Before starting prepare:
<ul>
	<li>Wandering yhird instar Drosophila larvae</li>
	<li>HL3.1 (Modified hemolymph-like) solution</li>
	<li>Sylgard (transparent silicone rubber) dissection plates prepared in small (35 x 10 mm) plastic petri dishes using methods described by Brent and McCabe (2008)3.</li>
	<li>Cut dissection pins short</li>
	<li>Stimulating electrode pipettes</li>
	<li>Sharp recording pipettes</li>
</ul>
HL3 Solution:
<ol>
	<li>During dissections and electrophysiological experiments, larva are immersed in HL3.1 solution2 that contains (in mM): 70 NaCl, 5 KCl, 4 MgCl2, 10 NaHCO3, 5 trehalose, 115 sucrose, and 5 HEPES, pH 7.2.</li>
	<li>Concentrations of CaCl2 are added to the HL3.1 solution to provide the required concentration of extracellular Ca2+.
	<ul>
		<li>Larval dissections are performed at low Ca2+ concentrations (to avoid muscle contraction) using HL3.1 + 0.25 mM CaCl2, kept on ice.</li>
		<li>Electrophysiological experiments are typically recorded in HL3.1 + 1 mM CaCl2, but this can be adjusted from 0.4 &#8211; 1 mM Ca2+ as required.</li>
	</ul>
	</li>
	<li>The HL3.1 solution is filter sterilized before use, and stored at 4&#730;C.</li>
</ol>
Preparation of stimulating and recording pipettes:
<ol>
	<li>Recording and stimulating pipettes are pulled with a Sutter P-2000 Laser based micropipette puller using the following settings: Heat = 390, Filament = 4, Velocity = 35, Delay = 200 and Pull = 0.</li>
	<li>Stimulating electrodes are prepared from thin-walled borosilicate glass capillaries with wide ends that were slightly bigger than the width of the severed motor axons. The shaped ends are firepolished to give a smooth finish (using a Narashiga pipette polisher), to minimize damage to the nerve. Stimulating electrodes are filled with bath solution (HL3.1 + 1 mM Ca2+).</li>
	<li>The recording electrodes are prepared from 1.2mm borosilicate glass, which is pulled to form a sharp pipette (30&#8211;60 m&#937;), and filled with 3M KCl.</li>
</ol>
Part 1: Dissection of Drosophila Larvae
<ol>
	<li>Third instar wandering larvae are dissected to expose the muscles in the body wall as described previously4.</li>
	<li>Dissections are performed in HL3.1 + 0.25 mM Ca2+ on small silicone plates (35 x 10 mm). HL3.1 solution must be ice-cold for dissections in order to anaesthetize the larva, and is kept on ice before and during dissections.</li>
	<li>Larvae are dissected using methods described by Brent and McCabe (2008), that is modified for electrophysiology experiments by adding 0.25 mM Ca2+ to the HL3.1 dissection solution, and using short dissection pins (~2 mm in length) that are less likely to hit the microscope objective and electrodes during an experiment.</li>
	<li>Following dissection, the motor axons of the larvae are severed. This is done by gently holding the CNS and raising it slightly so the peripheral nerves that innervate the muscles posterior to the ventral ganglion can be cut without damaging the muscles (Figure 1). The brain is then removed.</li>
	<li>The dissected larval preparation is washed twice with HL3.1 + 1 mM Ca2+.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/old/1109/1109fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Schematic showing the steps involved in cutting the motor axons of dissected larvae. The CNS is lifted with forceps and the motor axons are cut at the base of the brain.
Part 2: Intracellular recordings from larval muscle cells.
<ol>
	<li>Place the dissection plate on the electrophysiology microscope and submerge the prep with HL3.1 + 1.5 mM Ca2+ and fix the bath electrode so it is in contact with the solution.</li>
	<li>All experiments are performed on muscle 6 within the third abdominal segment (A3). Peripheral nerves that innervate the muscles are stimulated using a suction electrode5.</li>
	<li>Position the stimulating electrode in the dish first to avoid vibrations when the intracellular electrode is in place. Place the stimulating electrode in close vicinity to the motor neuron innervating muscle 6 and apply gentle suction until the cut nerve is inside the glass pipette. Be careful not to stretch the nerves when suction is applied. Raise the pipette slightly so it is not touching the muscle and position it so it is not pulling on the cut nerve fibers (Figure 2). 
	<img alt="Figure 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/old/1109/1109fig2.jpg" /> 
	Figure 2. A schematic of the musculature and innervating motor neurons of one abdominal segment from the Drosophila larva. The position of the stimulating pipette and severed nerves and the recording electrode in position at muscle 6 are illustrated.</li>
	<li>Intracellular recordings are made with sharp microelectrodes filled with 3 M KCl. Position the recording electrode above the centre of muscle 6 on the third abdominal segment (A3) and adjust the input offset so it reads zero for the bath solution. Slowly lower the electrode and approach the muscle under high optical magnification until it touches the muscle surface. Watch the oscilloscope to confirm that the muscle has been penetrated. The resting membrane potential should be at least -60 mV, or the animal should not be used. Sporadic miniature endplate potentials should now be visible. Leave the cell to stabilize for one minute before starting to record.</li>
	<li>Changes in membrane potential are detected with an Axon HS-2A head stage and an Axoclamp 2B amplifier and recorded with Clampex v 8.2.0.235 (Axon Instruments). The Axoclamp 2B is interfaced to a computer that runs pCLAMP software and works in conjunction with the Digidata 1322A interface.</li>
	<li>Cells were recorded for 3 minutes without any stimuli to measure mEJP responses. Traces were analysed using Mini analysis software (Synaptosoft, v 6.0.3) and the mEJP amplitude and frequency determined.</li>
</ol>
Nerve Stimulation:
<ol>
	<li>The severed end of the motor neuron is stimulated with a series of square voltage pulses (0.3 ms duration) at an intensity that is sufficient for both motor axons, to evoke consistent responses in the whole muscle.</li>
	<li>The stimulus is generated with the Master-8 pulse generator, which is programmed to deliver pulses continuously according to the duration and interval times.</li>
	<li>Allow five seconds between stimuli for synaptic recovery at the NMJ.</li>
	<li>When determining the strength of the stimulus, begin with the lowest level and increase the intensity slowly over several trials. The minimum stimulus intensity that results in an evoked response should be used in experiments.</li>
	<li>When the appropriate stimulus intensity is reached, there should be one compound EJP and one muscle contraction evoked by the stimulus.</li>
	<li>Record at least 10 evoked potentials from each muscle and average the amplitudes.</li>
</ol>
Part 3: Representative Results
<img alt="figure 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/old/1109/1109fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Representative intracellular recording from muscle 6 showing the evoked EJP&#8217;s is response to electrical stimulation of the segmental nerve, and the sporadic minature endplate potentials, or mEJP&#8217;s. EJP amplitudes in muscle 6 of healthy wild-type larvae, such as Canton S, are typically around 40 mV and the mEJP amplitudes between 1-3 mV.

