Name: intermediate strain rate material characterization with digital image correlation
Uploaded: 2019-03-01T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intermediate Strain Rate Material Characterization with Digital Image Correlation at JoVE.com

The authors acknowledge the great assistance from Dmitrii Klishch, Michel Delannoy, Tyler Musclow, Fraser Kirby, Joshua Ilse and Alex Naftel. Financial support by the National Research Council Canada (NRC) through the Security Materials Technology (SMT) Program is also appreciated.

1. Specimen preparation
<ol>
	<li>Prepare dog bone shaped tensile specimens according to ISO standard6 in advance. 
	NOTE: Similar specimens are also used4.</li>
	<li>Install strain gauges on the tab section (mandatory for load measurement) and on the gauge section (optional for strain measurement) of the tensile specimen.
	<ol>
		<li>Select the proper model of strain gauge based on the size, maximum extension, testing temperature, electrical resistance, etc.<sup cla...

<ol>
	<li>Xiao, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+tensile+testing+of+plastic+materials.">Dynamic tensile testing of plastic materials.</a> Polymer Testing. 27 (2), 164-178 (2008).</li><li>Nemat-Nasser, S., Isaacs, J. B., Starrett, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hopkinson+techniques+for+dynamic+recovery+experiments.">Hopkinson techniques for dynamic recovery experiments.</a> Proceedings of Royal Society of London A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences. 435 (1894), 371-391 (1991).</li><li>Bruce, D., Matlock, D., Speer, J., De, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+the+strain-rate+dependent+tensile+properties+of+automotive+sheet+steels.">Assessment of the strain-rate dependent tensile properties of automotive sheet steels.</a> SAE World Congress. , (2004).</li><li>Rahmat, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+mechanical+characterization+of+aluminum:+analysis+of+strain-rate-dependent+behavior.">Dynamic mechanical characterization of aluminum: analysis of strain-rate-dependent behavior.</a> Mechanics Time-Dependent Materials. , (2018).</li><li>Gray, G., Blumenthal, W. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Split-Hopkinson pressure bar testing of soft materials. 8, 1093-1114 (2000).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> ISO 26203-2:2011; Metallic materials-Tensile testing at high strain rates-Part 2: Servo-hydraulic and other test systems. , 15 (2011).</li><li>Rahmat, M., Naftel, A., Ashrafi, B., Jakubinek, M. B., Martinez-Rubi, Y., Simard, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+Mechanical+Characterization+of+Boron+Nitride+Nanotube+-+Epoxy+Nanocomposites.">Dynamic Mechanical Characterization of Boron Nitride Nanotube - Epoxy Nanocomposites.</a> Polymer Composites. , (2018).</li><li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SAE,+High+strain+rate+testing+of+polymers.">SAE, High strain rate testing of polymers.</a> SAE International. , 27 (2008).</li><li>Wang, Y., Xu, H., Erdman, D. L., Starbuck, M. J., Simunovic, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+high-strain+rate+mechanical+behavior+of+AZ31+magnesium+alloy+using+3D+digital+image+correlation.">Characterization of high-strain rate mechanical behavior of AZ31 magnesium alloy using 3D digital image correlation.</a> Advanced Engineering Materials. 13 (10), 943-948 (2011).</li><li>Mansilla, R. A., Garc&#237;a, D., Negro, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+tensile+testing+for+determining+the+stress-strain+curve+at+different+strain+rate.">Dynamic tensile testing for determining the stress-strain curve at different strain rate.</a> 6th International Conference on Mechanical and Physical Behaviour of Materials Under Dynamic Loading. 10 (9), 695-700 (2000).</li><li>Zhu, D., Mobasher, B., Rajan, S. D., Peralta, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+Dynamic+Tensile+Testing+Using+Aluminum+Alloy+6061-T6+at+Intermediate+Strain+Rates.">Characterization of Dynamic Tensile Testing Using Aluminum Alloy 6061-T6 at Intermediate Strain Rates.</a> Journal of Engineering Mechanics. 137 (10), 669-679 (2011).</li><li>Schossig, M., Bieroegel, C., Grellmann, W., Bardenheier, R., Mecklenburg, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+strain+rate+on+mechanical+properties+of+reinforced+polyolefins.">Effect of strain rate on mechanical properties of reinforced polyolefins.</a> 16th European Conference of Fracture. , 507-508 (2006).</li><li>Xia, Y., Zhu, J., Wang, K., Zhou, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+and+verification+of+a+strain+gauge-based+load+sensor+for+medium-speed+dynamic+tests+with+a+hydraulic+test+machine.">Design and verification of a strain gauge-based load sensor for medium-speed dynamic tests with a hydraulic test machine.</a> International Journal of Impact Engineering. 88, 139-152 (2016).