Gli autori desiderano ringraziare Michael Anderson per stabilire in laboratorio Lee questi metodi accettati per lo studio della spermatogenesi con la consulenza di esperti da Karen Hales. H. Oda e Y. Akiyama-Oda generosamente fornito la γ-tubulina-GFP volare stock. Questo lavoro è stato finanziato da una sovvenzione NIH R01 al LAL (GM074044).

1. Testicoli Dissection <ol><li> Anestetizzare mosche in una bottiglia o flacone utilizzando un flusso di CO 2 e trasferire ad un pad mosca. </li><li> In ordine mosche sotto un microscopio da dissezione utilizzando un pennello piccolo, e raccogliere un numero appropriato (seconda dell&#39;esperimento) di maschi di Drosophila dei genotipi desiderati. I maschi giovani (0-2 giorni) sono l&#39;ideale per l&#39;esame delle cellule durante i primi stadi della spermatogenesi (ad esempio spermatogoni, spermatociti e spermatidi precoci post-meiotiche), mentre i maschi leggermente più anziani (2-5 giorni) sono l&#39;ideale per l&#39;esame di cellule nelle fasi finali della spermatogenesi (in particolare, maturo sperma). </li><li> Usare pinze per rimuovere le ali di ogni volo (per evitare che le mosche dal galleggiante nel liquido durante la dissezione). </li><li> Aggiungere ~ 500 ml di tampone fosfato salino (130 mM NaCl, 7 mM Na 2 HPO 4, 3 mM NaH 2 PO 4; PBS) in una goccia di un piatto dissezione siliconata suuno sfondo nero. Altre soluzioni acquose sono state usate con successo per testicoli dissezione 3. </li><li> Punto pinza verso la parte anteriore della mosca, afferrarlo dal torace, ed immergerlo nella goccia PBS. Durante la visualizzazione attraverso il microscopio da dissezione, utilizzare un altro paio di pinze per afferrare e tirare la genitali esterni (struttura marrone scuro che si trova alla fine posteriore dell&#39;addome ventrale) posteriormente fino a quando si stacca dall&#39;addome. Nella maggior parte dei casi, i testicoli, vescicole seminali e ghiandole accessorie verranno rimossi dall&#39;addome insieme ai genitali esterni, se necessario, introdurre una sola coppia di pinze in addome e giro fuori testicoli. </li><li> Testicoli separati da ghiandole accessorie e genitali esterni con due coppie di pinze nei menu PBS (Figura 2). Wild-type testicoli sono facilmente distinguibili dai tessuti bianchi vicini per il loro colore giallo. Procedere immediatamente alla fase 2. </li><li> Per isolare testicoli dai maschi pharate (i.. E racchiuso nel bozzolo), una fase aggiuntiva deve essere eseguita prima che comporta la rimozione della mosca dal bozzolo; questo passo è stato precedentemente descritto altrove 31. Procedere con dissezione come per i testicoli adulti che iniziano nella fase 1.2. </li><li> Per isolare testicoli dai maschi larvali, eseguire una modifica di un protocollo per isolare ovaie larve di Drosophila 32. Brevemente, larve maschio può essere distinto da larve femmina dalla presenza di una coppia di grandi strutture chiare ovali (testicoli larvali) incorporati nel terzo posteriore del corpo grasso. Per isolare testicoli larvali, parzialmente scorticato aprire la larva maschio per isolare i testicoli e il corpo grasso circostante dall&#39;addome come descritto per l&#39;isolamento delle ovaie larvali. Procedere immediatamente alla fase 2 del protocollo qui descritto, i testicoli possono poi essere rimossi dal corpo grasso appena prima del montaggio (passi 2.3 o 3.14) come descritto per le ovaie 32. </li></ol><ol><li> Utilizzare un paio di pinze per inserire delicatamente 2-3 paia di testicoli in una goccia di 4-5 ml di PBS in una piazza copertura in vetro antiscivolo. Si noti che il rapporto tra numero di testicoli di volume di PBS può essere necessario regolare: troppo liquido impedire alle cellule di diffondere correttamente quando schiacciato, mentre troppo poco liquido indurre le cellule a scoppiare quando schiacciato. Facoltativo: Utilizzare copertura siliconata scivola per ridurre al minimo l&#39;aderenza del tessuto per coprire scivolare nella fase 3.2. </li><li> Usare un paio di pinze per lacerare ogni testicolo in una posizione appropriata in modo da massimizzare la presenza dei tipi di cellule germinali desiderati nella preparazione (si noti che il contenuto del testicolo saranno principalmente uscita dalla regione lacerata sul vetrino durante lo schiacciamento passo.) Per arricchire di spermatogoni e spermatociti, strappare aprire il testicolo adiacente alla sua estremità apicale (livello 1, Figura 2B). Per arricchire di spermatociti e spermatidi, strappo aprire il testicolo in un position leggermente basale al livello 1 (livello 2, Figura 2B). Per arricchire le cellule germinali più mature, strappare aperto il testicolo più vicino a dove la curvatura inizia (livello 3, Figura 2B). </li><li> Posizionare delicatamente un vetrino per microscopio sul vetrino di schiacciare i testicoli; non applicare pressione manualmente come il solo peso