The authors would like to thank Michael Anderson for establishing in the Lee lab these accepted methods for studying spermatogenesis with expert advice from Karen Hales. H. Oda and Y. Akiyama-Oda generously provided the &#947;-tubulin-GFP fly stock. This work was supported by an NIH R01 grant to L.A.L. (GM074044).

1.&#160;Testes Dissection
<ol>
	<li>Anesthetize flies in a bottle or vial using a stream of CO2 and transfer to a fly pad.</li>
	<li>Sort flies under a dissecting microscope using a small paintbrush, and collect an appropriate number (depending on the experiment) of Drosophila males of the desired genotypes. Young males (0-2 days old) are ideal for examining cells throughout the earlier stages of spermatogenesis (e.g. spermatogonia, spermatocytes, and early post-meiotic spermatids), whereas slightly older males (2-5 days old) are ideal for examining cells in the final stages of spermatogenesis (in particular, mature sperm).</li>
	<li>Use forceps to remove the wings from each fly (to prevent the flies from floating in liquid during dissection).</li>
	<li>Add ~500 ml of phosphate-buffered saline (130 mM NaCl, 7 mM Na2HPO4, 3 mM NaH2PO4; PBS) in a drop to a silicone-coated dissection dish on a black background. Other aqueous solutions have been successfully used for testes dissection3.</li>
	<li>Point forceps towards the anterior of the fly, grasp it by the thorax, and immerse it in the PBS drop. While viewing through the dissecting microscope, use another pair of forceps to grasp and pull the external genitalia (dark brown structure located at the posterior end of the ventral abdomen) posteriorly until it detaches from the abdomen. In most cases, the testes, seminal vesicles, and accessory gland will be removed from the abdomen along with the external genitalia; if not, insert a single pair of forceps into the abdomen and tease out the testes.</li>
	<li>Separate testes from accessory gland and external genitalia using two pairs of forceps in the PBS drop (Figure 2). Wild-type testes are easily distinguished from neighboring white tissues by their yellow color. Proceed immediately to step 2.</li>
	<li>To isolate testes from pharate males (i.e. enclosed within the pupal case), an additional step must first be performed that involves removing the fly from the pupal case; this step has been previously described elsewhere31. Proceed with dissection as for the adult testes beginning at step 1.2.</li>
	<li>To isolate testes from larval males, perform a modification of a protocol for isolating Drosophila larval ovaries32. Briefly, male larvae can be distinguished from female larvae by the presence of a pair of large, clear, oval structures (larval testes) embedded in the posterior third of the fat body. To isolate larval testes, partially flay open the male larva to isolate the testes and the surrounding fat body from the abdomen as described for the isolation of larval ovaries. Proceed immediately to step 2 of the protocol described herein; the testes can later be removed from the fat body just prior to mounting (steps 2.3 or 3.14) as described for the ovaries32.</li>
</ol>
2.&#160;Sample Preparation and Live Imaging
<ol>
	<li>Use a pair of forceps to gently place 2-3 pairs of testes in a drop of 4-5 ml of PBS on a square glass cover slip. Note that the ratio of testes number to PBS volume may need to be adjusted: too much liquid will prevent cells from spreading properly when squashed, whereas too little liquid will cause cells to burst when squashed. Optional: Use siliconized cover slips to minimize adherence of tissue to cover slip in step 3.2.</li>
	<li>Use a pair of forceps to tear open each testis at an appropriate position so as to maximize the presence of the desired germline cell types in the preparation (note that the contents of the testis will mostly egress from the torn region onto the slide during the squashing step.) To enrich for spermatogonia and spermatocytes, tear open the testis adjacent to its apical tip (level 1, Figure 2B). To enrich for spermatocytes and spermatids, tear open the testis at a position slightly basal to level 1 (level 2, Figure 2B). To enrich for more mature germline cells, tear open the testis closer to where the curvature begins (level 3, Figure 2B).</li>
	<li>Gently place a glass microscope slide over the cover slip to squash the testes; do not apply pressure manually as the weight of the cover slip alone is sufficient to obtain a properly squashed sample. Try to avoid trapping air bubbles. Optional: Use poly-L-lysine coated microscope slides to promote adherence of tissue to slide in step 3.2.</li>
