This work was supported by The National Institute of Health (NIH-2RO1NS033661) and by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station (HATCH ALA021-1-09017).

NOTE: All procedures performed here were submitted to and approved by IACUC (Office of Research Compliance) and were conducted following NIH guidelines. Mice used in the behavioral testing paradigm were naive and not used for other tests. The C57BL/6 Wild Type and Knock Out mice used in this protocol have been described previously9 and the data presented here are from that manuscript.
1. Preparation of the Testing Room and Open Field Apparatus
<ol>
	<li>Use a multiple unit open field maze (OFM) consisting of four activity chambers was used for this analysis (Figure 1). Each chamber measured 50 cm (length) x 50 cm (width) x 38 cm (height) and was made from white high density and non-porous plastic.</li>
	<li>Texture the floors of the maze for traction during ambulation while maze walls were smooth. Maze quadrants were completely empty for the purpose of this test. In consideration of the rest of this protocol, a single quadrant of the maze described above will be utilized to demonstrate the OFM.</li>
	<li>Wipe the chamber with a 95% Ethanol prior to use and before subsequent tests to remove any scent clues left by the previous subject mouse.</li>
	<li>Allow the ethanol to evaporate completely prior to testing mice. This may take 5-10 min between each testing session.</li>
	<li>For this analysis, use the SMART Video Tracking software from PanLab/Harvard Apparatus to record and evaluate mouse movement. 
	NOTE: Any commercial video tracking camera and software may be used to track the test subject and evaluate results from the open field maze. It is very important for the end user to understand how to calibrate and run the software used for each individual analysis. Regardless of the video camera and tracking software used, best results are obtained when the camera and software are correctly calibrated according to the manufacturer&#8217;s instructions.</li>
	<li>Perform the testing in a standard lit room capable of containing the maze apparatus and the computer required to run the software. Suspend the video camera above the maze either by attaching it to the ceiling or by using any elevated support system which allows the camera lens to see the entire maze area (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>As the human administrator of the test, be sure to have enough space in the room to be completely unobservable by the test subjects in the maze so as not to influence behavior of the mice.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparing the Software to Measure Activity
<ol>
	<li>Open the Video Tracking software.</li>
	<li>Once the software is opened, move the cursor to the &#8220;Single-subject tracking&#8221; option located under the &#8220;Data Acquisition&#8221; tab and single click to open this option.</li>
	<li>Choose the &#8220;Static Background&#8221; option located at the bottom of the screen.</li>
	<li>After choosing &#8220;Static Background&#8221; is chosen, it is necessary to use the software to take an image of the maze prior to addition of the test subjects. To do this, move the cursor to the &#8220;Photo&#8221; button located at the bottom of the screen and single click. 
	NOTE: The software will take a picture of the scenario without the test subject which will be subtracted from the image taken during the tracking process. This results in only the movement of the subject being analyzed by the software.</li>
	<li>Confirm that the background image taken above is completely removed by the tracking software by moving the cursor to the &#8220;Test&#8221; button located at the bottom of the screen and clicking once. A solid white field will be shown if the background image is completely removed from the tracking image. If lighting conditions change or the maze is accidentally moved, you will see black &#8220;shadows&#8221; in this field indicating the two images do not perfectly coincide. To remedy this situation, simply repeat step 2.4 above.</li>
	<li>After confirming background settings, use the Timing option to configure the way time is controlled during acquisition. To do this, move the cursor to the &#8220;Configuration&#8221; tab and click once on the &#8220;Timings&#8221; heading. Use the newly opened window to enter experimental parameters.</li>
	<li>For this protocol, chose the &#8220;Programmed time&#8221; option as 10 min tracking period. Set the &#8220;Latency period&#8221; to 5 sec to allow the user time to place the mouse in the center of the maze and move away prior to initiation of tracking. Enter the &#8220;Acquisition time&#8221; of 10 min for the duration of the test. Set the &#8220;Stop control&#8221; set to &#8220;When programmed time (10 min) is over&#8221; which will automatically turn off the camera and the tracking function of the software.</li>
	<li>Move the cursor to the &#8220;Close&#8221; button after all timings have been set to close the window. You are now ready to begin the testing procedure.</li>
</ol>
3. Administration of the Open Field Test
NOTE: The software package used in this protocol allows the tracking of up to 16 individual mice at one time. For ease of completion and as mentioned above, the protocol discussed here is for a single mouse using a single quadrant of the OFM. For the equipment in use for this protocol, a maximum of 4 individual mice could be tracked using each quadrant of the maze. If utilizing a multi-enclosure maze, after placing the first subject mouse in its defined quadrant, place the remaining mice into their respective maze quadrant for tracking analysis. For the purposes of this protocol, further instruction will be specific to a single quadrant of the maze.
