이 작품 연구 자원 (2G12RR03060-26A1);에 대 한 국립 센터에서 교부 금에 의해 지원 되었다 소수 민족 건강과 건강 격차 (8G12MD007603-27) 건강; 국립 보건원에서 국립 연구소 뉴욕 (CUNY PSC);의 전문 직원 의회 도시 대학 그리고 교수 연구 그랜트 (FRG II) 아메리칸 대학의 샤. 우리는 이러한 방법에 우리를 도입에 대 한 Vidyasagar Sriramoju 감사 합니다.

<ol>
	<li>Nakashima, A., Dyck, R. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Zinc+and+cortical+plasticity.">Zinc and cortical plasticity.</a> Brain Res. Rev. 59, 347-373 (2009).</li><li>Frederickson, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurobiology+of+zinc+and+zinc-containing+neurons.">Neurobiology of zinc and zinc-containing neurons.</a> Int Rev Neurobiol. 31, 145-238 (1989).</li><li>Beaulieu, C., Dyck, R., Cynader, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enrichment+of+glutamate+in+zinc-containing+terminals+of+the+cat+visual+cortex.">Enrichment of glutamate in zinc-containing terminals of the cat visual cortex.</a> NeuroReport. 3 (10), 861-864 (1992).</li><li>Martinez-Guijarro, F. J., Soriano, E., Del Rio, J. A., Lopez-Garcia, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Zinc-positive+boutons+in+the+cerebral+cortex+of+lizards+show+glutamate+immunoreactivity.">Zinc-positive boutons in the cerebral cortex of lizards show glutamate immunoreactivity.</a> J Neurocytol. 20 (10), 834-843 (1991).</li><li>Dyck, R., Beaulieu, C., Cynader, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Histochemical+localization+of+synaptic+zinc+in+the+developing+cat+visual+cortex.">Histochemical localization of synaptic zinc in the developing cat visual cortex.</a> J Comp Neurol. 329 (1), 53-67 (1993).</li><li>Garrett, B., Geneser, F. A., Slomianka, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distribution+of+acetylcholinesterase+and+zinc+in+the+visual+cortex+of+the+mouse.">Distribution of acetylcholinesterase and zinc in the visual cortex of the mouse.</a> Anat Embryol. (Berl). 184 (5), 461-468 (1991).</li><li>Garrett, B., Osterballe, R., Slomianka, L., Geneser, F. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytoarchitecture+and+staining+for+acetylcholinesterase+and+zinc+in+the+visual+cortex+of+the+Parma+wallaby+(Macropus+parma).">Cytoarchitecture and staining for acetylcholinesterase and zinc in the visual cortex of the Parma wallaby (Macropus parma).</a> Brain Behav Evol. 43 (3), 162-172 (1994).</li><li>Dyck, R., Cynader, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+interdigitated+columnar+mosaic+of+cytochrome+oxidase,+zinc,+and+neurotransmitter-related+molecules+in+cat+and+monkey+visual+cortex.">An interdigitated columnar mosaic of cytochrome oxidase, zinc, and neurotransmitter-related molecules in cat and monkey visual cortex.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (90), 9066-9069 (1993).</li><li>Land, P. W., Akhtar, N. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experience-dependent+alteration+of+synaptic+zinc+in+rat+somatosensory+barrel+cortex.">Experience-dependent alteration of synaptic zinc in rat somatosensory barrel cortex.</a> Somatosens Mot Res. 16 (2), 139-150 (1999).</li><li>Danscher, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exogenous+selenium+in+the+brain:+a+histochemical+technique+for+light+and+electron+microscopic+localization+of+catalytic+selenium+bonds.">Exogenous selenium in the brain: a histochemical technique for light and electron microscopic localization of catalytic selenium bonds.</a> Histochemistry. 76, 281-293 (1982).</li><li>Danscher, G., Howell, G., Perez-Clausell, J., Hertel, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+dithizone,+Timm's+sulphide+silver+and+the+selenium+methods+demonstrate+a+chelatable+pool+of+zinc+in+CNS:+a+proton+activation+(PIXE)+analysis+of+carbon+tetrachloride+extracts+from+rat+brains+and+spinal+cords+intravitall+treated+with+dithizone.">The dithizone, Timm's sulphide silver and the selenium methods demonstrate a chelatable pool of zinc in CNS: a proton activation (PIXE) analysis of carbon tetrachloride extracts from rat brains and spinal cords intravitall treated with dithizone.