<ol>
	<li>Atwood, H. L., Govind, C. K., Wu, C. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+ultrastructure+of+synaptic+terminals+on+ventral+longitudinal+abdominal+muscles+in+Drosophila+larvae.">Differential ultrastructure of synaptic terminals on ventral longitudinal abdominal muscles in Drosophila larvae.</a> J. Neurobiol. 24 (8), 1008-1024 (1993).</li><li>Feng, Y., Ueda, A., Wu, C. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+modified+minimal+hemolymph-like+solution,+HL3.1,+for+physiological+recordings+at+the+neuromuscular+junctions+of+normal+and+mutant+Drosophila+larvae.">A modified minimal hemolymph-like solution, HL3.1, for physiological recordings at the neuromuscular junctions of normal and mutant Drosophila larvae.</a> J Neurogenet. 18 (2), 377-402 (2004).</li><li>Estes, P. S., Roos, J., van der Bliek, A., Kelly, R. B., Krishnan, K. S., Ramaswami, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Traffic+of+dynamin+within+individual+Drosophila+synaptic+boutons+relative+to+compartment-specific+markers.">Traffic of dynamin within individual Drosophila synaptic boutons relative to compartment-specific markers.</a> J Neurosci. 16, 5443-5456 (1996).</li><li>Brent, J. R., Werner, K. M., McCabe, B. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protocol+for+dissection+of+Drosophila+larvae.">Protocol for dissection of Drosophila larvae.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2008).</li><li>Jan, L. Y., Jan, Y. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Properties+of+the+larval+neuromuscular+junction+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Properties of the larval neuromuscular junction in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> J Physiol (Lond). 262, 189-214 (1976).</li><li>Katz, L. C., Shatz, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synaptic+activity+and+the+construction+of+cortical+circuits.">Synaptic activity and the construction of cortical circuits.</a> Science. 274, 1133-1138 (1996).</li></ol>