</li><li>Yang, X., Hector, L. G., Wang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Combined+Theoretical/Experimental+Approach+for+Reducing+Ringing+Artifacts+in+Low+Dynamic+Testing+with+Servo-hydraulic+Load+Frames.">A Combined Theoretical/Experimental Approach for Reducing Ringing Artifacts in Low Dynamic Testing with Servo-hydraulic Load Frames.</a> Experimental Mechanics. 54 (5), 775-789 (2014).</li><li>Xia, Y., Zhu, J., Zhou, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Verification+of+a+multiple-machine+program+for+material+testing+from+quasi-static+to+high+strain-rate.">Verification of a multiple-machine program for material testing from quasi-static to high strain-rate.</a> International Journal of Impact Engineering. 86, 284-294 (2015).</li><li>Yan, B., Kuriyama, Y., Uenishi, A., Cornette, D., Borsutzki, M., Wong, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recommended+Practice+for+Dynamic+Testing+for+Sheet+Steels+-+Development+and+Round+Robin+Tests.">Recommended Practice for Dynamic Testing for Sheet Steels - Development and Round Robin Tests.</a> SAE International. , (2006).</li><li>Borsutzki, M., Cornette, D., Kuriyama, Y., Uenishi, A., Yan, B., Opbroek, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recommendations+for+Dynamic+Tensile+Testing+of+Sheet+Steels.">Recommendations for Dynamic Tensile Testing of Sheet Steels.</a> International Iron and Steel Institute. , (2005).</li><li>Rusinek, A., Cheriguene, R., B&#228;umer, A., Klepaczko, J. R., Larour, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+behaviour+of+high-strength+sheet+steel+in+dynamic+tension:+Experimental+and+numerical+analyses.">Dynamic behaviour of high-strength sheet steel in dynamic tension: Experimental and numerical analyses.</a> The Journal of Strain Analysis for Engineering Design. 43 (1), 37-53 (2008).</li><li>Diot, S., Guines, D., Gavrus, A., Ragneau, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-step+procedure+for+identification+of+metal+behavior+from+dynamic+compression+tests.">Two-step procedure for identification of metal behavior from dynamic compression tests.</a> International Journal of Impact Engineering. 34 (7), 1163-1184 (2007).</li><li>LeBlanc, M. M., Lassila, D. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+hybrid+Technique+for+compression+testing+at+intermediate+strain+rates.">A hybrid Technique for compression testing at intermediate strain rates.</a> Experimental Techniques. 20 (5), 21-24 (1996).</li><li>Xiao, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+dynamic+tensile+testing.">Analysis of dynamic tensile testing.</a> 11th International Congress and Exhibition on Experimental and Applied Mechanics. , (2008).</li><li>Othman, R., Gu&#233;gan, P., Challita, G., Pasco, F., LeBreton, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+modified+servo-hydraulic+machine+for+testing+at+intermediate+strain+rates.">A modified servo-hydraulic machine for testing at intermediate strain rates.</a> International Journal of Impact Engineering. 36 (3), 460-467 (2009).</li><li>Kwon, J. B., Huh, H., Ahn, C. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+technique+for+reducing+the+load+ringing+phenomenon+in+tensile+tests+at+high+strain+rates.">An improved technique for reducing the load ringing phenomenon in tensile tests at high strain rates.</a> Annual Conference and Exposition on Experimental and Applied Mechanics. Costa Mesa, United States. , (2016).</li><li>Pan, W., Schmidt, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strain+rate+effect+in+material+testing+of+bulk+adhesive.">Strain rate effect in material testing of bulk adhesive.</a> 9th International Conference on Structures Under Shock and Impact. 87, 107-116 (2006).</li><li>Zhang, D. N., Shangguan, Q. Q., Xie, C. J., Liu, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+modified+Johnson-Cook+model+of+dynamic+tensile+behaviors+for+7075-T6+aluminum+alloy.">A modified Johnson-Cook model of dynamic tensile behaviors for 7075-T6 aluminum alloy.</a> Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 619, 186-194 (2015).</li><li>Fitoussi, J., Meraghni, F., Jendli, Z., Hug, G., Baptiste, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+methodology+for+high+strain-rates+tensile+behaviour+analysis+of+polymer+matrix+composites.">Experimental methodology for high strain-rates tensile behaviour analysis of polymer matrix composites.</a> Composites Science and Technology. 65 (14), 2174-2188 (2005).</li></ol>

The raw data obtained from the experiment is influenced by the specimen geometry and strain gauges location on the specimen. The load data in low strain rate dynamic tests acquired by a piezo-electric load washer incorporated into the load frame at higher strain rates (Bruce et al.3 suggested &#62; 10/s, while for Wang et al.9 reported this limit to be 100/s) typically suffer from large amplitude oscillations due to dynamic waves associated with the loadin...