della copertura antiscivolo è sufficiente per ottenere un campione correttamente schiacciata. Cercate di evitare di intrappolare bolle d&#39;aria. Facoltativo: Utilizzo poli-L-lisina rivestite vetrini da microscopio per promuovere l&#39;adesione del tessuto a scorrere nel passaggio 3.2. </li><li> Utilizzare preparazione immediatamente (idealmente entro 15 minuti dalla preparazione) per osservare cellule vive mediante microscopia a contrasto di fase, per le mosche transgeniche con l&#39;espressione di proteine ​​con targhetta modo fluorescente nei testicoli, cellule vive possono essere esaminate al microscopio a fluorescenza in questa fase. In alternativa, procedere alla fissazione e colorazione anticorpo (Protocol 3). </li><li> Stoppino delicatamente il liquido in eccesso da sotto il vetrino con una pulizia wipe consentire appiattimento della preparazione finché le cellule germinali sono chiaramente a fuoco. </li></ol> 3. Formaldeide fissazione e colorazione anticorpale <ol><li> Snap congelare ogni diapositiva contenente testicoli schiacciati (dal protocollo 2) usando un paio di pinze di metallo per immergere brevemente in azoto liquido (fino azoto liquido si ferma bubbling). </li><li> Rimuovere immediatamente la polizza di copertura con una lama di rasoio. </li><li> Utilizzare pinze di metallo per trasferire le diapositive in una prechilled portavetrini bicchiere pieno di ghiaccio-freddo etanolo al 95% (grado spettrofotometrica, privo di metanolo). Conservare a -20 ° C per 10 min. </li><li> Utilizzare metallo molle a trasferire vetrini per un rack scorrevole in vetro riempita con formaldeide al 4% in PBS più 0,1% Triton X-100 (PBS-T). Conservare a temperatura ambiente per 7 min. </li><li> Utilizzare pinze di metallo per trasferire le diapositive di un rack scorrevole in vetro riempita con PBS. Lavare i vetrini in PBS per 5 min a temperatura ambiente. Ripetere 1x. Eseguire tutti i lavaggi scartando la soluzione nel rack vetrino ( <em&gt; Ie. versando fuori) e sostituzione con soluzione fresca. </li><li> Eliminare il PBS e immergere i vetrini in PBS-T per 30 min a temperatura ambiente per permeabilize membrane cellulari. </li><li> Lavare i vetrini in PBS per 5 min a temperatura ambiente. Ripetere 2x. </li><li> Blocco passo (opzionale): Immergere i vetrini in PBS più 1% BSA per 45 minuti a temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Utilizzare una penna barriera idrofobica per disegnare un cerchio sul vetrino intorno tessuto schiacciato (facilmente visibile a occhio) al fine di limitare le soluzioni di anticorpi (aggiunte in fasi 3.9 e 3.11). Il tessuto deve essere tenuto umido in ogni momento durante l&#39;esecuzione di immunoistochimica. </li><li> Aggiungere 30-40 ml di anticorpo primario (diluito in PBS-T, 1:400 a 1:50, secondo anticorpo) al tessuto all&#39;interno del cerchio. Se è stato eseguito il blocco, diluire l&#39;anticorpo primario in PBS-T più 1% BSA. Anti-gamma-tubulina anticorpo (per la colorazione di cntrosome in Figura 4) è stato diluito 1:100. Incubare in un umido, camera oscura (scatola di plastica per es. Chiusocon asciugamani umidi di carta) per 2 ore a temperatura ambiente o durante la notte a 4 ° C. </li><li> Lavare i vetrini in PBS per 5 min a 3x camera di temperatura. Se è effettuata blocco, lavare due volte in PBS-T e una volta in PBS (5 min a temperatura ambiente ciascuna). </li><li> Aggiungere 30-40 ml di anticorpo secondario coniugato con fluoroforo (diluito 1:400 in PBS) per il tessuto e incubare al buio per 1-2 ore a temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Lavare i vetrini in PBS per 5 min a temperatura ambiente. Ripetere 2x. </li><li> Aggiungere 30-40 ml di soluzione di DAPI (0,2 mg / ml in PBS) per il tessuto all&#39;interno del cerchio. </li><li> Posizionare delicatamente una scivolata copertura in vetro sopra il tessuto, avendo cura di evitare di intrappolare bolle d&#39;aria. Se devono apparire bolle d&#39;aria, muoversi con attenzione intorno la polizza di copertura senza distruggere la zucca fino a quando le bolle sfuggire ai lati del vetrino. </li><li> Utilizzare una pulizia wipe per cancellare l&#39;eccesso DAPI dai bordi della diapositiva. </li><li> Sigillare la polizza di copertura al vetrino con smalto trasparente. </li><li> Utilizzare questa preparazioneentro i prossimi 3-4 ore per vedere le cellule immunostained mediante microscopia a fluorescenza. Per la conservazione a lungo termine di diapositive (almeno fino a diverse settimane), utilizzare un supporto di montaggio dura a base di glicerolo-con DAPI, e conservare i vetrini a -20 ˚ C. </li><li> In alternativa, i campioni fissare in metanolo al posto di formaldeide (secondo l&#39;antigene). Dopo aver completato l&#39;intero protocollo di passaggio 3.2, immergere i vetrini di testicoli schiacciati in metanolo per 10 minuti a -20 ° C e procedere con passo 3.5 in poi. </li></ol>