The methods described here provide a relatively quick and broad way to detect changes in synaptic function at the NMJ. The ability to perform electrophysiological recordings using intact animals in vivo, and perform genetic or pharmacological manipulations, make Drosophila an ideal animal model for investigating the physiological and genetic aspects of neurotransmission.
Since muscle cells are very large, some might prefer to add an additional step to this protocol for two electrode voltage cl...

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		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Small Petri dishes (35 x 10 mm)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
<td>1008</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>SYLGARD 182 Silicone Elastomer Kit</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Dow Corning Corporation</td>
<td>3097366-1004</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dissecting microscope</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Carl Zeiss</td>
<td>475002-9902</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Light for microscope</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Schott</td>
<td>KLI500</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dissection pins</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
<td>26002-10</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>pClamp 9 software</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Axon CNS, Molecular Devices</td>
<td>PCLAMP 9 STANDARD</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dissection scissors: 3mm Vannas Spring Scissors</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
<td>15000-0</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dumont SS Forceps</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
<td>11200-33</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Dumont #5 Forceps</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
<td>11252-20</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Thin-walled borosilicate glass capillaries, with filament (1.0 mm, 4 in)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>World Precision Instruments, Inc.</td>
<td>TW100F-4</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Borosilicate glass capillaries, with filament (1.2 mm, 4 in)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>World Precision Instruments, Inc.</td>
<td>1B120F-4</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Sutter P-2000 Laser Based Micropipette Puller </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
<td>Model P-2000</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Pipette polisher</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Narishiga</td>
<td>MF-83</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Axon HS-2A head stage</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Axon CNS, Molecular Devices</td>
<td>Model HS-2A</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Micromanipulators</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
<td>MP-85</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Axoclamp 2B amplifier</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Axon CNS, Molecular Devices</td>
<td>AXOCLAMP 2B</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Clampex Software</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Axon CNS, Molecular Devices</td>
<td>v 8.2.0.235</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Mini analysis software. v 6.0.3</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Synaptosoft</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Brownlee Precision Amplifier</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Brownlee</td>
<td>Model 410</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>NaCl</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Baker</td>
<td>4058-01</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>KCl</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>p-9333 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>NaHCO3</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>s6297-1kg</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Trelahose</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>TO167</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Sucrose</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher</td>
<td>bp220-212 </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>HEPES</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>h-3375</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>MgCl-6H2O</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma</td>
<td>m2670-1kg </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>CaCl2</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Fisher</td>
<td>c79-500</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Master-8 Pulse Generator</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>A.M.P.I</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Vibration table for electrophysiology set up</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Technical manufacturing corporation</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Faraday Cage</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

electrophysiological methods for recording synaptic potentials from the nmj of drosophila larvae