Most materials demonstrate some degree of strain rate dependency in their mechanical behavior1 and, therefore, mechanical testing conducted only at quasistatic strain rates is not suitable to determine the material properties for dynamic applications. The strain rate dependency of materials is typically investigated using five types of mechanical testing systems: conventional screw drive load frames, servo-hydraulic systems, high-rate servo-hydraulic systems, impact testers, and Hopkinson bar systems1. Split Hopkinson bars have been a common facility for the dynamic characterization of materials for the past 50 years2. There have also been efforts to modify Hopkinson bars to test at intermediate and lower strain rates. However, these facilities are typically more suitable for the high strain rate characterizations of the material (i.e., usually greater than 200/s). There is a gap in the literature on the strain rate characterization of material properties at intermediate strain rates in the range of 10&#8722;200/s (i.e., between quasistatic and high strain rate results obtained from split Hopkinson bars3), which is due to the limited access to facilities and a lack of reliable procedures of intermediate strain rate material testing.
A high-speed servo-hydraulic load frame applies load to the specimen at a constant and predefined velocity. These load frames benefit from a slack adaptor, which, in tensile tests, allows the crosshead to reach the desired velocity before the loading starts. The slack adaptor allows the head to travel a certain distance (e.g., 0.1 m) to reach the target velocity and then starts applying the load to the specimen. High-speed servo-hydraulic load frames typically perform tests under displacement control mode and maintain a constant actuator velocity to produce constant engineering strain rates3.
Techniques for measuring specimen elongation are generally classified as either contact or noncontact techniques4. Contact techniques include the use of instruments such as clip-on extensometers, while laser extensometers are employed for noncontact measurements. Since contact extensometers are prone to inertia influences, they are not suitable for dynamic tests; noncontact extensometers do not suffer from this problem.
Digital image correlation (DIC) is an optical, non-contact, full-field strain measurement technique, which is an alternative approach to strain gauging to measure strain/load and overcome some of the challenges (e.g., the ringing phenomenon) associated with dynamic material characterization5. Resistance strain gauges can suffer from limitations such as a limited area of measurement, a limited range of elongation, and limited mounting methods, whereas DIC is always capable of providing a full-field strain measurement from the specimen surface during the experiment.
The presented procedure describes the use of a high-speed servo-hydraulic load frame along with DIC and can be used as a complementary document to the recently developed standard guidelines6 to clarify the details of the experimental procedure. The section on the servo-hydraulic load frame can be followed for a variety of test setups (e.g., tensile, compressive, and shear) and even with common quasistatic load frames as well, and, therefore, covers a vast range of facilities. Furthermore, the DIC section may be applied separately to any type of mechanical or thermal tests, with minor modifications.

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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:280px;">Camera Lens</td>
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			<td style="width:167px;">Telecentric lens 23-64</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:280px;">High Speed Camera&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:183px;">SAX Photron Fastcam&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:175px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:280px;">High Speed DAQ&#160;</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:280px;">High Speed Servo-Hydraulic Load Frame</td>
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			<td style="width:167px;">&#160;15&#176; diffusers&#160;</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:280px;">Strain gauge</td>
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intermediate strain rate material characterization with digital image correlation

The mechanical response of a material under dynamic load is typically different than its behavior under static conditions; therefore, the common quasistatic equipment and procedures used for material characterization are not applicable for materials under dynamic loads. The dynamic response of a material depends on its deformation rate and is broadly categorized into high (i.e., greater than 200/s), intermediate (i.e., 10&#8722;200/s) and low strain rate regimes (i.e., below 10/s). Each of these regimes calls for specific facilities and testing protocols to ensure the reliability of the acquired data. Due to the limited access to high-speed servo-hydraulic facilities and validated testing protocols, there is a noticeable gap in the results at the intermediate strain rate. The current manuscript presents a validated protocol for the characterization of different materials at these intermediate strain rates. Strain gauge instrumentation and digital image correlation protocols are also included as complimentary modules to extract the utmost level of detailed data from every single test. Examples of raw data, obtained from a variety of materials and test setups (e.g., tensile and shear) is presented and the analysis procedure used to process the output data is described. Finally, the challenges of dynamic characterization using the current protocol, along with the limitations of the facility and methods of overcoming potential problems are discussed.