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H., Perrimon, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeted+gene+expression+as+a+means+of+altering+cell+fates+and+generating+dominant+phenotypes.">Targeted gene expression as a means of altering cell fates and generating dominant phenotypes.</a> Development. 118, 401-415 (1993).</li><li>White-Cooper, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue+cell+type+and+stage-specific+ectopic+gene+expression+and+RNAi+induction+in+the+Drosophila+testis.">Tissue cell type and stage-specific ectopic gene expression and RNAi induction in the Drosophila testis.</a> Spermatogenesis. 2, 11-22 (2012).</li><li>Rebollo, E., Llamazares, S., Reina, J., Gonzalez, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+noncentrosomal+microtubules+to+spindle+assembly+in+Drosophila+spermatocytes.">Contribution of noncentrosomal microtubules to spindle assembly in Drosophila spermatocytes.</a> PLoS Biol. 2, (2004).</li><li>Cheng, J., Hunt, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time-lapse+live+imaging+of+stem+cells+in+Drosophila+testis.">Time-lapse live imaging of stem cells in Drosophila testis.</a> Curr. Protoc. Stem Cell. Biol.. 2, 10-1002 (2009).</li><li>Sheng, X. R., Matunis, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+imaging+of+the+Drosophila+spermatogonial+stem+cell+niche+reveals+novel+mechanisms+regulating+germline+stem+cell+output.">Live imaging of the Drosophila spermatogonial stem cell niche reveals novel mechanisms regulating germline stem cell output.</a> Development. 138, 3367-3376 (2011).</li><li>Belloni, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutations+in+Cog7+affect+Golgi+structure,+meiotic+cytokinesis+and+sperm+development+during+Drosophila+spermatogenesis.">Mutations in Cog7 affect Golgi structure, meiotic cytokinesis and sperm development during Drosophila spermatogenesis.</a> J. Cell Sci. 125, 5441-5452 (2012).</li><li>Moon, S., Cho, B., Min, S. H., Lee, D., Chung, Y. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+THO+complex+is+required+for+nucleolar+integrity+in+Drosophila+spermatocytes.">The THO complex is required for nucleolar integrity in Drosophila spermatocytes.</a> Development. 138, 3835-3845 (2011).</li><li>Wang, Z., Mann, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Requirement+for+two+nearly+identical+TGIF-related+homeobox+genes+in+Drosophila+spermatogenesis.">Requirement for two nearly identical TGIF-related homeobox genes in Drosophila spermatogenesis.</a> Development. 130, 2853-2865 (2003).</li></ol>

Gli autori dichiarano di non avere interessi finanziari in competizione.

Anche se i testicoli di wild-type mosche possono essere facilmente identificati grazie al loro colore giallo (in contrasto con i tessuti bianchi vicini), i testicoli di mosche mutanti bianchi sono bianchi e quindi può occasionalmente essere confusi con l&#39;intestino. Ceppi più transgenici, tipicamente in uno sfondo bianco, hanno anche testicoli bianchi perché il mini-bianco gene trovato P-elementi non promuove l&#39;accumulo di pigmento nei testicoli. Quando testicoli Drosoph...