	<li>Use preparation immediately (ideally within 15 min of preparation) to observe live cells by phase-contrast microscopy; for transgenic flies with expression of fluorescently tagged proteins in the testes, live cells can be examined by fluorescence microscopy at this step. Alternatively, proceed with fixation and antibody staining (Protocol 3).</li>
	<li>Gently wick any excess liquid from under the coverslip using a cleaning wipe to allow flattening of the preparation until the germ cells are clearly in focus.</li>
</ol>
3.&#160;Formaldehyde Fixation and Antibody Staining
<ol>
	<li>Snap freeze each slide containing squashed testes (from Protocol 2) using a pair of metal tongs to immerse it briefly in liquid nitrogen (until liquid nitrogen stops bubbling).</li>
	<li>Remove the cover slip immediately using a razor blade.</li>
	<li>Use metal tongs to transfer slides to a prechilled glass slide rack filled with ice-cold 95% ethanol (spectrophotometric grade, methanol-free). Store at -20 &#176;C for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Use metal tongs to transfer slides to a glass slide rack filled with 4% formaldehyde in PBS plus 0.1% Triton X-100 (PBS-T). Store at room temperature for 7 min.</li>
	<li>Use metal tongs to transfer slides to a glass slide rack filled with PBS. Wash slides in PBS for 5 min at room temperature. Repeat 1x. Perform all washes by discarding solution in the glass slide rack (i.e. by pouring it out) and replacing with fresh solution.</li>
	<li>Discard the PBS and immerse slides in PBS-T for 30 min at room temperature to permeabilize cell membranes.</li>
	<li>Wash slides in PBS for 5 min at room temperature. Repeat 2x.</li>
	<li>Blocking step (optional): Immerse slides in PBS plus 1% BSA for 45 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Use a hydrophobic barrier pen to draw a circle on the slide around squashed tissue (easily visible by eye) in order to confine the antibody solutions (added in steps 3.9 and 3.11). The tissue should be kept moist at all times while performing immunostaining.</li>
	<li>Add 30-40 ml of primary antibody (diluted in PBS-T, 1:400 to 1:50, depending on antibody) to tissue within the circle. If blocking was performed, dilute primary antibody in PBS-T plus 1% BSA. Anti-gamma-tubulin antibody (for staining of centrosomes in Figure 4) was diluted 1:100. Incubate in a moist, dark chamber (e.g. closed plastic box with damp paper towels) for 2 hr at room temperature or overnight at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Wash slides in PBS for 5 min at room temperature 3x. If blocking was performed, wash twice in PBS-T and once in PBS (5 min at room temperature each).</li>
	<li>Add 30-40 ml of fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody (diluted 1:400 in PBS) to the tissue and incubate in the dark for 1-2 hr at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Wash slides in PBS for 5 min at room temperature. Repeat 2x.</li>
	<li>Add 30-40 ml of DAPI solution (0.2 mg/ml in PBS) to the tissue within the circle.</li>
	<li>Gently place a glass cover slip over the tissue, taking care to avoid trapping air bubbles. If air bubbles should appear, carefully move around the cover slip without destroying the squash until the bubbles escape from the sides of the cover slip.</li>
	<li>Use a cleaning wipe to blot excess DAPI from the edges of the slide.</li>
	<li>Seal the cover slip to the slide using clear nail polish.</li>
	<li>Use this preparation within the next 3-4 hr to view immunostained cells by fluorescent microscopy. For longer-term storage of slides (up to at least several weeks), use a glycerol-based hard mount media with DAPI, and store slides at -20 &#730;C.</li>
	<li>Alternatively, fix samples in methanol instead of formaldehyde (depending on the antigen). After completing the entire protocol through step 3.2, immerse slides of squashed testes in methanol for 10 min at -20 &#176;C and proceed with step 3.5 onward.</li>
</ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Although the testes of wild-type flies can be readily identified due to their yellow color (in contrast the neighboring white tissues), the testes of white mutant flies are white and thus can occasionally be confused with the gut. Most transgenic strains, which are typically in a white background, also have white testes because the mini-white gene found in P-elements does not promote pigment accumulation in the testes. When Drosophila testes cannot be distinguished by color, o...