<ol>
	<li>Bring the mice in their home cages from their housing room into the testing room. Allow the mice to acclimate to the procedure room for a minimum of 30 min prior to starting the test.</li>
	<li>Remove a single mouse from the home cage by gently grasping its tail and place the mouse in the middle of the open field maze while concurrently activating the SMART software by single clicking on the Start button to begin tracking mouse movement. It is normal for the mouse to move immediately to the periphery walls of the maze and the timing of release and tracking capture of the mouse should coincide to record this movement.</li>
	<li>Allow free and uninterrupted movement of the subject mouse throughout the respective quadrant of the maze for a single 10 min period during which time, the tracking software will record movement (Figure 3).</li>
	<li>At the end of the test period, pick up the subject mouse gently, removing it from the maze and return it to its home cage.</li>
	<li>Prior to cleaning the maze, visually count the fecal boli pellets present in the maze and manually record the numbers for further analysis.</li>
	<li>Remove all fecal pellets and wipe up all spots of urination. Spray the floor and walls of the maze quadrant with 95% ethanol and wipe down with a clean paper towel. Allow the ethanol solution to completely dry prior to testing other mice.</li>
	<li>Repeat the procedure with the next mouse.</li>
</ol>
4. Measurement and Analysis of Behavior During Testing Procedure
NOTE: For measurement, three aspects of open field behavior are readily characterized using this protocol (see discussion). A brief instruction on how to access these measurements in the video tracking software follows.
<ol>
	<li>From the main screen of the SMART software, move the cursor to the &#8220;Zones&#8221; tab and single click &#8220;Definition&#8221; to open the Zone Editor.</li>
	<li>Follow the detailed instructions in the SMART software User&#8217;s Manual do define zones or grids to overlay on the tracking paths. Here, the software was used to define a 5 x 5 grid of 10 cm squares covering the floor of the maze (Figure 4). Be sure to save the zone file created prior to closing the Zone Editor.</li>
	<li>From the main screen of the SMART software, move the cursor to the &#8220;Analysis&#8221; tab and single click to open the Data Analysis window.</li>
	<li>Move the cursor to the &#8220;File&#8221; tab and open the Zone file created above.</li>
	<li>Move the cursor to the &#8220;Configuration&#8221; tab and open the &#8220;Track Analysis&#8221; option. This will open the &#8220;Single-subject analysis configuration&#8221; window.
	<ol>
		<li>Move the cursor to the &#8220;Standard&#8221; tab and move the &#8220;Travelled distance&#8221; parameter from the Available Parameters box (left side) to the Included Parameters box (right side).</li>
		<li>Move the cursor to the &#8220;Zones Transitions&#8221; tab and move all appropriate parameters to the Included Parameters box as above.</li>
		<li>Make sure the &#8220;Full Track&#8221; box is checked at the bottom of the window.</li>
		<li>Move the cursor to the OK button and close the Single-subject analysis configuration window. 
		NOTE: Depending on the analysis you wish to perform, many other options can be chosen in this window to mine data from the analysis. Read the detailed User&#8217;s Manual of your specific program to determine what parameters are most important for analysis of your data.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Under the File tab at the upper left of the program window, open the Single subject track window and place a check mark beside all tracks being analyzed. Move the cursor to the Check Mark button at the top of the window and click to close the Track Explorer window.</li>
	<li>Move the cursor to the &#8220;Go&#8221; button in the Data Analysis window and single click to initiate analysis of the track data.</li>
	<li>Analysis data can be output as either ASCII text files or it can be directly exported into an EXCEL spreadsheet. Use the output tools of the software program you are using to output the data for your own use. 
	NOTE: Total distance traveled and time spent in indicated zones will be output following the data analysis steps outlined above. Again, it is stressed that the steps to reach these measurements represented here will differ depending on the user software used. But the data itself and the interpretation of the results should be similar independent of the software program used. It is also worth noting that test administrator bias is removed from this protocol as all the data collected is quantified data measured by the software and not the administrator. Thus there is no qualifiable element to the data collected as described.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The Open Field Maze is one of the most widely used platforms in animal behavioral studies. A number of important conventional and ethological parameters2,4 can be collected and analyzed during the performance of the OFM. These data allow the researcher to measure behaviors ranging from overall locomotor activity to anxiety-related emotional behaviors8. However, use of OFM is not without its shortcomings. One confounding issue is the wide range of static variables that can be manipulated during any t...