Testicoli Drosophila sono un sistema modello ideale per lo studio di molti processi biologici che comprendono la regolazione delle cellule staminali, meiosi e sviluppo dello sperma 13-18. Gli spermatociti ed i loro fusi meiotiche sono grandi e quindi conveniente per l&#39;analisi citologica e rilassato checkpoint del ciclo cellulare durante la spermatogenesi facilitano lo studio delle mutazioni nei geni del ciclo cellulare. Diversi tipi di cellule possono essere osservati in progressione ordinata lungo la lunghezza dei testicoli, e qualsiasi problema nella spermatogenesi può portare a cambiamenti in questa disposizione complessiva. Queste caratteristiche combinate con strumenti genetici Drosophila hanno facilitato l&#39;analisi mutazionale della spermatogenesi 21-23. Le fasi di spermatogenesi Drosophila sono stati ben definiti. Cellule germinali che si sviluppano all&#39;interno sincrono cisti progrediscono sequenzialmente attraverso le fasi della spermatogenesi lungo la lunghezza del testicolo. Durante both mitotico e divisioni meiotica delle cellule germinali maschili, citochinesi si verifica incompleto tale che le cellule figlie rimangono collegati da ponti citoplasmatici noti come canale chiamato (Figura 1). La punta apicale del testicolo contiene una popolazione di cellule staminali germinali che dà origine a spermatogoni, che subiscono quattro divisioni mitotiche con citochinesi incompleto per generare cisti 16 cellule di spermatociti primari. Dopo la fase di premeiotic S, spermatociti primari entrano G2, un periodo di crescita prolungato di ~ 90 ore durante il quale aumenta il volume cellulare ~ 25 volte. Progressione attraverso meiosi I e meiosi II porta alla formazione di cisti 32 cellulari di spermatociti secondari e cisti 64 cellulari di spermatidi aploidi, rispettivamente. I, spermatidi rotondi immaturi sottoposti a numerosi rimodellamento cellulare per formare spermatozoi maturi. Cellule post-meiotiche, in particolare i fasci di allungamento e spermatidi maturi, occupano gran parte del volume del testicolo. Tegli trasporto successo di sperma funzionale alla linea femminile richiede un coordinamento tra le diverse parti del sistema riproduttivo maschile, che è composto da varie strutture accoppiati (i testicoli, vescicole seminali e ghiandole accessorie) e un unico condotto eiaculatorio (Figura 2). Spermatozoi sono prodotti nei testicoli e memorizzati all&#39;interno delle vescicole seminali fino copulazione 24. Le ghiandole accessorie contengono cellule secretorie che producono liquido seminale. Lo sperma migrazione dalle vescicole seminali sono mescolati con liquido seminale all&#39;interno del condotto eiaculatorio, che è collegato ad entrambe le vescicole seminali e ghiandole accessorie. Questa miscela di sperma e fluido seminale viene infine pompato fuori del maschio nella vagina della femmina volare attraverso il bulbo eiaculatorio situato all&#39;estremità posteriore del maschio addome 25. Le proteine ​​all&#39;interno del liquido seminale sono essenziali per la conservazione prolungata di spermatozoi all&#39;interno degli organi specializzati noto come spermateche in reptratto roductive di Drosophila femmine 26. Metodi eccellenti per l&#39;isolamento dei testicoli Drosophila e visualizzazione delle cellule nelle varie fasi della spermatogenesi sono disponibili nella letteratura scientifica 3-12. Noi qui aggiungiamo a questo corpo di conoscenze con la presentazione di esempi di questi protocolli con un video dimostrativo di accompagnamento. Il protocollo per la preparazione dei testicoli vivi campioni per la microscopia a contrasto di fase si basa su un metodo precedentemente descritto 27. Il protocollo per formaldeide fissazione e immunocolorazione di testicoli si basa su un metodo descritto in precedenza 28. I metodi qui descritti sono stati utilizzati in molti studi di Drosophila spermatogenesi (ad esempio, per valutare i ruoli di dineina, un motore microtubuli Minus estremità rivolta, durante la spermatogenesi Drosophila). Oltre ai protocolli di base, suggerimenti riportati varying la dissezione per arricchire di spermatogoni, spermatociti, o spermatozoi maturi. Diversi metodi di elaborazione dei testicoli tali che le cisti sia rimangono intatti o sono interrotti come necessario descritti. Un vantaggio nell&#39;uso testicoli Drosophila come sistema modello è che, rispetto ai ovociti ed embrioni di Drosophila, anticorpi e coloranti possono facilmente penetrare nelle cellule dopo la loro dispersione dai testicoli, e sono necessarie meno fasi di lavaggio, quindi, protocolli possono essere effettuate in un tempo relativamente breve tempo.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1013">
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			<td height="61" style="height:61px;width:351px;">Sylgard</td>
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			<td style="width:127px;">SYLG184</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">Two-part silicon elastomer for making silicone-coated dissection dish from Kimax Petri dish</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">PAP pen</td>
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			<td style="width:127px;">NC9888126</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ProLong Gold Antifade Reagent with DAPI</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Life Technologies</td>
			<td>P36931</td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Mouse anti-gamma-tubulin antibody (clone GTU-88)</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T6557</td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Cy3-AffiniPure Goat Anti-Mouse IgG&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td>115-165-003</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Triton X-100</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">16% Formaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
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			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:351px;">Sigmacote</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">SL2</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">Use according to manufacturer&#39;s directions to siliconize cover slips</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">DAPI</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">D-9542</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">0.5 mg/ml in 75% ethanol; store at -20&#176;C</td>
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			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:351px;">NaCl</td>
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			<td style="width:127px;">S23020</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Na2HPO4</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">S9763</td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">NaH2PO4</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">S0751</td>
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			<td style="width:321px;">Molecular biology grade</td>
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			<td height="41" style="height:41px;">Glass Coplin staining jar, screw cap</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>70315</td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Single frosted microscope slides</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>2948-75X25</td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
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			<td height="41" style="height:41px;">Poly-L-lysine coated microscope slides</td>
			<td>Polysciences, Inc.</td>
			<td>22247-1</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">Optional (to replace untreated microscope slides )</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Square cover glass</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">2865-22</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Razor blades</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">12-640</td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Kimax Petri dish</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:127px;">S31473</td>
			<td style="width:321px;">Kimble #23060 10015 EMD</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Forceps</td>
			<td>Dumont</td>
			<td>52100-51S</td>
			<td>Pattern 5 INOX</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;"></td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;"></td>
			<td style="width:215px;"></td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Name of Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Stemi 2000-CS stereoscope</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
		</tr>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Eclipse 80i</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Nikon</td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Plan-Fluor 40x objective</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Nikon</td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Axiophot</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Plan-Neofluar Ph2 40x objective</td>
			<td style="width:215px;">Carl Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
			<td style="width:321px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