Drosophila testes are an ideal model system for the study of many biological processes including the regulation of stem cells, meiosis, and sperm development13-18. The spermatocytes and their meiotic spindles are large and hence convenient for cytological analysis, and relaxed cell cycle checkpoints during spermatogenesis facilitate the study of mutations in cell cycle genes. Different cell types can be observed in ordered progression along the length of the testes, and any disruption in spermatogenesis can lead to changes in this overall arrangement. These features combined with Drosophila genetic tools have facilitated the mutational analysis of spermatogenesis21-23.
The stages of Drosophila spermatogenesis have been well defined. Germline cells that develop synchronously within cysts progress sequentially through the stages of spermatogenesis along the length of the testis. During both the mitotic and meiotic divisions of the male germ cells, cytokinesis occurs incompletely such that the daughter cells remain connected by cytoplasmic bridges known as ring canals (Figure 1). The apical tip of the testis contains a population of germline stem cells that gives rise to spermatogonial cells, which undergo four mitotic divisions with incomplete cytokinesis to generate 16-cell cysts of primary spermatocytes. After premeiotic S phase, primary spermatocytes enter G2, a prolonged growth period of ~90 hr during which cellular volume increases ~25-fold. Progression through meiosis I and meiosis II results in the formation of 32-cell cysts of secondary spermatocytes and 64-cell cysts of haploid spermatids, respectively. The immature, round spermatids undergo extensive cellular remodeling to form mature sperm. Post-meiotic cells, in particular the bundles of elongating and mature spermatids, occupy much of the volume of the testis.
The successful transport of functional sperm to female flies requires coordination between the different parts of the male reproductive system, which is composed of several paired structures (the testes, seminal vesicles, and accessory glands) and a single ejaculatory duct (Figure 2). Sperm are produced within the testes and stored within the seminal vesicles until copulation24. The accessory glands contain secretory cells that produce seminal fluid. The sperm migrating from the seminal vesicles are mixed with seminal fluid within the ejaculatory duct, which is connected to both the seminal vesicles and the accessory glands. This mixture of sperm and seminal fluid is ultimately pumped out of the male into the vagina of the female fly through the ejaculatory bulb located at the posterior end of the male abdomen25. Proteins within the seminal fluid are essential for prolonged storage of sperm within specialized organs known as spermathecae in the reproductive tract of Drosophila females26.
Excellent methods for the isolation of Drosophila testes and visualization of cells at various stages of spermatogenesis are available in the scientific literature3-12. We herein add to this body of knowledge by presenting examples of these protocols with an accompanying video demonstration. The protocol for preparation of live testes samples for phase-contrast microscopy is based on a previously described method27. The protocol for formaldehyde fixation and immunostaining of testes is also based on a previously described method28. The approaches described herein have been used in many studies of Drosophila spermatogenesis (for example, to assess the roles of dynein, a minus-end-directed microtubule motor, during Drosophila spermatogenesis).
In addition to the basic protocols, suggestions are provided for varying the dissection so as to enrich for spermatogonia, spermatocytes, or mature sperm. Different methods for processing the testes such that cysts either remain intact or are disrupted as needed are described. An advantage in using Drosophila testes as a model system is that, compared to Drosophila oocytes and embryos, antibodies and dyes can easily penetrate cells following their dispersal from the testes, and fewer washing steps are required; thus, protocols can be performed in a relatively short time.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Sylgard</td><td>World Precision Instruments</td><td>SYLG184</td><td>Two-part silicon elastomer for making silicone-coated dissection dish from Kimax Petri dish</td></tr><tr><td>PAP pen</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>NC9888126</td><td>Ted Pella #22309</td></tr><tr><td>Clear nail protector</td><td>Wet n Wild</td><td>7780235001</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ProLong Gold Antifade Reagent with DAPI</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>P36931</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mouse anti-gamma-tubulin antibody (clone GTU-88)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>T6557</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cy3-AffiniPure Goat Anti-Mouse IgG&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td><td>115-165-003</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Triton X-100</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>BP151-100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ethanol</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>AC61511-0040</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Methanol</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>A412-4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>16% Formaldehyde</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td><td>28908</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sigmacote</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>SL2</td><td>Use according to manufacturer&#039;s directions to siliconize cover slips</td></tr><tr><td>DAPI</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>D-9542</td><td>0.5 mg/ml in 75% ethanol; store at -20 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>NaCl</td><td>Research Products International Corp.</td><td>S23020</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;HPO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>S9763</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NaH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>S0751</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Kimwipes delicate task wipers</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>S47299</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>BSA</td><td>Research Products International Corp.</td><td>A30075</td><td>Molecular biology grade</td></tr><tr><td>Glass Coplin staining jar, screw cap</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>70315</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Single frosted microscope slides</td><td>Corning</td><td>2948-75X25</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Poly-L-lysine coated microscope slides</td><td>Polysciences, Inc.</td><td>22247-1</td><td>Optional (to replace untreated microscope slides )</td></tr><tr><td>Square cover glass</td><td>Corning</td><td>2865-22</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Razor blades</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>12-640</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Kimax Petri dish</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>S31473</td><td>Kimble #23060 10015 EMD</td></tr><tr><td>Forceps</td><td>Dumont</td><td>52100-51S</td><td>Pattern 5 INOX</td></tr><tr><td>Stemi 2000-CS stereoscope</td><td>Carl Zeiss</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Eclipse 80i</td><td>Nikon</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plan-Fluor 40X objective</td><td>Nikon</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Axiophot</td><td>Carl Zeiss</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plan-Neofluar Ph2 40X objective</td><td>Carl Zeiss</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