In this video, we describe the electrophysiological methods for recording synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of Drosophila larva. The larval neuromuscular system is a model synapse for the study of synaptic physiology and neurotransmission, and is a valuable research tool that has defined genetics and is accessible to experimental manipulation. Larvae can be dissected to expose the body wall musculature, central nervous system, and peripheral nerves. The muscles of Drosophila and their innervation pattern are well characterized and muscles are easy to access for intracellular recording. Individual muscles can be identified by their location and orientation within the 8 abdominal segments, each with 30 muscles arranged in a pattern that is repeated in segments A2 - A7. Dissected drosophila larvae are thin and individual muscles and bundles of motor neuron axons can be visualized by transillumination1. Transgenic constructs can be used to label target cells for visual identification or for manipulating gene products in specific tissues. In larvae, excitatory junction potentials (EJP&#8217;s) are generated in response to vesicular release of glutamate from the motoneurons at the synapse. In dissected larvae, the EJP can be recorded in the muscle with an intracellular electrode. Action potentials can be artificially evoked in motor neurons that have been cut posterior to the ventral ganglion, drawn into a glass pipette by gentle suction and stimulated with an electrode. These motor neurons have distinct firing thresholds when stimulated, and when they fire simultaneously, they generate a response in the muscle. Signals transmitted across the NMJ synapse can be recorded in the muscles that the motor neurons innervate. The EJP&#8217;s and minature excitatory junction potentials (mEJP&#8217;s) are seen as changes in membrane potential. Electrophysiological responses are recorded at room temperature in modified minimal hemolymph-like solution2 (HL3) that contains 5 mM Mg2+ and 1.5 mM Ca2+. Changes in the amplitude of evoked EJP&#8217;s can indicate differences in synaptic function and structure. Digitized recordings are analyzed for EJP amplitude, mEJP frequency and amplitude, and quantal content.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Electrophysiological Methods for Recording Synaptic Potentials from the NMJ of Drosophila Larvae at JoVE.com

Electrophysiological Methods for Recording Synaptic Potentials from the NMJ of Drosophila Larvae

Here we describe electrophysiological methods for measuring synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction of Drosophila larva. Evoked release is initiated artificially by stimulating the motor neuron axons, and transmission through the NMJ can be measured by the postsynaptic response evoked in the muscle.

In this video, we describe the electrophysiological methods for recording synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of Drosophila larva. ...

electrophysiological-methods-for-recording-synaptic-potentials-from

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20.9K Views.  Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. Here we describe electrophysiological methods for measuring synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction of Drosophila larva. Evoked release is initiated artificially by stimulating the motor neuron axons, and transmission through the NMJ can be measured by the postsynaptic response evoked in the muscle.

Video: Electrophysiological Methods for Recording Synaptic Potentials from the NMJ of Drosophila Larvae

Dissection of Imaginal Discs from 3rd Instar Drosophila Larvae

This protocol demonstrates the dissection technique used for isolating imaginal discs from drosophila larvae at the 3rd instar stage. Methods for fixing the tissue after saying and removing the wing, leg, and eye discs are demonstrated directly on a microscope slide for subsequent visualization.

Methods for Patch Clamp Capacitance Recordings from the Calyx

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve terminal. Electrical recordings from the presynaptic terminal allow the measurement of action potentials, calcium channel currents, vesicle fusion (exocytosis) and subsequent membrane uptake (endocytosis). The fusion of vesicles containing neurotransmitter causes the vesicle membrane to be added to the cell membrane of the calyx. This increase in the amount of cell membrane is measured as an increase in capacitance. The subsequent reduction in capacitance indicates endocytosis, the process of membrane uptake or removal from the calyx membrane. Endocytosis, is necessary to maintain the structure of the calyx and it is also necessary to form vesicles that will be filled with neurotransmitter for future exocytosis events. Capacitance recordings at the calyx of Held have made it possible to directly and rapidly measure vesicular release and subsequent endocytosis in a mammalian CNS nerve terminal. In addition, the corresponding postsynaptic activity can be simultaneously measured by using paired recordings. Thus a complete picture of the presynaptic and postsynaptic electrical activity at a central nervous system synapse is achievable using this preparation. Here, the methods for slice preparation, morphological features for identification of calyces of Held, basic patch clamping techniques, and examples of capacitance recordings to measure exocytosis and endocytosis are presented.

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve terminal.

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve terminal. ...