cytological analysis of spermatogenesis: live and fixed preparations of drosophila testes

Drosophila melanogaster è un sistema potente modello che è stato ampiamente utilizzato per chiarire una varietà di processi biologici. Ad esempio, gli studi sia del femminile e linee germinali maschili di Drosophila hanno contribuito notevolmente alla comprensione corrente della meiosi e biologia delle cellule staminali. Protocolli eccellenti sono disponibili in letteratura per l&#39;isolamento e l&#39;imaging di Drosophila ovaie e testicoli 3-12. Qui, metodi per la dissezione e la preparazione dei testicoli Drosophila per l&#39;analisi microscopica sono descritti con un video dimostrativo accompagnamento. Un protocollo per isolare testicoli dall&#39;addome dei maschi adulti e preparare vetrini di tessuto reale per l&#39;analisi al microscopio a contrasto di fase e un protocollo per il fissaggio e immunocolorazione testicoli per l&#39;analisi al microscopio a fluorescenza sono rappresentati. Queste tecniche possono essere applicate nella caratterizzazione di mutanti di Drosophila che esibiscono defects nella spermatogenesi e nella visualizzazione delle localizzazioni subcellulari di proteine.

Un esempio di una coppia correttamente sezionato di organi riproduttivi maschili Drosophila è mostrato in Figura 2A. Testicoli rimossi dall&#39;addome della mosca maschio adulto sono tipicamente collegati al condotto eiaculatorio (marrone, Figura 2A &#39;) ed una coppia di ghiandole accessorie (verde, Figura 2A&#39;) tramite una coppia di vescicole seminali (blu, Figura 2A &#39;) . Per separare i testicoli dalla maggior parte del tessuto somat...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes at JoVE.com

Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

Metodi per isolare e preparare Drosophila testicoli campioni (vivere e fissa) per l&#39;imaging dal contrasto di fase e microscopia a fluorescenza sono descritte qui.

L&#39;analisi citologica della spermatogenesi: Preparati Live e fisse di<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Testicoli

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model system that has been widely used to elucidate a variety of biological processes. For example, studies of both ...

cytological-analysis-spermatogenesis-live-fixed-preparations

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

26.0K Views.  Vanderbilt University Medical Center.  Metodi per isolare e preparare Drosophila testicoli campioni (vivere e fissa) per l'imaging dal contrasto di fase e microscopia a fluorescenza sono descritte qui. 

Video: Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

Thin Sectioning of Slice Preparations for Immunohistochemistry

Many investigations in neuroscience, as well as other disciplines, involve studying small, yet macroscopic pieces or sections of tissue that have been preserved, freshly removed, or excised but kept viable, as in slice preparations of brain tissue.  Subsequent microscopic studies of this material can be challenging, as the tissue samples may be difficult to handle.  Demonstrated here is a method for obtaining thin cryostat sections of tissue with a thickness that may range from 0.2-5.0 mm.  We routinely cut 400 micron thick Vibratome brain slices serially into 5-10 micron coronal cryostat sections.  The slices are typically first used for electrophysiology experiments and then require microscopic analysis of the cytoarchitecture of the region from which the recordings were observed.  We have constructed a simple device that allows controlled and reproducible preparation and positioning of the tissue slice.  This device consists of a cylinder 5 cm in length with a diameter of 1.2 cm, which serves as a freezing stage for the slice.  A ring snugly slides over the cylinder providing walls around the slice allowing the tissue to be immersed in freezing compound (e.g., OCT).  This is then quickly frozen with crushed dry ice and the resulting  wafer  can be position easily for cryostat sectioning.  Thin sections can be thaw-mounted onto coated slides to allow further studies to be performed, such as various staining methods, in situ hybridization, or immunohistochemistry, as demonstrated here.