</a> Histochemistry. 83, 419-422 (1985).</li><li>Gallyas, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Silver+staining+of+myelin+by+means+of+physical+development.">Silver staining of myelin by means of physical development.</a> Neurol Res. 1 (2), 203-209 (1979).</li><li>Wong-Riley, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Changes+in+the+visual+system+of+monocularly+sutured+or+enucleated+cats+demonstrable+with+cytochrome+oxidase+histochemistry.">Changes in the visual system of monocularly sutured or enucleated cats demonstrable with cytochrome oxidase histochemistry.</a> Brain Res. 171 (1), 11-28 (1979).</li><li>Mir&#243;-Berni&#233;, N., Ichinohe, N., Perez-Clausell, J., Rockland, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Zinc-rich+transient+vertical+modules+in+the+rat+retrosplenial+cortex+during+postnatal+development.">Zinc-rich transient vertical modules in the rat retrosplenial cortex during postnatal development.</a> J Neurosci. 138 (2), 523-535 (2006).</li><li>Ichinohe, N., Rockland, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distribution+of+synaptic+zinc+in+the+macaque+monkey+amygdala.">Distribution of synaptic zinc in the macaque monkey amygdala.</a> J Comp Neurol. 489 (2), 135-147 (2005).</li><li>Innocenti, G. M., Manger, P. R., Masiello, I., Colin, I., Tettoni, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Architecture+and+callosal+connections+of+visual+areas+17,+18,+19+and+21+in+the+ferret+(Mustela+putorius).">Architecture and callosal connections of visual areas 17, 18, 19 and 21 in the ferret (Mustela putorius).</a> Cereb Cortex. 12 (4), 411-422 (2002).</li><li>Khalil, R., Levitt, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Zinc+histochemistry+reveals+circuit+refinement+and+distinguishes+visual+areas+in+the+developing+ferret+cerebral+cortex.">Zinc histochemistry reveals circuit refinement and distinguishes visual areas in the developing ferret cerebral cortex.</a> Brain Struct Funct. 218, 1293-1306 (2013).</li><li>Manger, P. R., Masiello, I., Innocenti, G. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Areal+organization+of+the+posterior+parietal+cortex+of+the+ferret+(Mustela+putorius).">Areal organization of the posterior parietal cortex of the ferret (Mustela putorius).</a> Cereb Cortex. 12, 1280-1297 (2002).</li><li>Wong, P., Kaas, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Architectonic+subdivisions+of+neocortex+in+the+gray+squirrel+(Sciurus+carolinensis.).">Architectonic subdivisions of neocortex in the gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis.).</a> The anatomical record. 291, 1301-1333 (2008).</li><li>Land, P. W., Shamalla-Hannah, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experience-dependent+plasticity+of+zinc-containing+cortical+circuits+during+a+critical+period+of+postnatal+development.">Experience-dependent plasticity of zinc-containing cortical circuits during a critical period of postnatal development.</a> J Comp Neurol. 447 (1), 43-56 (2002).</li><li>Czupryn, A., Skangiel-Kramska, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distribution+of+synaptic+zinc+in+the+developing+mouse+somatosensory+barrel+cortex.">Distribution of synaptic zinc in the developing mouse somatosensory barrel cortex.</a> J Comp Neurol. 386, 652-660 (1997).</li><li>Timm, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Zur+Histochemie+der+Schwermetalle.+Das+Sulfid-Silber-Verfahren.">Zur Histochemie der Schwermetalle. Das Sulfid-Silber-Verfahren.</a> Dtsch Z ges gerichtl Med. 46, 706-711 (1958).</li></ol>

저자는 공개 없다.

현재 연구는 Danscher (1982) 방법10, 시 냅 스 아연 지역화를 감지 하 고 뇌에서 시각 수 있습니다 그것에 의하여의 수정된 된 버전에 따라 조직화 학적인 기술을 사용 합니다. 이 메서드는 기본적으로 아연 chelator 나트륨 selenite (나2서구3)를 가진 동물 (15 mg/kg)를 주입 하 여 작동 합니다. 주입, 따라는 selenite 두뇌에 여행 하 고 아연을 포함 하는 신경의 연 접 소포를 지?...