Drosophila Larval NMJ Dissection

The Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an established model system used for the study of synaptic development and plasticity. The widespread use of the Drosophila motor system is due to its high accessibility. It can be analyzed with single-cell resolution. There are 30 muscles per hemisegment whose arrangement within the peripheral body wall are known. A total of 35 motor neurons attach to these muscles in a pattern that has high fidelity. Using molecular biology and genetics, one can create transgenic animals or mutants. Then, one can study the developmental consequences on the morphology and function of the NMJ. In order to access the NMJ for study, it is necessary to carefully dissect each larva. In this article we demonstrate how to properly dissect Drosophila larvae for study of the NMJ by removing all internal organs while leaving the body wall intact. This technique is suitable to prepare larvae for imaging, immunohistochemistry, or electrophysiology.

This protocol demonstrates how to dissect Drosophila larvae in preparation for immunohistochemistry and/or imaging of the neuromuscular junction.

The Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an established model system used for the study of synaptic development and plasticity. The widespread use ...

Drosophila Larval NMJ Immunohistochemistry

The Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is an established model system used for the study of synaptic development and plasticity. The widespread use of the Drosophila motor system is due to its high accessibility. It can be analyzed with single-cell resolution. There are 30 muscles per hemisegment whose arrangement within the peripheral body wall are known. A total of 31 motor neurons attach to these muscles in a pattern that has high fidelity. Using molecular biology and genetics, one can create transgenic animals or mutants. Then, one can study the developmental consequences on the morphology and function of the NMJ. Immunohistochemistry can be used to clearly image the components of the NMJ. In this article, we demonstrate how to use antibody staining to visualize the Drosophila larval NMJ.

Drosophila Larval NMJ Immunohistochemistry

This protocol demonstrates how to perform immunohistochemistry on dissected Drosophila larva.

Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions

The Drosophila larval neuromuscular preparation has proven to be a useful tool for studying synaptic physiology1,2,3. Currently, the only means available to evoke excitatory junctional potentials (EJPs) in this preparation involves the use of suction electrodes. In both research and teaching labs, students often have difficulty maneuvering and manipulating this type of stimulating electrode. In the present work, we show how to remotely stimulate synaptic potentials at the larval NMJ without the use of suction electrodes. By expressing channelrhodopsin2 (ChR2) 4,5,6 in Drosophila motor neurons using the GAL4-UAS system 7, and making minor changes to a basic electrophysiology rig, we were able to reliably evoke EJPs with pulses of blue light. This technique could be of particular use in neurophysiology teaching labs where student rig practice time and resources are limited.

Channelrhodopsin2 Mediated Stimulation of Synaptic Potentials at Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions

This procedure uses a blue light-activated algal channel and cell-specific genetic expression tools to evoke synaptic potentials with light pulses at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) in Drosophila larvae. This technique is an inexpensive and easy-to-use alternative to suction electrode stimulation for synaptic physiology studies in research and teaching laboratories.

The Drosophila larval neuromuscular preparation has proven to be a useful tool for studying synaptic physiology1,2,3. Currently, the only means available ...

Harvesting and Preparing Drosophila Embryos for Electrophysiological Recording and Other Procedures

Drosophila is a premier genetic model for the study of both embryonic development and functional neuroscience. Traditionally, these fields are quite isolated from each other, with largely independent histories and scientific communities. However, the interface between these usually disparate fields is the developmental programs underlying acquisition of functional electrical signaling properties and differentiation of functional chemical synapses during the final phases of neural circuit formation. This interface is a critically important area for investigation. In Drosophila, these phases of functional development occur during a period of &lt;8 hours (at 25&deg;C) during the last third of embryogenesis. This late developmental period was long considered intractable to investigation owing to the deposition of a tough, impermeable epidermal cuticle. A breakthrough advance was the application of water-polymerizing surgical glue that can be locally applied to the cuticle to enable controlled dissection of late-stage embryos. With a dorsal longitudinal incision, the embryo can be laid flat, exposing the ventral nerve cord and body wall musculature to experimental investigation. This system has been heavily used to isolate and characterize genetic mutants that impair embryonic synapse formation, and thus reveal the molecular mechanisms governing the specification and differentiation of synapse connections and functional synaptic signaling properties.