The present method allows reproducible cryostat sectioning of small, difficult-to-manage, tissue pieces, such as biopsies and brain slices. We utilize a simple aluminum freezing stage to facilitate handling of tissue and a standard cryostat to routinely produce 5-10 micron serial sections from 400 micron thick brain slices.

Sezionamento sottile fetta di preparativi per immunoistochimica

Many investigations in neuroscience, as well as other disciplines, involve studying small, yet macroscopic pieces or sections of tissue that have been ...

Ricerca

Biologia

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we present a protocol for the mounting of Drosophila melanogaster embryos and subsequent live imaging of fluorescently labeled hemocytes, the embryonic macrophages of this organism. Using the Gal4-uas system1 we drive the expression of a variety of genetically encoded, fluorescently tagged markers in hemocytes to follow their developmental dispersal throughout the embryo. Following collection of embryos at the desired stage of development, the outer chorion is removed and the embryos are then mounted in halocarbon oil between a hydrophobic, gas-permeable membrane and a glass coverslip for live imaging. In addition to gross migratory parameters such as speed and directionality, higher resolution imaging coupled with the use of fluorescent reporters of F-actin and microtubules can provide more detailed information concerning the dynamics of these cytoskeletal components.

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Drosophila hemocytes disperse over the entirety of the developing embryo. This protocol demonstrates how to mount and image these migrations using embryos with fluorescently labelled hemocytes.

Immagini dal vivo di Drosophila melanogaster Migrazioni Hemocyte embrionali

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we ...

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three preparations of the brain and visual system that cover the range from the developing eye disc-brain complex in the developing pupae to individual eye and brain dissection from adult flies. All protocols are optimized for the live culture of the preparations. However, we also present the conditions for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry where applicable. Finally, we show live imaging conditions for these preparations using conventional and resonant 4D confocal live imaging in a perfusion chamber. Together, these protocols provide a basis for live imaging on different time scales ranging from functional intracellular assays on the scale of minutes to developmental or degenerative processes on the scale of many hours.

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

This protocol describes three Drosophila preparations: 1) adult brain dissection, 2) adult retina dissection and 3) developing eye disc- brain complexes dissection. Emphasis is laid on special preparation techniques and conditions for live imaging, although all preparations can be used for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry.

Preparazione di Sviluppo e degli adulti Drosophila Brains e retina per l&#39;imaging dal vivo

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three ...

Live-cell Imaging and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Epithelial Cells in Xenopus laevis

Embryonic epithelial cells serve as an ideal model to study morphogenesis where multi-cellular tissues undergo changes in their geometry, such as changes in cell surface area and cell height, and where cells undergo mitosis and migrate. Furthermore, epithelial cells can also regulate morphogenetic movements in adjacent tissues1. A traditional method to study epithelial cells and tissues involve chemical fixation and histological methods to determine cell morphology or localization of particular proteins of interest. These approaches continue to be useful and provide "snapshots" of cell shapes and tissue architecture, however, much remains to be understood about how cells acquire specific shapes, how various proteins move or localize to specific positions, and what paths cells follow toward their final differentiated fate. High resolution live imaging complements traditional methods and also allows more direct investigation into the dynamic cellular processes involved in the formation, maintenance, and morphogenesis of multicellular epithelial sheets. Here we demonstrate experimental methods from the isolation of animal cap tissues from Xenopus laevis embryos to confocal imaging of epithelial cells and simple measurement approaches that together can augment molecular and cellular studies of epithelial morphogenesis.

Live-cell Imaging and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Epithelial Cells in Xenopus laevis

Xenopus embryonic epithelia are an ideal model system to study cell behaviors such as polarity development and shape change during epithelial morphogenesis. Traditional histology of fixed samples is increasingly being complemented by live-cell confocal imaging. Here we demonstrate methods to isolate frog tissues and visualize live epithelial cells and their cytoskeleton using live-cell confocal microscopy.

Live-cell imaging e analisi quantitativa della embrionali in cellule epiteliali Xenopus laevis</em

Embryonic epithelial cells serve as an ideal model to study morphogenesis where multi-cellular tissues undergo changes in their geometry, such as changes ...

Isolation of Drosophila melanogaster Testes

The testes of Drosophila melanogaster provide an important model for the study of stem cell maintenance and differentiation, meiosis, and soma-germline interactions. Testes are typically isolated from adult males 0-3 days after eclosion from the pupal case. The testes of wild-type flies are easily distinguished from other tissues because they are yellow, but the testes of white mutant flies, a common genetic background for laboratory experiments are similar in both shape and color to the fly gut. Performing dissection on a glass microscope slide with a black background makes identifying the testes considerably easier. Testes are removed from the flies using dissecting needles. Compared to protocols that use forceps for testes dissection, our method is far quicker, allowing a well-practiced individual to dissect testes from 200-300 wild-type flies per hour, yielding 400-600 testes. Testes from white flies or from mutants that reduce testes size are harder to dissect and typically yield 200-400 testes per hour.