cytological analysis of spermatogenesis: live and fixed preparations of drosophila testes

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model system that has been widely used to elucidate a variety of biological processes. For example, studies of both the female and male germ lines of Drosophila have contributed greatly to the current understanding of meiosis as well as stem cell biology. Excellent protocols are available in the literature for the isolation and imaging of Drosophila ovaries&#160;and testes3-12. Herein, methods for the dissection and preparation of Drosophila testes for microscopic analysis are described with an accompanying video demonstration. A protocol for isolating testes from the abdomen of adult males and preparing slides of live tissue for analysis by phase-contrast microscopy as well as a protocol for fixing and immunostaining testes for analysis by fluorescence microscopy are presented. These techniques can be applied in the characterization of Drosophila mutants that exhibit defects in spermatogenesis as well as in the visualization of subcellular localizations of proteins.

An example of a properly dissected pair of Drosophila male reproductive organs is shown in Figure 2A. Testes removed from the abdomen of the adult male fly are typically attached to the ejaculatory duct (brown, Figure 2A') and a pair of accessory glands (green, Figure 2A') via a pair of seminal vesicles (blue, Figure 2A'). To separate the testes from most of the accompanying somatic tissue, the ejaculatory duct and the accessory glands should be...

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Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

Methods for isolating and preparing Drosophila testes samples (live and fixed) for imaging by phase-contrast and fluorescence microscopy are described herein.&#160;

Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model system that has been widely used to elucidate a variety of biological processes. For example, studies of both ...

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Biology

26.1K Views.  Vanderbilt University Medical Center.  Werkwijzen voor het isoleren en het voorbereiden van Drosophila testes monsters (wonen en vast) voor beeldvorming door fase-contrast en fluorescentie microscopie worden hierin beschreven. 