조직학 얼룩 전통적으로 건축 술 기능에 차이 공개 하 여 다양 한 종에서 대뇌 피 질의 영역 식별에서 돕기 위해 사용 되었습니다. 그들은 두뇌의 비슷한 면적 경계 공개 Nissl 물질, 시 토 크롬 산화 효소 (CO) 반응, 또는 수 초 같은 조직화 학적인 기술 사용 유익한 증명할 수 있다. 그러나, 이러한 조직화 학적인 얼룩 대뇌 피 질의 영역 및 미 성숙한 뇌에 레이어 사이의 명확한 경계를 항상 적절 하 게 공개 하지 않습니다.
중앙 신 경계, 아연에는 효소 공동 인자, 다양 한 규제 기능에 참여 하 고 시 냅 스 소포에 그것의 존재를 통해 neuromodulator 역할 역할 DNA 구조 안정화를 포함 하는 몇 가지 중요 한 기능 1. 시 냅 스 아연은 독특한 그것은 구상 될 수 있다 조직학 방법 반면 단백질 바인딩 아연 시각된2수 없습니다. 이 기능은 다른 대뇌 피 질의 영역에 시 냅 스 아연 패턴을 이용 되 고 시 냅 스 아연 histochemistry 연구의 숫자에 사용 되었습니다. 대뇌 피 질 신경 세포 glutamatergic의 하위 집합 포함 그들의 축 삭 맨끝3,4내 연 접 소포에 아연. 조직화 학적인 연구는 대뇌 피 질5,,67에서 시 냅 스 아연의 다른 유형의 분포를 계시 했다. 다른 대뇌 피 질의 영역 (예를 들어, 시각적 somatosensory 피 대), 또는 레이어 histochemically 반응 아연의 다른 영역 및 층 류 분포 나타납니다 (예를 들어,는 supragranular에 있는 아연 수준 및 기본 시각 피 질 infragranular 레이어는 상대적으로 낮은 시 냅 스 아연 레벨 thalamocortical 입력 계층 4 보다 실질적으로 더 높은)5,,89. 면적 및 층 류 식별을 용이 하 게 하는으로 시 냅 스 아연 피 질에 얼룩에 특히 유리 하다.
여기 우리는 Danscher의 1982 메서드10의 수정된 된 버전은 시 냅 스 아연 조직화 학적인 절차에 대 한 자세한 설명을 제시. 이 메서드는 chelating 에이전트로 동물에 selenite intraperitoneally 주입 (IP)를 사용합니다. selenite 두뇌 glutamatergic 시 냅 스의 부분 집합의 소포에 있는 자유로운 아연의 수영장으로 반응 하는 뇌에 여행. 이 반응은 실버 개발2,,1011이후 강화 될 수 있다 침전을 생성 합니다.
이 절차 시 냅 스 아연 얼룩;의 층 류 영역 패턴을 보여준다 densitometric 분석은 성인과 미 성숙한 뇌의 감각, 환경, 약물, 또는 유전자 조작 같은 다른 개입의 효과 연구에서 이러한 패턴을 질적 및 양적 평가를 사용할 수 있습니다. 또한, 하나 또한 다른 모델 시스템에 다른 피 질 또는 subcortical 구조에서 시 냅 스 아연의 분포에 잠재적인 발달 변화를 평가 하 고 있습니다. Densitometric 분석이 메서드에서 제공 하는 양적 정보는 시간이 지남에 따라 다음 두뇌 개발을 위한 유리한 될 수 있습니다. 이 프로토콜을 다른 면역-조직화 학적인 마커 동반자를 층 류 및 영역 경계를 표시를 제공 합니다.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Euthasol (Euthanasia solution)</td>
			<td>Henry Schein</td>
			<td>710101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium selenite</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>214485</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine (Ketaved)</td>
			<td>Henry Schein</td>
			<td>48858</td>
			<td>100 mg/ml injectables</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylazine (Anased)</td>
			<td>Henry Schein</td>
			<td>33198</td>
			<td>100 mg/ml injectables</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>F8775</td>
			<td>Dilute to 4%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gum arabic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G9752-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Citric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C1909</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium citrate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>W302600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydroquinone</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H9003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silver lactate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>85210</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fish gelatine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G7765</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytochrome c</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C2506</td>
			<td>(Type III, from equine heart)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Catalse</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Domino</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>X5P-1GAL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Permount</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>SP15-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% Ethanol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A406-20</td>
			<td>Used for dehydration prior to slide mounting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslips</td>
			<td>Brain Research Laboratories</td>
			<td>#3660-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Frosted unsubbed slides</td>
			<td>Brain Research Laboratories</td>
			<td>#3875-FR</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome</td>
			<td>American Optical Company</td>
			<td>860</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>BX-60</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adope Photoshop</td>
			<td>Adobe Systems, San Jose, CA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To assemble images</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>Free software can be downloaded at http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For densometric measurements</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic tray</td>
			<td>Any standard plastic tray may be used</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>to immerse slides in developer solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot plate</td>
			<td>Any standard hotplate may be used</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