The duration of a dynamic test is typically comparable to the time required for the stress waves to travel a round trip over the length of the load train (i.e. grips, specimen, and loading) system1. A dynamic test is valid if the number and amplitude of stress waves during a dynamic test is controlled so that a dynamic equilibrium is achieved, and the specimen experiences a homogeneous deformation at an almost constant strain rate. The Society of Automotive Enginee...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intermediate Strain Rate Material Characterization with Digital Image Correlation at JoVE.com

Intermediate Strain Rate Material Characterization with Digital Image Correlation

Here we present a methodology for the dynamic characterization of tensile specimens at intermediate strain rates using a high-speed servo-hydraulic load frame. Procedures for strain gauge instrumentation and analysis, as well as for digital image correlation strain measurements on the specimens, are also defined.

The mechanical response of a material under dynamic load is typically different than its behavior under static conditions; therefore, the common ...

The mechanical performance of materials depends on the rate of load application. Our protocol can be used to capture material behavior at intermediate strain rates. The main advantage of this technique is that the materials can be characterized while using a non-contact, full field strain measurement technique to capture surface strains with high-speed cameras.The intermediate strain rate characterization of materials often requires dealing with undesirable oscillation called ringing in the results, which should be avoided through proper specimen design, and test protocol. Before beginning the procedure, prepare dog bone-shaped tensile specimens, according to International Organization for Standardization parameters. Next, paint the surface of the specimen to exhibit high contrast features.Matching the contrast pattern to the camera image sensor size such as each dark contrast feature is composed of approximately three pixels or more, then, set the specimen aside, to let the paint dry. When the specimen is ready, turn on the power to the control console, and confirm that the isolation valve, from the pump to the high rate frame is open, before turning on the computer. From the desktop, start the controller application, selecting the high rate calculate displacement cfg configuration, and clicking reset, to clear interlock one.Start the hydraulic pump, and open the service manifolds to one at a time, waiting until the low indicator stops flashing, before pressing the high indicator for each manifold. Start the test design software, and confirm that the hydraulic pump, and high service manifold one, are on. Then click, file, new, test from template and custom templates, and select tension test.For strain gauge set up, set the switch of the load frame crosshead control, to the low rate, and match the wires of the specimen strain gauge, to the wires of the strain gauge box inside the test chamber according to the wire colors. Then, in the controller application, under auxiliary inputs, and strain one, select the maximum range of the strains. Next, activate the manual control, and enter the position of the head to the full extension at minus 125 millimeters.Turn off the enable manual command checkbox, and uncheck the exclusive control box. An elastic cord may be used to hold the slack adapter in a retracted position to make room for installing the coupon. Use the mounting fixture to align the coupon inside the grips.Press the key icon to active the handset and confirm that the exclusive control box in the software is unchecked. Make sure the top grip is loose to prevent an undesirable load application to the specimen, and remove the elastic cord. Press the wheel icon to activate the controller, and slowly roll the wheel to bring the head down until the bottom arm of the slack adapter is almost fully retracted.Press the key icon again, to deactivate the handset and check the exclusive control box using the manual control to bring the head to exactly minus 125 millimeters. Use a wrench and a key to rotate the slack adapter to tighten the top grips without twisting the coupon, and check the spiral washers between the slack adapter and the intermediate cross head to make sure that the washers are tight, and that there is no axial clearance along the load train. Then, return the frame to the high rate and make sure that the enclosure doors are tightly closed.To set the instrument up for digital image correlation, open the high speed imaging viewer software and click detect before saving the set up. Click camera option and select the input-output tab to set the external signals. To set the frame rate and frame resolution, click variable and set the camera frequency and the data acquisition box acquisition rate to the same number as the high speed data acquisition system in the load frame.Then, open the high speed data acquisition in the high speed imaging viewer, and select the required channels and samples per frame. To run the test, open the tension test and select new test run to enter a valid file name. Modify the fields as necessary and click okay.For the ramp rate, select the nominal desired head velocity and click okay. A series of prompts will appear reminding that the key hardware should be checked after which the test can be initiated by clicking on the run icon. On the control console, press and hold the arm charge accumulator switch to arm the system.Then, press fire to complete the test. The speed of the test should be calculated based on real life scenarios for example for a car crash simulation speed of around eight meters per second can be applied. For data analysis, export the raw data from the load frame computer into the post-processing software of choice and determine the location on the gauge section where the specimen failed.Restrict the strain field to a local area of the vicinity of the failure section and measure and record the strain in the local area. Then, draw a stress strain curve obtained from the measurements. Both of these test were performed properly but the load data directly extracted from the load frame force link could not be used in this test in an alternative load measurement technique such as tab section strain gauging, was necessary.In this test however, the raw load data from the load frame was in good agreement with the strain gauge loads. A typical example of digital image correlation results for a dog bone aluminum specimen with a strain field evolution with time on the entire gauge section is shown. The uniform strain within a given cross section of the specimen illustrates a proper loading and data analysis during the test.And the loss of digital image correlation in the last image was due to severe necking that resulting in paint flaking and was unavoidable immediately before the failure at the vicinity of the failure zone. These stress strain curves obtained from digital image correlation and from the load frame cross head displacement data, illustrate and average stress strain for the entire gauge section and demonstrate the validity of the technique and a good agreement between the results. A comprehensive evaluation of the results ensures that the protocol is carried out within the boundaries of valid assumptions.Such as the inertia dominant regime or non-slip conditions and grips. Following this procedure a range of different mechanical characterization tests such as sheer, bending, puncture, or compression tests can be performed on a variety of materials. This technique fills the gap, between quasi static tests and ultra high strain rate characterization techniques.Enabling us to fully characterize material behaviors as a function of strain rate.