The Open Field Maze (OFM) was initially developed in 1934 as a test to measure emotionality in rodents1. It has attained the status of being one of the most widely used measures of behavior in animal psychology2. It provides an easy and fairly rapid assessment of well-defined behaviors requiring no training to the test subject and little to no specialized training for the human administering the test. These attributes have led to wide-spread use of the open field maze in research extended to other animal species such as calves, pigs, rabbits, primates, honeybees and lobsters3. Part of its popularity arises from the fact that the psychological and physiological concepts underlying the tests are generally straight-forward and well understood. For example, it has been postulated that evolutionary forces have selected for a common response in animals such that most species display anxiety-mediated fear or flight responses to specific stimuli. Rodents for example, show distinct aversions to large, brightly lit, open and unknown environments4. We can assume they have been phylogenetically conditioned to see these types of environments as dangerous. All of these features are incorporated in the open field maze and form the basis of its use in behavioral paradigm testing.
An open field maze consists of a wall-enclosed area that is of sufficient height to prevent the subject from escaping. Typical maze shapes are circular or square with an area large enough, based on the size of the subject tested, to elicit a feeling of openness in the center of the maze. A number of variables can be scored in the open field maze with most parameters involving differing types of motor activity2. Ambulation is the most common behavior studied but others such as latency or rearing can also be measured. Most often, rodent behavior is analyzed in a bare maze. However, the addition of objects, either one or many to the maze floor, adds the ability to see how the subject interacts with novel additional stimuli2. Relevant parameters when objects are presented are typically the number of approaches to an object or in some cases, preference or aversion for one object over another.
Many behavioral tests of anxiety are based on the subject animal&#8217;s body activity and locomotion5. Interpreting behavioral tests for emotionality while separating non-emotional confounding factors, such as motor activity, has been the subject of intense debate6,7. As the OFM was originally described, two measures of emotionality can be deduced, locomotor activity and fecal boli deposits or defecation1. However, these two measures have been shown in some studies to be unrelated supporting the conclusion that emotionality in rodents is multidimensional5. Regardless, discrepancies in the literature regarding these measures and emotionality or anxiety in mouse models may be attributed to differences in analysis criteria or differences in testing procedures. Studies have conclusively linked results from OFM analysis with other measures of anxiety when comparing mouse models8.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Multi Unit Open Field Test</td><td>San Diego Instruments, Inc.</td><td>White 7001-0354</td><td>Any single or multi unit open field maze can be used</td></tr><tr><td>SMART DT Tracking Software</td><td>PanLab/Harvard Apparatus</td><td>76-0695</td><td>Any tracking software can be utilized with this protocol</td></tr><tr><td>Sony 990x Video Camera Recorder</td><td>Sony</td><td>CCD-TRV328</td><td>Any suitable video camera can be attached to computer for recording tracking profiles.</td></tr></tbody></table>

use of the open field maze to measure locomotor and anxiety-like behavior in mice

Animal models have proven to be invaluable to researchers trying to answer questions regarding the mechanisms of behavior. The Open Field Maze is one of the most commonly used platforms to measure behaviors in animal models. It is a fast and relatively easy test that provides a variety of behavioral information ranging from general ambulatory ability to data regarding the emotionality of the subject animal. As it relates to rodent models, the procedure allows the study of different strains of mice or rats both laboratory bred and wild-captured. The technique also readily lends itself to the investigation of different pharmacological compounds for anxiolytic or anxiogenic effects. Here, a protocol for use of the open field maze to describe mouse behaviors is detailed and a simple analysis of general locomotor ability and anxiety-related emotional behaviors between two strains of C57BL/6 mice is performed. Briefly, using the described protocol we show Wild Type mice exhibited significantly less anxiety related behaviors than did age-matched Knock Out mice while both strains exhibited similar ambulatory ability.

