells type C (AWC) sensory neurons. When wildtype C. elegans animals are exposed to an attractive AWC-sensed odor3 for 30 min they will adapt their responsiveness to the odor and will then ignore the adapting odor in a chemotaxis behavioral assay for ~1 hr. When wildtype C. elegans animals are exposed to an attractive AWC-sensed odor for ~1 hr they will then ignore the adapting odor in a chemotaxis behavioral assay for ~3 hr. These two phases of olfactory adaptation in C. elegans were described as short-term olfactory adaptation (induced after 30 min odor exposure), and long-term olfactory adaptation (induced after 60 min odor exposure). Later work from L'Etoile et al.,4 uncovered a Protein Kinase G (PKG) called EGL-4 that is required for both the short-term and long-term olfactory adaptation in AWC neurons. The EGL-4 protein contains a nuclear localization sequence that is necessary for long-term olfactory adaptation responses but dispensable for short-term olfactory adaptation responses in the AWC4. By tagging EGL-4 with a green fluorescent protein, it was possible to visualize the localization of EGL-4 in the AWC during prolonged odor exposure. Using this fully functional GFP-tagged EGL-4 (GFP::EGL-4) molecule we have been able to develop a molecular readout of long-term olfactory adaptation in the AWC5. Using this molecular readout of olfactory adaptation we have been able to perform both forward and reverse genetic screens to identify mutant animals that exhibit defective subcellular localization patterns of GFP::EGL-4 in the AWC6,7. Here we describe: 1) the construction of GFP::EGL-4 expressing animals; 2) the protocol for cultivation of animals for long-term odor-induced nuclear translocation assays; and 3) the scoring of the long-term odor-induced nuclear translocation event and recovery (re-sensitization) from the nuclear GFP::EGL-4 state.

A Molecular Readout of Long-term Olfactory Adaptation in C. elegans

Here we describe a molecular readout of long-term olfactory adaptation in Caenorhabditis elegans. The Protein Kinase G, EGL-4, is necessary for stable adaptation responses in the primary sensory neuron pair called AWC. During prolonged odor exposure EGL-4 translocates from the cytosol to nucleus of the AWC.

의 장기 강한 적응의 분자 판독<em&gt; C. elegans</em

During sustained stimulation most sensory neurons will adapt their response by decreasing their sensitivity to the signal. The adaptation response helps ...

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, well-characterized nervous system allows identification and fluorescence imaging of any neuron within the intact animal. Simple immobilization techniques with minimal impact on the animal's physiology allow extended time-lapse imaging. The development of genetically-encoded calcium sensitive fluorophores such as cameleon 1 and GCaMP 2 allow in vivo imaging of neuronal calcium relating both cell physiology and neuronal activity. Numerous transgenic strains expressing these fluorophores in specific neurons are readily available or can be constructed using well-established techniques. Here, we describe detailed procedures for measuring calcium dynamics within a single neuron in vivo using both GCaMP and cameleon. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of both as well as various methods of sample preparation (animal immobilization) and image analysis. Finally, we present results from two experiments: 1) Using GCaMP to measure the sensory response of a specific neuron to an external electrical field and 2) Using cameleon to measure the physiological calcium response of a neuron to traumatic laser damage. Calcium imaging techniques such as these are used extensively in C. elegans and have been extended to measurements in freely moving animals, multiple neurons simultaneously and comparison across genetic backgrounds. C. elegans presents a robust and flexible system for in vivo neuronal imaging with advantages over other model systems in technical simplicity and cost.

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

With its small transparent body, well-documented neuroanatomy and a host of amenable genetic techniques and reagents, C. elegans makes an ideal model organism for in vivo neuronal imaging using relatively simple, low-cost techniques. Here we describe single neuron imaging within intact adult animals using genetically encoded fluorescent calcium indicators.

C.의 생체 Neuronal 칼슘 이미징에서 elegans

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism  for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, ...

Super-resolution Imaging of Neuronal Dense-core Vesicles

Detection of fluorescence provides the foundation for many widely utilized and rapidly advancing microscopy techniques employed in modern biological and medical applications. Strengths of fluorescence include its sensitivity, specificity, and compatibility with live imaging. Unfortunately, conventional forms of fluorescence microscopy suffer from one major weakness, diffraction-limited resolution in the imaging plane, which hampers studies of structures with dimensions smaller than ~250 nm. Recently, this limitation has been overcome with the introduction of super-resolution fluorescence microscopy techniques, such as photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM). Unlike its conventional counterparts, PALM can produce images with a lateral resolution of tens of nanometers. It is thus now possible to use fluorescence, with its myriad strengths, to elucidate a spectrum of previously inaccessible attributes of cellular structure and organization.
Unfortunately, PALM is not trivial to implement, and successful strategies often must be tailored to the type of system under study. In this article, we show how to implement single-color PALM studies of vesicular structures in fixed, cultured neurons. PALM is ideally suited to the study of vesicles, which have dimensions that typically range from ~50-250 nm. Key steps in our approach include labeling neurons with photoconvertible (green to red) chimeras of vesicle cargo, collecting sparsely sampled raw images with a super-resolution microscopy system, and processing the raw images to produce a high-resolution PALM image. We also demonstrate the efficacy of our approach by presenting exceptionally well-resolved images of dense-core vesicles (DCVs) in cultured hippocampal neurons, which refute the hypothesis that extrasynaptic trafficking of DCVs is mediated largely by DCV clusters.