Video: Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

Thin Sectioning of Slice Preparations for Immunohistochemistry

Many investigations in neuroscience, as well as other disciplines, involve studying small, yet macroscopic pieces or sections of tissue that have been preserved, freshly removed, or excised but kept viable, as in slice preparations of brain tissue.  Subsequent microscopic studies of this material can be challenging, as the tissue samples may be difficult to handle.  Demonstrated here is a method for obtaining thin cryostat sections of tissue with a thickness that may range from 0.2-5.0 mm.  We routinely cut 400 micron thick Vibratome brain slices serially into 5-10 micron coronal cryostat sections.  The slices are typically first used for electrophysiology experiments and then require microscopic analysis of the cytoarchitecture of the region from which the recordings were observed.  We have constructed a simple device that allows controlled and reproducible preparation and positioning of the tissue slice.  This device consists of a cylinder 5 cm in length with a diameter of 1.2 cm, which serves as a freezing stage for the slice.  A ring snugly slides over the cylinder providing walls around the slice allowing the tissue to be immersed in freezing compound (e.g., OCT).  This is then quickly frozen with crushed dry ice and the resulting  wafer  can be position easily for cryostat sectioning.  Thin sections can be thaw-mounted onto coated slides to allow further studies to be performed, such as various staining methods, in situ hybridization, or immunohistochemistry, as demonstrated here.

The present method allows reproducible cryostat sectioning of small, difficult-to-manage, tissue pieces, such as biopsies and brain slices. We utilize a simple aluminum freezing stage to facilitate handling of tissue and a standard cryostat to routinely produce 5-10 micron serial sections from 400 micron thick brain slices.

Many investigations in neuroscience, as well as other disciplines, involve studying small, yet macroscopic pieces or sections of tissue that have been ...

A Seminiferous Tubule Squash Technique for the Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis Using the Mouse Model

Meiotic progression in males is a process that requires the concerted action of a number of highly regulated cellular events. Errors occurring during meiosis can lead to infertility, pregnancy loss or genetic defects. Commencing at the onset of puberty and continuing throughout adulthood, continuous semi-synchronous waves of spermatocytes undergo spermatogenesis and ultimately form haploid sperm. The first wave of mouse spermatocytes undergoing meiotic initiation appear at day 10 post-partum (10 dpp) and are released into the lumen of seminiferous tubules as mature sperm at 35 dpp. Therefore, it is advantageous to utilize mice within this developmental time-window in order to obtain highly enriched populations of interest. Analysis of rare cell stages is more difficult in older mice due to the contribution of successive spermatogenic waves, which increase the diversity of the cellular populations within the tubules. The method described here is an easily implemented technique for the cytological evaluation of the cells found within the seminiferous tubules of mice, including spermatogonia, spermatocytes, and spermatids. The tubule squash technique maintains the integrity of isolated male germ cells and allows examination of cellular structures that are not easily visualized with other techniques. To demonstrate the possible applications of this tubule squash technique, spindle assembly was monitored in spermatocytes progressing through the prophase to metaphase I transition (G2/MI transition). In addition, centrosome duplication, meiotic sex chromosome inactivation (MSCI), and chromosome bouquet formation were assessed as examples of the cytological structures that can be observed using this tubule squash method. This technique can be used to pinpoint specific defects during spermatogenesis that are caused by mutation or exogenous perturbation, and thus, contributes to our molecular understanding of spermatogenesis.

The goal of this tubule squash technique is to rapidly assess cytological features of developing mouse spermatocytes while preserving cellular integrity. This method allows for the study of all stages of spermatogenesis, and can be easily implemented alongside other biochemical and molecular biological approaches for the study of mouse meiosis.

Meiotic progression in males is a process that requires the concerted action of a number of highly regulated cellular events. Errors occurring during ...