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Echo Particle Image Velocimetry

The transport of mass, momentum, and energy in fluid flows is ultimately determined by spatiotemporal distributions of the fluid velocity field.1 Consequently, a prerequisite for understanding, predicting, and controlling fluid flows is the capability to measure the velocity field with adequate spatial and temporal resolution.2 For velocity measurements in optically opaque fluids or through optically opaque geometries, echo particle image velocimetry (EPIV) is an attractive diagnostic technique to generate "instantaneous" two-dimensional fields of velocity.3,4,5,6 In this paper, the operating protocol for an EPIV system built by integrating a commercial medical ultrasound machine7 with a PC running commercial particle image velocimetry (PIV) software8 is described, and validation measurements in Hagen-Poiseuille (i.e., laminar pipe) flow are reported.
For the EPIV measurements, a phased array probe connected to the medical ultrasound machine is used to generate a two-dimensional ultrasound image by pulsing the piezoelectric probe elements at different times. Each probe element transmits an ultrasound pulse into the fluid, and tracer particles in the fluid (either naturally occurring or seeded) reflect ultrasound echoes back to the probe where they are recorded. The amplitude of the reflected ultrasound waves and their time delay relative to transmission are used to create what is known as B-mode (brightness mode) two-dimensional ultrasound images. Specifically, the time delay is used to determine the position of the scatterer in the fluid and the amplitude is used to assign intensity to the scatterer. The time required to obtain a single B-mode image, t, is determined by the time it take to pulse all the elements of the phased array probe. For acquiring multiple B-mode images, the frame rate of the system in frames per second (fps) = 1/&delta;t. (See 9 for a review of ultrasound imaging.)
For a typical EPIV experiment, the frame rate is between 20-60 fps, depending on flow conditions, and 100-1000 B-mode images of the spatial distribution of the tracer particles in the flow are acquired. Once acquired, the B-mode ultrasound images are transmitted via an ethernet connection to the PC running the PIV commercial software. Using the PIV software, tracer particle displacement fields, D(x,y)[pixels], (where x and y denote horizontal and vertical spatial position in the ultrasound image, respectively) are acquired by applying cross correlation algorithms to successive ultrasound B-mode images.10 The velocity fields, u(x,y)[m/s], are determined from the displacements fields, knowing the time step between image pairs, &Delta;T[s], and the image magnification, M[meter/pixel], i.e., u(x,y) = MD(x,y)/&Delta;T. The time step between images &Delta;T = 1/fps + D(x,y)/B, where B[pixels/s] is the time it takes for the ultrasound probe to sweep across the image width. In the present study, M = 77[&mu;m/pixel], fps = 49.5[1/s], and B = 25,047[pixels/s]. Once acquired, the velocity fields can be analyzed to compute flow quantities of interest.

An echo particle image velocimetry (EPIV) system capable of acquiring two-dimensional fields of velocity in optically opaque fluids or through optically opaque geometries is described, and validation measurements in pipe flow are reported.

The transport of mass, momentum, and energy in fluid flows is ultimately determined by spatiotemporal distributions of the fluid velocity field.1 ...