We describe how to implement photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM)-based studies of vesicles in fixed, cultured neurons. Key components of our protocol include labeling vesicles with photoconvertible chimeras, collecting sparsely sampled raw images with a super-resolution microscopy system, and processing the raw images to produce a super-resolution image.

신경 밀도 코어 소체의 수퍼 - 해상도 이미징

Detection of fluorescence provides the foundation for many widely utilized and rapidly advancing microscopy techniques employed in modern biological and ...

High-resolution In Vivo Manual Segmentation Protocol for Human Hippocampal Subfields Using 3T Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The human hippocampus has been broadly studied in the context of memory and normal brain function and its role in different neuropsychiatric disorders has been heavily studied. While many imaging studies treat the hippocampus as a single unitary neuroanatomical structure, it is, in fact, composed of several subfields that have a complex three-dimensional geometry. As such, it is known that these subfields perform specialized functions and are differentially affected through the course of different disease states. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging can be used as a powerful tool to interrogate the morphology of the hippocampus and its subfields. Many groups use advanced imaging software and hardware (&#62;3T) to image the subfields; however this type of technology may not be readily available in most research and clinical imaging centers. To address this need, this manuscript provides a detailed step-by-step protocol for segmenting the full anterior-posterior length of the hippocampus and its subfields: cornu ammonis (CA) 1, CA2/CA3, CA4/dentate gyrus (DG), strata radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare (SR/SL/SM), and subiculum. This protocol has been applied to five subjects (3F, 2M; age 29-57, avg. 37). Protocol reliability is assessed by resegmenting either the right or left hippocampus of each subject and computing the overlap using the Dice&#39;s kappa metric. Mean Dice&#39;s kappa (range) across the five subjects are: whole hippocampus, 0.91 (0.90-0.92); CA1, 0.78 (0.77-0.79); CA2/CA3, 0.64 (0.56-0.73); CA4/dentate gyrus, 0.83 (0.81-0.85); strata radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare, 0.71 (0.68-0.73); and subiculum 0.75 (0.72-0.78). The segmentation protocol presented here provides other laboratories with a reliable method to study the hippocampus and hippocampal subfields in vivo using commonly available MR tools.

High-resolution In Vivo Manual Segmentation Protocol for Human Hippocampal Subfields Using 3T Magnetic Resonance Imaging

The goal of this manuscript is to study the hippocampus and hippocampal subfields using MRI. The manuscript describes a protocol for segmenting the hippocampus and five hippocampal substructures: cornu ammonis (CA) 1, CA2/CA3, CA4/dentate gyrus, strata radiatum/lacunosum/moleculare, and subiculum.

높은 해상도<em&gt; 생체</em&gt; 3T 자기 공명 영상을 이용하여 인간의 해마 서브 필드에 대한 수동 분할 프로토콜

The human hippocampus has been broadly studied in the context of memory and normal brain function and its role in different neuropsychiatric disorders has ...

High-resolution Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Subcortex In Vivo and Postmortem

The focus of this study was to test the resolution limits of structural MRI of a postmortem brain compared to living human brains. The resolution of structural MRI in vivo is ultimately limited by physiological noise, including pulsation, respiration and head movement. Although imaging hardware continues to improve, it is still difficult to resolve structures on the millimeter scale. For example, the primary visual sensory pathways synapse at the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), a visual relay and control nucleus in the thalamus that normally is organized into six interleaved monocular layers. Neuroimaging studies have not been able to reliably distinguish these layers due their small size that are less than 1 mm thick.
The resolving limit of structural MRI, in a postmortem brain was tested using multiple images averaged over a long duration (~24 h). The purpose was to test whether it was possible to resolve the individual layers of the LGN in the absence of physiological noise. A proton density (PD)1 weighted pulse sequence was used with varying resolution and other parameters to determine the minimum number of images necessary to be registered and averaged to reliably distinguish the LGN and other subcortical regions. The results were also compared to images acquired in living human brains. In vivo subjects were scanned in order to determine the additional effects of physiological noise on the minimum number of PD scans needed to differentiate subcortical structures, useful in clinical applications.

High-resolution Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Human Subcortex In Vivo and Postmortem

Here we present a protocol to determine the minimum number images that needed to be registered and averaged to resolve subcortical structures and test whether the individual layers of the LGN could be resolved in the absence of physiological noise.

인간 Subcortex의 고해상도 구조 자기 공명 영상<I&gt; 생체</I&gt; 및 사후

The focus of this study was to test the resolution limits of structural MRI of a postmortem brain compared to living human brains. The resolution of ...