use of synaptic zinc histochemistry to reveal different regions and laminae in the developing and adult brain

해 부 학적 및 기능적 뇌 조직 및 개발의 고유한 신경 회로 지역 미 숙 하 고 성인 두뇌의 정확한 식별을 필요합니다. 여기는 다른 레이어 및 두뇌 영역 중에서 얼룩 패턴에 차이 밝혀 아연 조직화 학적인 얼룩 절차에 설명 합니다. 다른 사람을 아연 포함 된 신경 및 두뇌에서 회로의 분포 뿐만 아니라 성공적으로 여러 종에서 개발 및 성인 두뇌에 있는 영역 및 박판 모양 경계 윤곽을 그리 다이 절차를 활용 했습니다. 여기 우리가 설명이 절차 개발에서 이미지와 함께 얼룩 및 성인 흰 족제비 두뇌. 우리는 아연 얼룩 패턴 영역과 레이어의 해 부 감 적 역할을 계시 하 고 개발 및 성인 시각 피 질에서 시각 피 질 영역을 구별 하 안정적으로 사용할 수 있습니다. 이 프로토콜의 주요 목표는 레이어 및 지역 개발 및 성인 두뇌 그렇게 할 다른 방법이 실패 하는 곳에서 정확한 식별 수 있도록 조직화 학적인 방법을 제시 하는. Secondarily, densitometric 이미지 분석 함께,이 방법을 하나 수 있습니다 개발을 통해 잠재적인 변화를 공개 시 냅 스 아연의 분포를 평가 하. 시 약, 도구, 및 연속적으로 냉동된 뇌 섹션 얼룩 필요한 단계가이 프로토콜은 자세하게에서 설명 합니다. 하지만이 프로토콜 사용 하 여 흰 족제비 뇌 조직의 설명, 그것은 쉽게 설치류, 고양이, 또는 다른 뇌 영역에서 뿐만 아니라 원숭이에 사용 하기 위해 적용할 수 있습니다.

뇌 시 냅 스 아연에 대 한 섹션을 얼룩이 프로토콜에 관련 된 주요 단계는 그림 1의 순서도에 표시 됩니다. 프로토콜은 3 단계로 분할 될 수 있다: 1) 관류 및 조직 수집, 2) 조직 준비와 얼룩, 및 3) 아연 histochemistry. 간단히, 프로토콜의 첫 번째 단계 동물 마 취는 고 나트륨 selenite의 적절 한 복용량과 함께 IP를 주입. 기간 후에 충분 한 시간 (이상적으로 6...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Use of Synaptic Zinc Histochemistry to Reveal Different Regions and Laminae in the Developing and Adult Brain at JoVE.com

Use of Synaptic Zinc Histochemistry to Reveal Different Regions and Laminae in the Developing and Adult Brain

시 냅 스 아연 Histochemistry 다른 지역과 개발 및 성인 두뇌에서 하기의 사용

우리는 서로 다른 뇌 영역에 패턴을 얼룩이 지기 특성 박판 모양 및 면적 아연을 조직화 학적인 절차를 설명 합니다. 아연 얼룩 패턴 함께에서 다른 해 부 마커와 레이어 및 지역 개발 및 성인 두뇌에서 안정적으로 구별 하 사용할 수 있습니다.