Isolation of Drosophila melanogaster Testes

Drosophila melanogaster testes can be rapidly and efficiently isolated from adult males using dissecting needles. With practice, one can readily isolate in one or two days an amount of testes sufficient for the analysis of DNA or RNA by high throughput sequencing or more traditional molecular biology methods or of protein for antibody- or enzyme-based assays.

Isolamento di Drosophila melanogaster Testicoli

The testes of Drosophila melanogaster provide an important model for the study of stem cell maintenance and differentiation, meiosis, and soma-germline ...

Quantitative Live Cell Fluorescence-microscopy Analysis of Fission Yeast

Several microscopy techniques are available today that can detect a specific protein within the cell. During the last decade live cell imaging using fluorochromes like Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) directly attached to the protein of interest has become increasingly popular 1. Using GFP and similar fluorochromes the subcellular localisations and movements of proteins can be detected in a fluorescent microscope. Moreover, also the subnuclear localisation of a certain region of a chromosome can be studied using this technique. GFP is fused to the Lac Repressor protein (LacR) and ectopically expressed in the cell where tandem repeats of the lacO sequence has been inserted into the region of interest on the chromosome2. The LacR-GFP will bind to the lacO repeats and that area of the genome will be visible as a green dot in the fluorescence microscope. Yeast is especially suited for this type of manipulation since homologous recombination is very efficient and thereby enables targeted integration of the lacO repeats and engineered fusion proteins with GFP 3. Here we describe a quantitative method for live cell analysis of fission yeast. Additional protocols for live cell analysis of fission yeast can be found, for example on how to make a movie of the meiotic chromosomal behaviour 4. In this particular experiment we focus on subnuclear organisation and how it is affected during gene induction. We have labelled a gene cluster, named Chr1, by the introduction of lacO binding sites in the vicinity of the genes. The gene cluster is enriched for genes that are induced early during nitrogen starvation of fission yeast 5. In the strain the nuclear membrane (NM) is labelled by the attachment of mCherry to the NM protein Cut11 giving rise to a red fluorescent signal. The Spindle Pole body (SPB) compound Sid4 is fused to Red Fluorescent Protein (Sid4-mRFP) 6. In vegetatively growing yeast cells the centromeres are always attached to the SPB that is embedded in the NM 7. The SPB is identified as a large round structure in the NM. By imaging before and 20 minutes after depletion of the nitrogen source we can determine the distance between the gene cluster (GFP) and the NM/SPB. The mean or median distances before and after nitrogen depletion are compared and we can thus quantify whether or not there is a shift in subcellular localisation of the gene cluster after nitrogen depletion.

The fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, is a good model system to study basic cellular processes. Here we describe a method to perform quantitative live cell analysis of fission yeast. In this particular experiment we focus on organisation of the genome within the cell nucleus, but the method can also be used to study cytosolic factors.

Quantitativa vivo cellulare-microscopio a fluorescenza Analisi di lievito Fission

Several microscopy techniques are available today that can detect a specific protein within the cell. During the last decade live cell imaging using ...

Preparing Individual Drosophila Egg Chambers for Live Imaging

Live cell imaging is an important technique applied to a number of Drosophila tissues used as models to investigate topics such as axis specification, cell differentiation and organogenesis 1. Correct preparation of the experimental samples is a crucial, often neglected, step. The goal of preparation is to ensure physiological relevance and to establish optimal imaging conditions. To maintain tissue viability, it is critical to avoid dehydration, hypoxia, overheating or medium deterioration 2. 
 The Drosophila egg chamber is a well established system for examining questions relating, but not limited, to body patterning, mRNA localization and cytoskeletal organization 3,4. For early- and mid-stage egg chambers, mounting in halocarbon oil is good for survival in that it allows free diffusion of oxygen, prevents dehydration and hypoxia and has superb optical properties for microscopy. Imaging of fluorescent proteins is possible through the introduction of transgenes into the egg chamber or physical injection of labeled RNA, protein or antibodies 5-7. For example, addition of MS2 constructs to the genome of animals enables real time observation of mRNAs in the oocyte 8. These constructs allow for in vivo labeling of mRNA through utilization of the MS2 bacteriophage RNA stem loop interaction with its coat protein 9. 
 Here, we present a protocol for the extraction of ovaries as well as isolating individual ovarioles and egg chambers from the female Drosophila. For a detailed description of Drosophila oogenesis see Allan C. Spradling (1993, reprinted 2009) 10.