The average number of individuals per strain of mice tested in most cases is approximately 20 to generate sufficient statistical relevance. However, this number can be in the range of 8-30 depending on mouse availability. Depending on the measurement or comparisons required, it is also favorable to use age-matched subjects.
The first and arguably most important specific parameter to measure in the Open Field Maze is total ambulatory distance. While the unit of measure is irrelevant for compari...

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Use of the Open Field Maze to Measure Locomotor and Anxiety-like Behavior in Mice

A protocol is provided to use an Open Field Maze to access general locomotor activity, anxiety and emotionality in a laboratory mouse model.

Animal models have proven to be invaluable to researchers trying to answer questions regarding the mechanisms of behavior. The Open Field Maze is one of ...

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72.7K Views.  Auburn University. A protocol is provided to use an Open Field Maze to access general locomotor activity, anxiety and emotionality in a laboratory mouse model.

Video: Use of the Open Field Maze to Measure Locomotor and Anxiety-like Behavior in Mice

The Successive Alleys Test of Anxiety in Mice and Rats

The plus-maze was derived from the early work of Montgomery. He observed that rats tended to avoid the open arms of a maze, preferring the enclosed ones. Handley, Mithani and File et al. performed the first studies on the plus-maze design we use today, and in 1987 Lister published a design for use with mice. 
Time spent on, and entries into, the open arms are an index of anxiety; the lower these indices, the more anxious the mouse is. Alternatively, a mouse that spends most of its time in the closed arms is classed as anxious. 
One of the problems of the plus-maze is that, while time spent on, and entries into, the open arms is a fairly unambiguous measure of anxiety, time in the central area is more difficult to interpret, although time spent here has been classified as &#x201C;decision making&#x201D;. In many tests central area time is a considerable part of the total test time.
Shepherd et al. produced an ingenious design to eliminate the central area, which they called the &#x201C;zero maze&#x201D;. However, although used by several groups, it has never been as widely adopted as the plus-maze. 
In the present article I describe a modification of the plus-maze design that not only eliminates the central area but also incorporates elements from other anxiety tests, such as the light-dark box and emergence tests. It is a linear series of four alleys, each having increasing anxiogenic properties. It has given similar results to the plus-maze in general. Although it may not be more sensitive than the plus-maze (more data is needed before a firm conclusion can be reached on this point), it provides a useful confirmation of plus-maze results which would be useful when, for example, only a single example of a mutant mouse was available, as, for example, in ENU-based mutagenesis programs.

The plus-maze measures anxiety-like behaviour in rodents. There are two opposite closed and two opposite open arms; anxious rodents avoid the open arms. The central area is neither completely open nor closed, so time spent here is ambiguous and difficult to interpret. Here a modification of the plus-maze protocol eliminating this area is described.

The plus-maze was derived from the early work of Montgomery. He observed that rats tended to avoid the open arms of a maze, preferring the enclosed ones.  ...

Barnes Maze Testing Strategies with Small and Large Rodent Models

Spatial learning and memory of laboratory rodents is often assessed via navigational ability in mazes, most popular of which are the water and dry-land (Barnes) mazes. Improved performance over sessions or trials is thought to reflect learning and memory of the escape cage/platform location. Considered less stressful than water mazes, the Barnes maze is a relatively simple design of a circular platform top with several holes equally spaced around the perimeter edge. All but one of the holes are false-bottomed or blind-ending, while one leads to an escape cage. Mildly aversive stimuli (e.g.&#160;bright overhead lights) provide motivation to locate the escape cage. Latency to locate the escape cage can be measured during the session; however, additional endpoints typically require video recording. From those video recordings, use of automated tracking software can generate a variety of endpoints that are similar to those produced in water mazes (e.g.&#160;distance traveled, velocity/speed, time spent in the correct quadrant, time spent moving/resting, and confirmation of latency). Type of search strategy (i.e.&#160;random, serial, or direct) can be categorized as well. Barnes maze construction and testing methodologies can differ for small rodents, such as mice, and large rodents, such as rats. For example, while extra-maze cues are effective for rats, smaller wild rodents may require intra-maze cues with a visual barrier around the maze. Appropriate stimuli must be identified which motivate the rodent to locate the escape cage. Both Barnes and water mazes can be time consuming as 4-7 test trials are typically required to detect improved learning and memory performance (e.g.&#160;shorter latencies or path lengths to locate the escape platform or cage) and/or differences between experimental groups. Even so, the Barnes maze is a widely employed behavioral assessment measuring spatial navigational abilities and their potential disruption by genetic, neurobehavioral manipulations, or drug/ toxicant exposure.