Characterization of anatomical and functional brain organization and development requires accurate identification of distinct neural circuits and regions ...

use-synaptic-zinc-histochemistry-to-reveal-different-regions-laminae

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

7.1K 조회수.  American University of Sharjah. 우리는 서로 다른 뇌 영역에 패턴을 얼룩이 지기 특성 박판 모양 및 면적 아연을 조직화 학적인 절차를 설명 합니다. 아연 얼룩 패턴 함께에서 다른 해 부 마커와 레이어 및 지역 개발 및 성인 두뇌에서 안정적으로 구별 하 사용할 수 있습니다.

비디오: Use of Synaptic Zinc Histochemistry to Reveal Different Regions and Laminae in the Developing and Adult Brain

Monitoring Changes in the Intracellular Calcium Concentration and Synaptic Efficacy in the Mollusc Aplysia

It has been suggested that changes in intracellular calcium mediate the induction of a number of important forms of synaptic plasticity (e.g., homosynaptic facilitation) 1. These hypotheses can be tested by simultaneously monitoring changes in intracellular calcium and alterations in synaptic efficacy. We demonstrate how this can be accomplished by combining calcium imaging with intracellular recording techniques. Our experiments are conducted in a buccal ganglion of the mollusc Aplysia californica. This preparation has a number of experimentally advantageous features: Ganglia can be easily removed from Aplysia and experiments use adult neurons that make normal synaptic connections and have a normal ion channel distribution. Due to the low metabolic rate of the animal and the relatively low temperatures (14-16 &deg;C) that are natural for Aplysia, preparations are stable for long periods of time. 
To detect changes in intracellular free calcium we will use the cell impermeant version of Calcium Orange 2 which is easily 'loaded' into a neuron via iontophoresis. When this long wavelength fluorescent dye binds to calcium, fluorescence intensity increases. Calcium Orange has fast kinetic properties 3 and, unlike ratiometric dyes (e.g., Fura 2), requires no filter wheel for imaging. It is fairly photo stable and less phototoxic than other dyes (e.g., fluo-3) 2,4. Like all non-ratiometric dyes, Calcium Orange indicates relative changes in calcium concentration. But, because it is not possible to account for changes in dye concentration due to loading and diffusion, it can not be calibrated to provide absolute calcium concentrations. 
An upright, fixed stage, compound microscope was used to image neurons with a CCD camera capable of recording around 30 frames per second. In Aplysia this temporal resolution is more than adequate to detect even a single spike induced alteration in the intracellular calcium concentration. Sharp electrodes are simultaneously used to induce and record synaptic transmission in identified pre- and postsynaptic neurons. At the conclusion of each trial, a custom script combines electrophysiology and imaging data. To ensure proper synchronization we use a light pulse from a LED mounted in the camera port of the microscope. Manipulation of presynaptic calcium levels (e.g. via intracellular EGTA injection) allows us to test specific hypotheses, concerning the role of intracellular calcium in mediating various forms of plasticity.

Monitoring Changes in the Intracellular Calcium Concentration and Synaptic Efficacy in the Mollusc Aplysia

We demonstrate how changes in the intracellular free calcium concentration and synaptic efficacy can be simultaneously monitored in a ganglion preparation of Aplysia. We image intracellular calcium using a fluorescent dye, Calcium Orange, and induce and monitor synaptic transmission with sharp (intracellular) electrodes.

연체 동물에서 세포 내 칼슘 농도와 시냅틱 효능의 모니터링 변경<em&gt; Aplysia</em

It has been suggested that changes in intracellular calcium mediate the induction of a number of important forms of synaptic plasticity (e.g., ...