High-resolution, High-speed, Three-dimensional Video Imaging with Digital Fringe Projection Techniques

Digital fringe projection (DFP) techniques provide dense 3D measurements of dynamically changing surfaces.&#160;Like the human eyes and brain, DFP uses triangulation between matching points in two views of the same scene at different angles to compute depth.&#160;However, unlike a stereo-based method, DFP uses a digital video projector to replace one of the cameras1. The projector rapidly projects a known sinusoidal pattern onto the subject, and the surface of the subject distorts these patterns in the camera&#8217;s field of view. Three distorted patterns (fringe images) from the camera can be used to compute the depth using triangulation.
Unlike other 3D measurement methods, DFP techniques lead to systems that tend to be faster, lower in equipment cost, more flexible, and easier to develop.&#160;DFP systems can also achieve the same measurement resolution as the camera.&#160;For this reason, DFP and other digital structured light techniques have recently been the focus of intense research (as summarized in1-5). Taking advantage of DFP, the graphics processing unit, and optimized algorithms, we have developed a system capable of 30&#160;Hz 3D video data acquisition, reconstruction, and display for over 300,000 measurement points per frame6,7.&#160;Binary defocusing DFP methods can achieve even greater speeds8.
Diverse applications can benefit from DFP techniques. Our collaborators have used our systems for facial function analysis9, facial animation10, cardiac mechanics studies11, and fluid surface measurements, but many other potential applications exist.&#160;This video will teach the fundamentals of DFP techniques and illustrate the design and operation of a binary defocusing DFP system.

This video describes the fundamentals of digital fringe projection techniques, which provide dense 3D measurements of dynamically changing surfaces.&#160;It also demonstrates the design and operation of a high-speed binary defocusing system based on these techniques.

Digital fringe projection (DFP) techniques provide dense 3D measurements of dynamically changing surfaces.&#160;Like the human eyes and brain, DFP uses ...

Characterization of Full Set Material Constants and Their Temperature Dependence for Piezoelectric Materials Using Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy

During the operation of high power electromechanical devices, a temperature rise is unavoidable due to mechanical and electrical losses, causing the degradation of device performance. In order to evaluate such degradations using computer simulations, full matrix material properties at elevated temperatures are needed as inputs. It is extremely difficult to measure such data for ferroelectric materials due to their strong anisotropic nature and property variation among samples of different geometries. Because the degree of depolarization is boundary condition dependent, data obtained by the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) impedance resonance technique, which requires several samples with drastically different geometries, usually lack self-consistency. The resonant ultrasound spectroscopy (RUS) technique allows the full set material constants to be measured using only one sample, which can eliminate errors caused by sample to sample variation. A detailed RUS procedure is demonstrated here using a lead zirconate titanate (PZT-4) piezoceramic sample. In the example, the complete set of material constants was measured from room temperature to 120 &#176;C. Measured free dielectric constants <img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53461/image001.jpg" /> and&#160;<img alt="Equation 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/53461/image002.jpg" /> were compared with calculated ones based on the measured full set data, and piezoelectric constants d15 and d33 were also calculated using different formulas. Excellent agreement was found in the entire range of temperatures, which confirmed the self-consistency of the data set obtained by the RUS.

This protocol describes the procedure of measuring the temperature dependence of the full set material constants of piezoelectric materials using resonant ultrasound spectroscopy (RUS).

During the operation of high power electromechanical devices, a temperature rise is unavoidable due to mechanical and electrical losses, causing the ...

Experimental Methods for Investigation of Shape Memory Based Elastocaloric Cooling Processes and Model Validation

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) using elastocaloric cooling processes have the potential to be an environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional vapor compression based cooling process. Nickel-Titanium (Ni-Ti) based alloy systems, especially, show large elastocaloric effects. Furthermore, exhibit large latent heats which is a necessary material property for the development of an efficient solid-state based cooling process. A scientific test rig has been designed to investigate these processes and the elastocaloric effects in SMAs. The realized test rig enables independent control of an SMA&#39;s mechanical loading and unloading cycles, as well as conductive heat transfer between SMA cooling elements and a heat source/sink. The test rig is equipped with a comprehensive monitoring system capable of synchronized measurements of mechanical and thermal parameters. In addition to determining the process-dependent mechanical work, the system also enables measurement of thermal caloric aspects of the elastocaloric cooling effect through use of a high-performance infrared camera. This combination is of particular interest, because it allows illustrations of localization and rate effects &#8212; both important for efficient heat transfer from the medium to be cooled.
The work presented describes an experimental method to identify elastocaloric material properties in different materials and sample geometries. Furthermore, the test rig is used to investigate different cooling process variations. The introduced analysis methods enable a differentiated consideration of material, process and related boundary condition influences on the process efficiency. The comparison of the experimental data with the simulation results (of a thermomechanically coupled finite element model) allows for better understanding of the underlying physics of the elastocaloric effect. In addition, the experimental results, as well as the findings based on the simulation results, are used to improve the material properties.