The dry-land Barnes maze is widely used to measure spatial navigation ability in response to mildly aversive stimuli. Over consecutive days, performance (e.g.&#160;latency to locate escape cage) of control subjects improves, indicative of normal learning and memory. Differences between rats and mice necessitate apparatus and methodology changes that are detailed here.

Spatial learning and memory of laboratory rodents is often assessed via navigational ability in mazes, most popular of which are the water and dry-land ...

Place and Response Learning in the Open-field Tower Maze

This protocol describes how the Open-field Tower Maze (OFTM) paradigm is used to study spatial learning in rodents. This maze is especially useful for examining how rats learn to use a place- or response-learning to successfully navigate in an open-field arena. Additionally, this protocol describes how the OFTM differs from other behavioral maze paradigms that are commonly used to study spatial learning in rodents. The OFTM described in this article was adapted from the one previously described by Cole, Clipperton, and Walt (2007). Specifically, the OFTM was created to test spatial learning in rodents without the experimenter having to consider how &#8220;stress&#8221; might play a role as a confounding variable. Experiments have shown that stress-alone can significantly affect cognitive function1. The representative results section contains data from an experiment that used the OFTM to examine the effects of estradiol treatment on place- and response-learning in adult female Sprague Dawley rats2. Future studies will be designed to examine the role of the hippocampus and striatum in place- and response-learning in the OFTM.

The Open-field Tower Maze (OFTM) is a maze created to study the behavioral and neural mechanisms of spatial learning (e.g., place- or response-learning) in rats. This maze is especially useful for experimenters who want to use a non-stressful maze paradigm to investigate spatial learning in their research.

This protocol describes how the Open-field Tower Maze (OFTM) paradigm is used to study spatial learning in rodents. This maze is especially useful for ...

Novel Object Exploration as a Potential Assay for Higher Order Repetitive Behaviors in Mice

Restricted, repetitive behaviors (RRBs) are a core feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and disrupt the lives of affected individuals. RRBs are commonly split into lower-order and higher-order components, with lower order RRBs consisting of motor stereotypies and higher order RRBs consisting of perseverative and sequencing behaviors. Higher order RRBs are challenging to model in mice. Current assays for RRBs in mice focus primarily on the lower order components, making basic biomedical research into potential treatments or interventions for higher-order RRBs difficult. Here we describe a new assay, novel object exploration. This assay uses a basic open-field arena with four novel objects placed around the perimeter. The test mouse is allowed to freely explore the arena and the order in which the mouse investigates the novel objects is recorded. From these data, patterned sequences of exploration can be identified, as can the most preferred object for each mouse. The representative data shared here and past results using the novel object exploration assay illustrate that inbred mouse strains do demonstrate different behavior in this assay and that strains with elevated lower order RRBs also show elevated patterned behavior. As such, the novel object exploration assay appears to possess good face validity for higher order RRBs in humans and may be a valuable assay for future studies investigating novel therapeutics for ASD.

Higher order restricted, repetitive behaviors (RRBs) disrupt the lives of affected individuals. These behaviors are challenging to model in rodents, making basic biomedical research into potential treatments or interventions for RRBs difficult. Here we describe novel object exploration as a potential assay for higher order RRBs in mice.

Restricted, repetitive behaviors (RRBs) are a core feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and disrupt the lives of affected individuals.  RRBs are ...