Preparing Individual Drosophila Egg Chambers for Live Imaging

The Drosophila egg chamber is an excellent model for studying the mechanisms of mRNA localization. In order to capture the dynamic events that underpin the processes of localization, rapid high resolution imaging of live tissue is required. Here, we present a protocol for dissection and imaging of live samples with minimal disruption.

Preparazione individuale Drosophila Egg Chambers per l&#39;imaging dal vivo

Live cell imaging is an important technique applied to a number of Drosophila tissues used as models to investigate topics such as axis specification, ...

Live Imaging of GFP-labeled Proteins in Drosophila Oocytes

The Drosophila oocyte has been established as a versatile system for investigating fundamental questions such as cytoskeletal function, cell organization, and organelle structure and function. The availability of various GFP-tagged proteins means that many cellular processes can be monitored in living cells over the course of minutes or hours, and using this technique, processes such as RNP transport, epithelial morphogenesis, and tissue remodeling have been described in great detail in Drosophila oocytes1,2.
The ability to perform video imaging combined with a rich repertoire of mutants allows an enormous variety of genes and processes to be examined in incredible detail. One such example is the process of ooplasmic streaming, which initiates at mid-oogenesis3,4. This vigorous movement of cytoplasmic vesicles is microtubule and kinesin-dependent5 and provides a useful system for investigating cytoskeleton function at these stages.
Here I present a protocol for time lapse imaging of living oocytes using virtually any confocal microscopy setup.

Live Imaging of GFP-labeled Proteins in Drosophila Oocytes

A protocol for live imaging of GFP-tagged proteins or autofluorescent structures in individual Drosophila oocytes is described.

Vivo Imaging delle proteine ​​GFP-etichettati in<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Gli oociti

The  Drosophila oocyte has been established as a versatile system for investigating  fundamental questions such as cytoskeletal function, cell ...

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

The proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal development in all metazoan organisms. Apoptotic cell clearance is a highly dynamic process intimately associated with cell death; unengulfed apoptotic cells are barely seen in vivo under normal conditions. In order to understand the different steps of apoptotic cell clearance and to compare 'professional' phagocytes - macrophages and dendritic cells to 'non-professional' - tissue-resident neighboring cells, in vivo live imaging of the process is extremely valuable. Here we describe a protocol for studying apoptotic cell clearance in live Drosophila embryos. To follow the dynamics of different steps in phagocytosis we use specific markers for apoptotic cells and phagocytes. In addition, we can monitor two phagocyte systems in parallel: 'professional' macrophages and 'semi-professional' glia in the developing central nervous system (CNS). The method described here employs the Drosophila embryo as an excellent model for real time studies of apoptotic cell clearance.

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Here we describe an effective method for studying dynamics of apoptotic cell clearance in vivo. This method employs live Drosophila embryos as a powerful model for monitoring phagocytosis of apoptotic cells using specific labeling of apoptotic cells and phagocytes.

Vivere Imaging di apoptotica delle cellule libera nel corso<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Embriogenesi

The  proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and  subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal  ...

Live Cell Cycle Analysis of Drosophila Tissues using the Attune Acoustic Focusing Cytometer and Vybrant DyeCycle Violet DNA Stain

Flow cytometry has been widely used to obtain information about DNA content in a population of cells, to infer relative percentages in different cell cycle phases. This technique has been successfully extended to the mitotic tissues of the model organism Drosophila melanogaster for genetic studies of cell cycle regulation in vivo. When coupled with cell-type specific fluorescent protein expression and genetic manipulations, one can obtain detailed information about effects on cell number, cell size and cell cycle phasing in vivo. However this live-cell method has relied on the use of the cell permeable Hoechst 33342 DNA-intercalating dye, limiting users to flow cytometers equipped with a UV laser. We have modified this protocol to use a newer live-cell DNA dye, Vybrant DyeCycle Violet, compatible with the more common violet 405nm laser. The protocol presented here allows for efficient cell cycle analysis coupled with cell type, relative cell size and cell number information, in a variety of Drosophila tissues. This protocol extends the useful cell cycle analysis technique for live Drosophila tissues to a small benchtop analyzer, the Attune Acoustic Focusing Cytometer, which can be run and maintained on a single-lab scale.

Live Cell Cycle Analysis of Drosophila Tissues using the Attune Acoustic Focusing Cytometer and Vybrant DyeCycle Violet DNA Stain

A protocol for cell cycle analysis of live Drosophila tissues using the Attune Acoustic Focusing Cytometer is described. This protocol simultaneously provides information about relative cell size, cell number, DNA content and cell type via lineage tracing or tissue specific expression of fluorescent proteins in vivo.

Analisi del ciclo cellulare dal vivo di<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; I tessuti utilizzando l&#39;Sintonizzatevi Acoustic Concentrandosi Cytometer e Vybrant DyeCycle Violet DNA Stain

Flow cytometry has  been widely used to obtain information about DNA content in a population of  cells, to infer relative percentages in different cell ...