연구

신경과학

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

글루타민산 염과 GABA의 빠른 마이크로 이온 도입 : 시냅틱 통합을 조사하는 유용한 도구

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

Growing Neural Stem Cells from Conventional and Nonconventional Regions of the Adult Rodent Brain

Recent work demonstrates that central nervous system (CNS) regeneration and tumorigenesis involves populations of stem cells (SCs) resident within the adult brain. However, the mechanisms these normally quiescent cells employ to ensure proper functioning of neural networks, as well as their role in recovery from injury and mitigation of neurodegenerative processes are little understood. These cells reside in regions referred to as &#34;niches&#34; that provide a sustaining environment involving modulatory signals from both the vascular and immune systems. The isolation, maintenance, and differentiation of CNS SCs under defined culture conditions which exclude unknown factors, makes them accessible to treatment by pharmacological or genetic means, thus providing insight into their in vivo behavior. Here we offer detailed information on the methods for generating cultures of CNS SCs from distinct regions of the adult brain and approaches to assess their differentiation potential into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes in vitro. This technique yields a homogeneous cell population as a monolayer culture that can be visualized to study individual SCs and their progeny. Furthermore, it can be applied across different animal model systems and clinical samples, being used previously to predict regenerative responses in the damaged adult nervous system.

Neural stem cells harvested from the adult brain are increasing utilized in applications ranging from the basic research of nervous system development to exploring potential clinical applications in regenerative medicine. This makes rigorous control in the isolation and culturing conditions used to grow these cells critical to sound experimental outcomes.

성인 쥐의 뇌의 기존 및 비 인습적 인 지역에서 신경 줄기 세포 성장

Recent work demonstrates that central nervous system (CNS) regeneration and tumorigenesis involves populations of stem cells (SCs) resident within the ...

Live Imaging of Mitosis in the Developing Mouse Embryonic Cortex

Although of short duration, mitosis is a complex and dynamic multi-step process fundamental for development of organs including the brain. In the developing cerebral cortex, abnormal mitosis of neural progenitors can cause defects in brain size and function. Hence, there is a critical need for tools to understand the mechanisms of neural progenitor mitosis. Cortical development in rodents is an outstanding model for studying this process. Neural progenitor mitosis is commonly examined in fixed brain sections. This protocol will describe in detail an approach for live imaging of mitosis in ex vivo embryonic brain slices. We will describe the critical steps for this procedure, which include: brain extraction, brain embedding, vibratome sectioning of brain slices, staining and culturing of slices, and time-lapse imaging. We will then demonstrate and describe in detail how to perform post-acquisition analysis of mitosis. We include representative results from this assay using the vital dye Syto11, transgenic mice (histone H2B-EGFP and centrin-EGFP), and in utero electroporation (mCherry-&#945;-tubulin). We will discuss how this procedure can be best optimized and how it can be modified for study of genetic regulation of mitosis. Live imaging of mitosis in brain slices is a flexible approach to assess the impact of age, anatomy, and genetic perturbation in a controlled environment, and to generate a large amount of data with high temporal and spatial resolution. Hence this protocol will complement existing tools for analysis of neural progenitor mitosis.

Neural progenitor mitosis is a critical parameter of neurogenesis. Much of our understanding of neural progenitor mitosis is based on analysis of fixed tissue. Live imaging in embryonic brain slices is a versatile technique to assess mitosis with high temporal and spatial resolution in a controlled environment.

개발 마우스 배아의 피질 유사 분열의 라이브 영상

Although of short duration, mitosis is a complex and dynamic multi-step process fundamental for development of organs including the brain. In the ...

High Resolution Quantitative Synaptic Proteome Profiling of Mouse Brain Regions After Auditory Discrimination Learning

The molecular synaptic mechanisms underlying auditory learning and memory remain largely unknown. Here, the workflow of a proteomic study on auditory discrimination learning in mice is described. In this learning paradigm, mice are trained in a shuttle box Go/NoGo-task to discriminate between rising and falling frequency-modulated tones in order to avoid a mild electric foot-shock. The protocol involves the enrichment of synaptosomes from four brain areas, namely the auditory cortex, frontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum, at different stages of training. Synaptic protein expression patterns obtained from trained mice are compared to na&#239;ve controls using a proteomic approach. To achieve sufficient analytical depth, samples are fractionated in three different ways prior to mass spectrometry, namely 1D SDS-PAGE/in-gel digestion, in-solution digestion and phospho-peptide enrichment. 
High-resolution proteomic analysis on a mass spectrometer and label-free quantification are used to examine synaptic protein profiles in phospho-peptide-depleted and phospho-peptide-enriched fractions of synaptosomal protein samples. A commercial software package is utilized to reveal proteins and phospho-peptides with significantly regulated relative synaptic abundance levels (trained/na&#239;ve controls). Common and differential regulation modes for the synaptic proteome in the investigated brain regions of mice after training were observed. Subsequently, meta-analyses utilizing several databases are employed to identify underlying cellular functions and biological pathways.