Developmental Biology

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we present a protocol for the mounting of Drosophila melanogaster embryos and subsequent live imaging of fluorescently labeled hemocytes, the embryonic macrophages of this organism. Using the Gal4-uas system1 we drive the expression of a variety of genetically encoded, fluorescently tagged markers in hemocytes to follow their developmental dispersal throughout the embryo. Following collection of embryos at the desired stage of development, the outer chorion is removed and the embryos are then mounted in halocarbon oil between a hydrophobic, gas-permeable membrane and a glass coverslip for live imaging. In addition to gross migratory parameters such as speed and directionality, higher resolution imaging coupled with the use of fluorescent reporters of F-actin and microtubules can provide more detailed information concerning the dynamics of these cytoskeletal components.

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Drosophila hemocytes disperse over the entirety of the developing embryo. This protocol demonstrates how to mount and image these migrations using embryos with fluorescently labelled hemocytes.

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we ...

Preparation of Drosophila Larval and Pupal Testes for Analysis of Cell Division in Live, Intact Tissue

Experimental analysis of cells dividing in living, intact tissues and organs is essential to our understanding of how cell division integrates with development, tissue homeostasis, and disease processes. Drosophila spermatocytes undergoing meiosis are ideal for this analysis because (1) whole Drosophila testes containing spermatocytes are relatively easy to prepare for microscopy, (2) the spermatocytes&#8217; large size makes them well suited for high resolution imaging, and (3) powerful Drosophila genetic tools can be integrated with in vivo analysis. Here, we present a readily accessible protocol for the preparation of whole testes from Drosophila third instar larvae and early pupae. We describe how to identify meiotic spermatocytes in prepared whole testes and how to image them live by time-lapse microscopy. Protocols for fixation and immunostaining whole testes are also provided. The use of larval testes has several advantages over available protocols that use adult testes for spermatocyte analysis. Most importantly, larval testes are smaller and less crowded with cells than adult testes, and this greatly facilitates high resolution imaging of spermatocytes. To demonstrate these advantages and the applications of the protocols, we present results showing the redistribution of the endoplasmic reticulum with respect to spindle microtubules during cell division in a single spermatocyte imaged by time-lapse confocal microscopy. The protocols can be combined with expression of any number of fluorescently tagged proteins or organelle markers, as well as gene mutations and other genetic tools, making this approach especially powerful for analysis of cell division mechanisms in the physiological context of whole tissues and organs.

Preparation of Drosophila Larval and Pupal Testes for Analysis of Cell Division in Live, Intact Tissue

The goal of this protocol is to analyze cell division in intact tissue by live and fixed cell microscopy using Drosophila meiotic spermatocytes. The protocol demonstrates how to isolate whole, intact testes from Drosophila larvae and early pupae, and how to process and mount them for microscopy.

Experimental analysis of cells dividing in living, intact tissues and organs is essential to our understanding of how cell division integrates with ...

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three preparations of the brain and visual system that cover the range from the developing eye disc-brain complex in the developing pupae to individual eye and brain dissection from adult flies. All protocols are optimized for the live culture of the preparations. However, we also present the conditions for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry where applicable. Finally, we show live imaging conditions for these preparations using conventional and resonant 4D confocal live imaging in a perfusion chamber. Together, these protocols provide a basis for live imaging on different time scales ranging from functional intracellular assays on the scale of minutes to developmental or degenerative processes on the scale of many hours.

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

This protocol describes three Drosophila preparations: 1) adult brain dissection, 2) adult retina dissection and 3) developing eye disc- brain complexes dissection. Emphasis is laid on special preparation techniques and conditions for live imaging, although all preparations can be used for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry.

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three ...

Isolation of Drosophila melanogaster Testes

The testes of Drosophila melanogaster provide an important model for the study of stem cell maintenance and differentiation, meiosis, and soma-germline interactions. Testes are typically isolated from adult males 0-3 days after eclosion from the pupal case. The testes of wild-type flies are easily distinguished from other tissues because they are yellow, but the testes of white mutant flies, a common genetic background for laboratory experiments are similar in both shape and color to the fly gut. Performing dissection on a glass microscope slide with a black background makes identifying the testes considerably easier. Testes are removed from the flies using dissecting needles. Compared to protocols that use forceps for testes dissection, our method is far quicker, allowing a well-practiced individual to dissect testes from 200-300 wild-type flies per hour, yielding 400-600 testes. Testes from white flies or from mutants that reduce testes size are harder to dissect and typically yield 200-400 testes per hour.