Experimental methods for investigation of solid state cooling processes and characterization of elastocaloric material properties of Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) are presented. A custom-built test rig has been designed for controlling and comprehensive monitoring of elastocaloric cooling processes. Furthermore, it provides a validation platform for thermomechanically coupled modeling approaches.

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) using elastocaloric cooling processes have the potential to be an environmentally friendly alternative to the conventional vapor ...

Compact Lens-less Digital Holographic Microscope for MEMS Inspection and Characterization

A micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) is a widely used component in many industries, including energy, biotechnology, medical, communications, and automotive. However, effective inspection and characterization metrology systems are needed to ensure the functional reliability of MEMS. This study presents a system based on digital holography as a tool for MEMS metrology. Digital holography has gained increasing attention in the past 20 years. With the fast development and decreasing cost of sensor arrays, resolution of such systems has increased broadening potential applications. Thus, it has attracted attention from both research and industry sides as a potential reliable tool for industrial metrology. Indeed, by recording the interference pattern between an object beam (which contains sample height information) and a reference beam on a CCD camera, one can retrieve the quantitative phase information of an object. However, most of digital holographic systems are bulky and thus not easy to implement on industry production lines. The novelty of the system presented is that it is lens-less and thus very compact. In this study, it is shown that the Compact Digital Holographic Microscope (CDHM) can be used to evaluate several characteristics typically consider as criteria in MEMS inspections. The surface profiles of MEMS in both static and dynamic conditions are presented. Comparison with AFM is investigated to validate the accuracy of the CDHM.

We present a compact reflection digital holographic system (CDHM) for inspection and characterization of MEMS devices. A lens-less design using a diverging input wave providing natural geometrical magnification is demonstrated. Both static and dynamic studies are presented.

A micro-electro-mechanical-system (MEMS) is a widely used component in many industries, including energy, biotechnology, medical, communications, and ...

Strain Sensing Based on Multiscale Composite Materials Reinforced with Graphene Nanoplatelets

The electrical response of NH2-functionalized graphene nanoplatelets composite materials under strain was studied. Two different manufacturing methods are proposed to create the electrical network in this work: (a) the incorporation of the nanoplatelets into the epoxy matrix and (b) the coating of the glass fabric with a sizing filled with the same nanoplatelets. Both types of multiscale composite materials, with an in-plane electrical conductivity of ~10-3 S/m, showed an exponential growth of the electrical resistance as the strain increases due to distancing between adjacent functionalized graphene nanoplatelets and contact loss between overlying ones. The sensitivity of the materials analyzed during this research, using the described procedures, has been shown to be higher than commercially available strain gauges. The proposed procedures for self-sensing of the structural composite material would facilitate the structural health monitoring of components in difficult to access emplacements such as offshore wind power farms. Although the sensitivity of the multiscale composite materials was considerably higher than the sensitivity of metallic foils used as strain gauges, the value reached with NH2 functionalized graphene nanoplatelets coated fabrics was nearly an order of magnitude superior. This result elucidated their potential to be used as smart fabrics to monitor human movements such as bending of fingers or knees. By using the proposed method, the smart fabric could immediately detect the bending and recover instantly. This fact permits precise monitoring of the time of bending as well as the degree of bending.

The integration of conductive nanoparticles, such as graphene nanoplatelets, into glass fiber composite materials creates an intrinsic electrical network susceptible to strain. Here, different methods to obtain strain sensors based on the addition of graphene nanoplatelets into the epoxy matrix or as a coating on glass fabrics are proposed.

The electrical response of NH2-functionalized graphene nanoplatelets composite materials under strain was studied. Two different manufacturing methods are ...

In Situ Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles without Aggregation in the Interlayer Space of Layered Titanate Transparent Films

Combinations of metal oxide semiconductors and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been investigated as new types of materials. The in situ synthesis of AuNPs within the interlayer space of semiconducting layered titania nanosheet (TNS) films was investigated here. Two types of intermediate films (i.e., TNS films containing methyl viologen (TNS/MV2+) and 2-ammoniumethanethiol (TNS/2-AET+)) were prepared. The two intermediate films were soaked in an aqueous tetrachloroauric(III) acid (HAuCl4) solution, whereby considerable amounts of Au(III) species were accommodated within the interlayer spaces of the TNS films. The two types of obtained films were then soaked in an aqueous sodium tetrahydroborate (NaBH4) solution, whereupon the color of the films immediately changed from colorless to purple, suggesting the formation of AuNPs within the TNS interlayer. When only TNS/MV2+ was used as the intermediate film, the color of the film gradually changed from metallic purple to dusty purple within 30 min, suggesting that aggregation of AuNPs had occurred. In contrast, this color change was suppressed by using the TNS/2-AET+ intermediate film, and the AuNPs were stabilized for over 4 months, as evidenced by the characteristic extinction (absorption and scattering) band from the AuNPs.