Elevated Plus Maze for Mice

Although the mouse genome is now completely sequenced, the functions of most of the genes expressed in the brain are not known. The influence of a given gene on a specific behavior can be determined by behavioral analysis of mutant mice. If a target gene is expressed in the brain, behavioral phenotype of the mutant mice could elucidate the genetic mechanism of normal behaviors. The elevated plus maze test is one of the most widely used tests for measuring anxiety-like behavior. The test is based on the natural aversion of mice for open and elevated areas, as well as on their natural spontaneous exploratory behavior in novel environments. The apparatus consists of open arms and closed arms, crossed in the middle perpendicularly to each other, and a center area. Mice are given access to all of the arms and are allowed to move freely between them. The number of entries into the open arms and the time spent in the open arms are used as indices of open space-induced anxiety in mice. Unfortunately, the procedural differences that exist between laboratories make it difficult to duplicate and compare results among laboratories. Here, we present a detailed movie demonstrating our protocol for the elevated plus maze test. In our laboratory, we have assessed more than 90 strains of mutant mice using the protocol shown in the movie. These data will be disclosed as a part of a public database that we are now constructing.
Visualization of the protocol will promote better understanding of the details of the entire experimental procedure, allowing for standardization of the protocols used in different laboratories and comparisons of the behavioral phenotypes of various strains of mutant mice assessed using this test. 


The elevated plus maze test is one of the most widely used tests for measuring anxiety-like behavior in mice. Here, we present a movie showing the detailed procedures for conducting the test.

Although the mouse genome is now completely sequenced, the functions of most of the genes expressed in the brain are not known. The influence of a given ...

Biology

Analyzing Spatial Learning and Prosocial Behavior in Mice Using the Barnes Maze and Damsel-in-Distress Paradigms

The Barnes maze is a reliable measure of spatial learning and memory that does not require food restriction or exposure to extremely stressful stimuli. The Barnes maze can also assess other mouse behaviors, such as general motivation to escape from the maze platform and exploratory behavior. The Barnes maze can measure whether a genetic mutation or environmental variable can impact the acquisition and retention of spatial memories, as well as provide information about the search strategy employed by the mice. Here we use the Barnes maze to detect a memory deficit in adult mice following a single developmental ethanol exposure event. The newly described Damsel-in-Distress paradigm exposes a male mouse to a female mouse trapped in a chamber in the open center field of the arena. It provides an opportunity for the mouse to socially respond to the trapped female and exhibit prosocial behavior. The Damsel-in-Distress paradigm can also be used to examine mouse behavior in a novel arena and measure locomotor activity. Both the Barnes Maze and the Damsel-in-Distress protocols require minimal financial investment and most aspects of the tests can be constructed from common lab supplies. These flexible and accessible tools can also be used to detect behavioral changes over the course of development.

This protocol measures spatial learning and memory using the Barnes maze. A novel Damsel-in-Distress paradigm is used to assess locomotor activity and prosocial behavior in mice.

The Barnes maze is a reliable measure of spatial learning and memory that does not require food restriction or exposure to extremely stressful stimuli. ...

A Behavioral Test Battery for the Repeated Assessment of Motor Skills, Mood, and Cognition in Mice

Pharmacological and toxicological studies in neurodegeneration require comprehensive behavioral analysis in mice because motor dysfunctions and dysfunctions in mood and cognition are common and often shared symptoms in neurodegenerative diseases. Shown here is a behavioral test battery for motor, mood, and cognition, which can be repeatedly tested in a longitudinal study. This battery assesses the overall behavioral phenotype in mice by examining each domain of behavior with at least two independent well-accepted tests (i.e., open-field test and rotarod test for motor function, social interaction test, elevated plus maze test, and forced swim test for emotional function, and Morris water maze test and novel object recognition test for cognitive function). Therefore, this sensitive and comprehensive test battery is a powerful tool for the study of behavioral alternation in neurodegeneration.

A comprehensive behavioral test battery of motor skills, mood&#8212;including social interaction, depression, and anxiety&#8212;and cognition is designed for the repeated assessment of neurodegeneration-related behavioral changes in mice.

Pharmacological and toxicological studies in neurodegeneration require comprehensive behavioral analysis in mice because motor dysfunctions and ...