The identification of molecules and pathways controlling synaptic plasticity and memory is still a major challenge in neuroscience. Here, a workflow is described addressing the relative quantification of synaptic proteins supposedly involved in the molecular reorganization of synapses during learning and memory consolidation in an auditory learning paradigm.

청각 차별 학습 한 후 마우스 뇌 영역의 높은 해상도 양적 시냅틱 프로테옴 프로파일

The molecular synaptic mechanisms underlying auditory learning and memory remain largely unknown. Here, the workflow of a proteomic study on auditory ...

Recording Synaptic Plasticity in Acute Hippocampal Slices Maintained in a Small-volume Recycling-, Perfusion-, and Submersion-type Chamber System

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful analysis of synaptic transmission modulation when performing field potential or intracellular recordings. This manuscript describes methodological aspects that might be helpful in improving experimental conditions for the maintenance of acute brain slices and for recording field excitatory postsynaptic potentials in a commercially available submersion chamber with an outflow-carbogenation unit. The outflow-carbogenation helps to stabilize the oxygen level in experiments that rely on the recycling of a small buffer reservoir to enhance the cost-efficiency of drug experiments. In addition, the manuscript presents representative experiments that examine the effects of different carbogenation modes and stimulation paradigms on the activity-dependent synaptic plasticity of synaptic transmission.

This protocol describes the stabilization of the oxygen level in a small volume of recycled buffer and methodological aspects of recording activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in submerged acute hippocampal slices.

급성 Hippocampal 조각에 작은 볼륨 재활용-, 관류-침수 형 챔버 시스템 유지에 시 냅 스가 소성을 기록

Even though experiments on brain slices have been in use since 1951, problems remain that reduce the probability of achieving a stable and successful ...

Exploring Deep Space - Uncovering the Anatomy of Periventricular Structures to Reveal the Lateral Ventricles of the Human Brain

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this challenging. Because the ventricles are negative spaces located deep within the brain, the only way to understand their anatomy is by appreciating their boundaries formed by related structures. Looking at a 2D representation of these spaces, in any of the cardinal planes, will not enable visualisation of all of the structures that form the boundaries of the ventricles. Thus, using 2D sections alone requires students to compute their own mental image of the 3D ventricular spaces. The aim of this study was to develop a reproducible method for dissecting the human brain to create an educational resource to enhance student understanding of the intricate relationships between the ventricles and periventricular structures. To achieve this, we created a video resource that features a step-by-step guide using a fiber dissection method to reveal the lateral and third ventricles together with the closely related limbic system and basal ganglia structures. One of the advantages of this method is that it enables delineation of the white matter tracts that are difficult to distinguish using other dissection techniques. This video is accompanied by a written protocol that provides a systematic description of the process to aid in the reproduction of the brain dissection. This package offers a valuable anatomy teaching resource for educators and students alike. By following these instructions educators can create teaching resources and students can be guided to produce their own brain dissection as a hands-on practical activity. We recommend that this video guide be incorporated into neuroanatomy teaching to enhance student understanding of the morphology and clinical relevance of the ventricles.

This paper demonstrates the effective use of a fiber dissection method to reveal the superficial white matter tracts and periventricular structures of the human brain, in three-dimensional space, to aid student comprehension of ventricular morphology.

깊은 공간-인간 두뇌의 측면 심 공개 뇌 구조 해부학 적 탐구

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this ...

Combining Optogenetics with Artificial microRNAs to Characterize the Effects of Gene Knockdown on Presynaptic Function within Intact Neuronal Circuits

The purpose of this protocol is to characterize the effect of gene knockdown on presynaptic function within intact neuronal circuits. We describe a workflow on how to combine artificial microRNA (miR)-mediated RNA interference with optogenetics to achieve selective stimulation of manipulated presynaptic boutons in acute brain slices. The experimental approach involves the use of a single viral construct and a single neuron-specific promoter to drive the expression of both an optogenetic probe and artificial miR(s) against presynaptic gene(s). When stereotactically injected in the brain region of interest, the expressed construct makes it possible to stimulate with light exclusively the neurons with reduced expression of the gene(s) under investigation. This strategy does not require the development and maintenance of genetically modified mouse lines and can in principle be applied to other organisms and to any neuronal gene of choice. We have recently applied it to investigate how the knockdown of alternative splice isoforms of presynaptic P/Q-type voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs) regulates short-term synaptic plasticity at CA3 to CA1 excitatory synapses in acute hippocampal slices. A similar approach could also be used to manipulate and probe the neuronal circuitry in vivo.