In Situ Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles without Aggregation in the Interlayer Space of Layered Titanate Transparent Films

Here, we present a protocol for the in situ synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) within the interlayer space of layered titanate films without the aggregation of AuNPs. No spectral change was observed even after 4 months. The synthesized material has expected applications in catalysis, photo-catalysis, and the development of cost-effective plasmonic devices.

Combinations of metal oxide semiconductors and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been investigated as new types of materials. The in situ synthesis of AuNPs ...

Carrier Lifetime Measurements in Semiconductors through the Microwave Photoconductivity Decay Method

This work presents a protocol employing the microwave photoconductivity decay (&#956;-PCD) for measurement of the carrier lifetime in semiconductor materials, especially SiC. In principle, excess carriers in the semiconductor generated via excitation recombine with time and, subsequently, return to the equilibrium state. The time constant of this recombination is known as the carrier lifetime, an important parameter in semiconductor materials and devices that requires a noncontact and nondestructive measurement ideally achieved by the &#956;-PCD. During irradiation of a sample, a part of the microwave is reflected by the semiconductor sample. Microwave reflectance depends on the sample conductivity, which is attributed to the carriers. Therefore, the time decay of excess carriers can be observed through detection of the reflected microwave intensity, whose decay curve can be analyzed for estimation of the carrier lifetime. Results confirm the suitability of the &#956;-PCD protocol in measuring the carrier lifetime in semiconductor materials and devices.

As one of the important physical parameters in semiconductors, carrier lifetime is measured herein via a protocol employing the microwave photoconductivity decay method.

This work presents a protocol employing the microwave photoconductivity decay (&#956;-PCD) for measurement of the carrier lifetime in semiconductor ...

Full-field Strain Measurements for Microstructurally Small Fatigue Crack Propagation Using Digital Image Correlation Method

A novel measurement approach is used to reveal the cumulative deformation field at a sub-grain level and to study the influence of microstructure on the growth of microstructurally small fatigue cracks. The proposed strain field analysis methodology is based on the use of a unique pattering technique with a characteristic speckle size of approximately 10 &#181;m. The developed methodology is applied to study the small fatigue crack behavior in body centered cubic (bcc) Fe-Cr ferritic stainless steel with a relatively large grain size allowing a high spatial measurement accuracy at the sub-grain level. This methodology allows the measurement of small fatigue crack growth retardation events and associated intermittent shear strain localization zones ahead of the crack tip. In addition, this can be correlated with the grain orientation and size. Thus, the developed methodology can provide a deeper fundamental understanding of the small fatigue crack growth behavior, required for the development of robust theoretical models for the small fatigue crack&#160;propagation in polycrystalline materials.

Microstructurally small fatigue crack growth behavior is investigated using a novel methodological approach combining crack growth rate measurement and strain-field analysis to reveal the cumulative deformation field at sub-grain level.

A novel measurement approach is used to reveal the cumulative deformation field at a sub-grain level and to study the influence of microstructure on the ...

Production of a Strain-Measuring Device with an Improved 3D Printer

A traditional strain measurement sensor needs to be electrified and is susceptible to electromagnetic interference. In order to solve the fluctuations in the analog electrical signal in a traditional strain gauge operation, a new strain measurement method is presented here. It uses a photographic technique to display the strain change by amplifying the change of the pointer displacement of the mechanism. A visual polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) lens with a focal length of 7.16 mm was added to a smartphone camera to generate a lens group acting as a microscope to capture images. It had an equivalent focal length of 5.74 mm. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and nylon amplifiers were used to test the influence of different materials on the sensor performance. The production of the amplifiers and PDMS lens is based on improved 3D printing technology. The data obtained were compared with the results from finite element analysis (FEA) to verify their validity. The sensitivity of the ABS amplifier was 36.03 &plusmn; 1.34 &#181;&epsilon;/&#181;m, and the sensitivity of the nylon amplifier was 36.55 &plusmn; 0.53 &#181;&epsilon;/&#181;m.

This work presents a strain measurement sensor consisting of an amplification mechanism and a polydimethylsiloxane microscope manufactured using an improved 3D printer.

A traditional strain measurement sensor needs to be electrified and is susceptible to electromagnetic interference. In order to solve the fluctuations in ...