Optogenetic Manipulation of Neuronal Activity to Modulate Behavior in Freely Moving Mice

Optogenetic modulation of neuronal circuits in freely moving mice affects acute and long-term behavior. This method is able to perform manipulations of single neurons and region-specific transmitter release, up to whole neuronal circuitries in the central nervous system, and allows the direct measurement of behavioral outcomes. Neurons express optogenetic tools via an injection of viral vectors carrying the DNA of choice, such as Channelrhodopsin2 (ChR2). Light is brought into specific brain regions via chronic optical implants that terminate directly above the target region. After two weeks of recovery and proper tool-expression, mice can be repeatedly used for behavioral tests with optogenetic stimulation of the neurons of interest.
Optogenetic modulation has a high temporal and spatial resolution that can be accomplished with high cell specificity, compared to the commonly used methods such as chemical or electrical stimulation. The light does not harm neuronal tissue and can therefore be used for long-term experiments as well as for multiple behavioral experiments in one mouse. The possibilities of optogenetic tools are nearly unlimited and enable the activation or silencing of whole neurons, or even the manipulation of a specific receptor type by light.
The results of such behavioral experiments with integrated optogenetic stimulation directly visualizes changes in behavior caused by the manipulation. The behavior of the same animal without light stimulation as a baseline is a good control for induced changes. This allows a detailed overview of neuronal types or neurotransmitter systems involved in specific behaviors, such as anxiety. The plasticity of neuronal networks can also be investigated in great detail through long-term stimulation or behavioral observations after optical stimulation. Optogenetics will help to enlighten neuronal signaling in several kinds of neurological diseases.

With optogenetic manipulation of specific neuronal populations or brain regions, behavior can be modified with high temporal and spatial resolution in freely moving animals. By using different optogenetic tools in combination with chronically implanted optical fibers, a variety of neuronal modulations and behavioral testing can be performed.

Optogenetic modulation of neuronal circuits in freely moving mice affects acute and long-term behavior. This method is able to perform manipulations of ...

Investigating Migraine-Like Behavior Using Light Aversion in Mice

Migraine is a complex neurological disorder characterized by headache and sensory abnormalities, such as hypersensitivity to light, observed as photophobia. Whilst it is impossible to confirm that a mouse is experiencing migraine, light aversion can be used as a behavioral surrogate for the migraine symptom of photophobia. To test for light aversion, we utilize the light/dark assay to measure the time mice freely choose to spend in either a light or dark environment. The assay has been refined by introducing two critical modifications: pre-exposures to the chamber prior to running the test procedure and adjustable chamber lighting, permitting the use of a range of light intensities from 55 lux to 27,000 lux. Because the choice to spend more time in the dark is also indicative of anxiety, we also utilize a light-independent anxiety test, the open field assay, to distinguish anxiety from light-aversive behavior. Here, we describe a modified test paradigm for the light/dark and open field assays. The application of these assays is described for intraperitoneal injection of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in two mouse strains and for optogenetic brain stimulation studies.

Rodents are not able to report migraine symptoms. Here, we describe a manageable test paradigm (light/dark and open field assays) to measure light aversion, one of the most common and bothersome symptoms in patients with migraines.

Migraine is a complex neurological disorder characterized by headache and sensory abnormalities, such as hypersensitivity to light, observed as ...

Validating a Murine Model of Angelman Syndrome Using Behavioral Tests

Behavioral Characterization of an Angelman Syndrome Mouse Model

This manuscript describes a battery of behavioral tests available to characterize Angelman syndrome (AS)-like phenotypes in an established murine model of AS. We use the rotarod learning paradigm, detailed gait analysis, and nest building test to detect and characterize animal motor impairments. We test animal emotionality in the open field and elevated plus maze tests, as well as the affect in the tail suspension test. When AS mice are tested in the open field test, the results should be interpreted with care, since motor dysfunctions influence mouse behavior in the maze and alter activity scores.
The reproducibility and effectiveness of the presented behavioral tests has already been validated in several independent Uba3a mouse lines with different knockout variants, establishing this set of tests as an excellent validation tool in AS research. Models with the relevant construct and face validity will warrant further investigations to elucidate the pathophysiology of the disease and grant the development of causal treatments.

Author Spotlight: A Battery of Highly Reproducible Behavioral Tests to Validate an Angelman Syndrome Murine Model 

This manuscript presents a set of highly reproducible behavioral tests to validate an Angelman syndrome mouse model.

This manuscript describes a battery of behavioral tests available to characterize Angelman syndrome (AS)-like phenotypes in an established murine model of ...

Use of the Open Field Maze to Measure Locomotor and Anxiety-like Behavior in Mice

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