This protocol provides a workflow on how to combine artificial microRNA-mediated RNA interference with optogenetics to stimulate specifically presynaptic boutons with reduced expression of selective gene(s) within intact neuronal circuits.

연 접 기능 그대로 신경 회로 내에 유전자 최저 효과 특성 인공 microRNAs Optogenetics 결합

The purpose of this protocol is to characterize the effect of gene knockdown on presynaptic function within intact neuronal circuits. We describe a ...

Quantifying the Heterogeneous Distribution of a Synaptic Protein in the Mouse Brain Using Immunofluorescence

The presence, absence, or levels of specific synaptic proteins can severely influence synaptic transmission. In addition to elucidating the function of a protein, it is vital to also determine its distribution. Here, we describe a protocol employing immunofluorescence, confocal microscopy, and computer-based analysis to determine the distribution of the synaptic protein Mover (also called TPRGL or SVAP30). We compare the distribution of Mover to that of the synaptic vesicle protein synaptophysin, thereby determining the distribution of Mover in a quantitative manner relative to the abundance of synaptic vesicles. Notably, this method could potentially be implemented to allow for comparison of the distribution of proteins using different antibodies or microscopes or across different studies. Our method circumvents the inherent variability of immunofluorescent stainings by yielding a ratio rather than absolute fluorescence levels. Additionally, the method we describe enables the researcher to analyze the distribution of a protein on different levels: from whole brain slices to brain regions to different subregions in one brain area, such as the different layers of the hippocampus or sensory cortices. Mover is a vertebrate-specific protein that is associated with synaptic vesicles. With this method, we show that Mover is heterogeneously distributed across brain areas, with high levels in the ventral pallidum, the septal nuclei, and the amygdala, and also within single brain areas, such as the different layers of the hippocampus.

Here, we describe a quantitative approach to determining the distribution of a synaptic protein relative to a marker protein using immunofluorescence staining, confocal microscopy, and computer-based analysis.

면역 형광 검사를 사용 하 여 마우스 뇌의 시 냅 스 단백질의 다른 유형의 분포를 측정

The presence, absence, or levels of specific synaptic proteins can severely influence synaptic transmission. In addition to elucidating the function of a ...

Non-Invasive Modulation and Robotic Mapping of Motor Cortex in the Developing Brain

Mapping the motor cortex with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has potential to interrogate motor cortex physiology and plasticity but carries unique challenges in children. Similarly, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can improve motor learning in adults but has only recently been applied to children. The use of tDCS and emerging techniques like high&#8211;definition tDCS (HD-tDCS) require special methodological considerations in the developing brain. Robotic TMS motor mapping may confer unique advantages for mapping, particularly in the developing brain. Here, we aim to provide a practical, standardized approach for two integrated methods capable of simultaneously exploring motor cortex modulation and motor maps in children. First, we describe a protocol for robotic TMS motor mapping. Individualized, MRI-navigated 12x12 grids centered on the motor cortex guide a robot to administer single-pulse TMS. Mean motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes per grid point are used to generate 3D motor maps of individual hand muscles with outcomes including map area, volume, and center of gravity. Tools to measure safety and tolerability of both methods are also included. Second, we describe the application of both tDCS and HD-tDCS to modulate the motor cortex and motor learning. An experimental training paradigm and sample results are described. These methods will advance the application of non-invasive brain stimulation in children.

We demonstrate protocols for the modulation (tDCS, HD-tDCS) and mapping (robotic TMS) of the motor cortex in children.

개발 뇌에서 모터 피질의 비 침습적 변조 및 로봇 매핑

Mapping the motor cortex with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has potential to interrogate motor cortex physiology and plasticity but carries ...