Isolation of Drosophila melanogaster Testes

Drosophila melanogaster testes can be rapidly and efficiently isolated from adult males using dissecting needles. With practice, one can readily isolate in one or two days an amount of testes sufficient for the analysis of DNA or RNA by high throughput sequencing or more traditional molecular biology methods or of protein for antibody- or enzyme-based assays.

The testes of Drosophila melanogaster provide an important model for the study of stem cell maintenance and differentiation, meiosis, and soma-germline ...

Imaging Centrosomes in Fly Testes

Centrosomes are conserved microtubule-based organelles whose structure and function change dramatically throughout the cell cycle and cell differentiation. Centrosomes are essential to determine the cell division axis during mitosis and to nucleate cilia during interphase. The identity of the proteins that mediate these dynamic changes remains only partially known, and the function of many of the proteins that have been implicated in these processes is still rudimentary. Recent work has shown that Drosophila spermatogenesis provides a powerful system to identify new proteins critical for centrosome function and formation as well as to gain insight into the particular function of known players in centrosome-related processes. Drosophila is an established genetic model organism where mutants in centrosomal genes can be readily obtained and easily analyzed. Furthermore, recent advances in the sensitivity and resolution of light microscopy and the development of robust genetically tagged centrosomal markers have transformed the ability to use Drosophila testes as a simple and accessible model system to study centrosomes. This paper describes the use of genetically-tagged centrosomal markers to perform genetic screens for new centrosomal mutants and to gain insight into the specific function of newly identified genes.

Imaging of centrosomal proteins during Drosophila spermatogenesis is a powerful method to identify new proteins critical for centrosome biology as well as to elucidate the particular function of known players in this process.

Centrosomes are conserved microtubule-based organelles whose structure and function change dramatically throughout the cell cycle and cell ...

Sonication-facilitated Immunofluorescence Staining of Late-stage Embryonic and Larval Drosophila Tissues In Situ

Studies performed in Drosophila melanogaster embryos and larvae provide crucial insight into developmental processes such as cell fate specification and organogenesis. Immunostaining allows for the visualization of developing tissues and organs. However, a protective cuticle that forms at the end of embryogenesis prevents permeation of antibodies into late-stage embryos and larvae. While dissection prior to immunostaining is regularly used to analyze Drosophila larval tissues, it proves inefficient for some analyses because small tissues may be difficult to locate and isolate. Sonication provides an alternative to dissection in larval Drosophila immunostaining protocols. It allows for quick, simultaneous processing of large numbers of late-stage embryos and larvae and maintains in situ morphology. After fixation in formaldehyde, a sample is sonicated. Sample is then subjected to immunostaining with antigen-specific primary antibodies and fluorescently labeled secondary antibodies to visualize target cell types and specific proteins via fluorescence microscopy. During the process of sonication, proper placement of a sonicating probe above the sample, as well as the duration and intensity of sonication, is critical. Additonal minor modifications to standard immunostaining protocols may be required for high quality stains. For antibodies with low signal to noise ratio, longer incubation times are typically necessary. As a proof of concept for this sonication-facilitated protocol, we show immunostains of three tissue types (testes, ovaries, and neural tissues) at a range of developmental stages.

Sonication-facilitated Immunofluorescence Staining of Late-stage Embryonic and Larval Drosophila Tissues In Situ

Immunostaining is an effective technique for visualizing specific cell types and proteins within tissues. By utilizing sonication, the protocol described here alleviates the need to dissect Drosophila melanogaster tissues from late-stage embryos and larvae before immunostaining. We provide an efficient methodology for the immunostaining of formaldehyde-fixed whole mount larvae.

Studies performed in Drosophila melanogaster embryos and larvae provide crucial insight into developmental processes such as cell fate specification and ...

Ex vivo Culture of Drosophila Pupal Testis and Single Male Germ-line Cysts: Dissection, Imaging, and Pharmacological Treatment

During spermatogenesis in mammals and in Drosophila melanogaster, male germ cells develop in a series of essential developmental processes. This includes differentiation from a stem cell population, mitotic amplification, and meiosis. In addition, post-meiotic germ cells undergo a dramatic morphological reshaping process as well as a global epigenetic reconfiguration of the germ line chromatin&#8212;the histone-to-protamine switch.
Studying the role of a protein in post-meiotic spermatogenesis using mutagenesis or other genetic tools is often impeded by essential embryonic, pre-meiotic, or meiotic functions of the protein under investigation. The post-meiotic phenotype of a mutant of such a protein could be obscured through an earlier developmental block, or the interpretation of the phenotype could be complicated. The model organism Drosophila melanogaster offers a bypass to this problem: intact testes and even cysts of germ cells dissected from early pupae are able to develop ex vivo in culture medium. Making use of such cultures allows microscopic imaging of living germ cells in testes and of germ-line cysts. Importantly, the cultivated testes and germ cells also become accessible to pharmacological inhibitors, thereby permitting manipulation of enzymatic functions during spermatogenesis, including post-meiotic stages.
The protocol presented describes how to dissect and cultivate pupal testes and germ-line cysts. Information on the development of pupal testes and culture conditions are provided alongside microscope imaging data of live testes and germ-line cysts in culture. We also describe a pharmacological assay to study post-meiotic spermatogenesis, exemplified by an assay targeting the histone-to-protamine switch using the histone acetyltransferase inhibitor anacardic acid. In principle, this cultivation method could be adapted to address many other research questions in pre- and post-meiotic spermatogenesis.

Ex vivo Culture of Drosophila Pupal Testis and Single Male Germ-line Cysts: Dissection, Imaging, and Pharmacological Treatment

This protocol describes the dissection and cultivation of intact testes and germ-line cysts from Drosophila melanogaster pupae. This method allows microscopic observation of spermatogenesis ex vivo. Furthermore, we describe a pharmacological assay of the effect of inhibitors on specific stages of germ-cell development in pupal testes.

During spermatogenesis in mammals and in Drosophila melanogaster, male germ cells develop in a series of essential developmental processes. This includes ...

Immunostaining of Whole-Mount Drosophila Testes for 3D Confocal Analysis of Large Spermatocytes

Drosophila testes are a powerful model system for studying biological processes including stem cell biology, nuclear architecture, meiosis and sperm development. However, immunolabeling of the whole Drosophila testis is often associated with significant non-uniformity of staining due to antibody penetration. Squashed preparations only partially overcome the problem since it decreases the 3D quality of the analyses. Herein, we describe a whole-mount protocol using NP40 and heptane during fixation together with immunolabeling in liquid media. It preserves the volume suitable for confocal microscopy together with reproducible and reliable labeling. We show different examples of 3D reconstitution of spermatocyte nuclei from confocal sections. The intra- and inter-testes reproducibility allows 3D quantification and comparison of fluorescence between single cells from different genotypes. We used different components of the intranuclear MINT structure (Mad1-containing Intra Nuclear Territory) as well as two components associated with the nuclear pore complex to illustrate this protocol and its applications on the largest cells of the testis, the S4-S5 spermatocytes.

Immunostaining of Whole-Mount Drosophila Testes for 3D Confocal Analysis of Large Spermatocytes

We present here an improved protocol for the whole-mount preparation and immunostaining of Drosophila testes, suitable for confocal microscopy and also allowing reproducible and reliable labeling. We illustrate this protocol by 3D representation and quantification of colocalization experiments on the large S4-S5 spermatocytes.

Drosophila testes are a powerful model system for studying biological processes including stem cell biology, nuclear architecture, meiosis and sperm ...

Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

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