Harvesting and Preparing Drosophila Embryos for Electrophysiological Recording and Other Procedures

This technique exposes the Drosophila embryonic neuromusculature for immunohistochemistry or electrophysiological recording. It is useful for studying early events in neuromuscular development or performing electrophysiology in mutants that cannot hatch.

Drosophila is a premier genetic model for the study of both embryonic development and functional neuroscience. Traditionally, these fields are quite ...

Electrophysiological Recording in the Drosophila Embryo

Drosophila is a premier genetic model for the study of both embryonic development and functional neuroscience. Traditionally, these fields are quite isolated from each other, with largely independent histories and scientific communities. However, the interface between these usually disparate fields is the developmental programs underlying acquisition of functional electrical signaling properties and differentiation of functional chemical synapses during the final phases of neural circuit formation. This interface is a critically important area for investigation. In Drosophila, these phases of functional development occur during a period of &lt;8 hours (at 25&deg;C) during the last third of embryogenesis. This late developmental period was long considered intractable to investigation owing to the deposition of a tough, impermeable epidermal cuticle. A breakthrough advance was the application of water-polymerizing surgical glue that can be locally applied to the cuticle to enable controlled dissection of late-stage embryos. With a dorsal longitudinal incision, the embryo can be laid flat, exposing the ventral nerve cord and body wall musculature to experimental investigation. Whole-cell patch-clamp techniques can then be employed to record from individually-identifiable neurons and somatic muscles. These recording configurations have been used to track the appearance and maturation of ionic currents and action potential propagation in both neurons and muscles. Genetic mutants affecting these electrical properties have been characterized to reveal the molecular composition of ion channels and associated signaling complexes, and to begin exploration of the molecular mechanisms of functional differentiation. A particular focus has been the assembly of synaptic connections, both in the central nervous system and periphery. The glutamatergic neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is most accessible to a combination of optical imaging and electrophysiological recording. A glass suction electrode is used to stimulate the peripheral nerve, with excitatory junction current (EJC) recordings made in the voltage-clamped muscle. This recording configuration has been used to chart the functional differentiation of the synapse, and track the appearance and maturation of presynaptic glutamate release properties. In addition, postsynaptic properties can be assayed independently via iontophoretic or pressure application of glutamate directly to the muscle surface, to measure the appearance and maturation of the glutamate receptor fields. Thus, both pre- and postsynaptic elements can be monitored separately or in combination during embryonic synaptogenesis. This system has been heavily used to isolate and characterize genetic mutants that impair embryonic synapse formation, and thus reveal the molecular mechanisms governing the specification and differentiation of synapse connections and functional synaptic signaling properties.

Electrophysiological Recording in the Drosophila Embryo

Electrophysiological recordings from Drosophila embryos allow analyses of developing muscle and neuron electrical properties, as well as characterization of functional synaptogenesis at the glutamatergic neuromuscular junction and central cholinergic and GABAergic synapses.

Historical View and Physiology Demonstration at the NMJ of the Crayfish Opener Muscle

Here we present some of the key important discoveries made with the opener neuromuscular (NMJ) preparation of crustaceans and illustrate that there is still much to learn from this model preparation. In understanding the history one can appreciate why even today this NMJ still offers a rich playground to address questions regarding pre- and post-synaptic function and plasticity. The viability and ease of access to the terminal for intracellular as well as extracellular electrophysiology and imaging are significant advantages. The mechanisms behind the modulation of vesicular kinetics and fusion within the high- and low-output terminals are begging for investigation. The preparation also offers a testable model system for computational assessments and manipulations to examine key variables in theoretical models of synaptic function, for example calcium dynamics during short-term facilitation. The synaptic complexity of active zone and statistical nature of quantal release is also an open area for future investigation both experimentally and computationally.

The opener muscle of the crayfish leg is presented for its historical importance and experimental versatility in muscle phenotype, synaptic physiology and plasticity.

Here we present some of the key important discoveries made with the opener neuromuscular (NMJ) preparation of crustaceans and illustrate that there is ...

In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

Recent improvements in optical imaging, genetically encoded fluorophores and genetic tools allowing efficient establishment of desired transgenic animal lines have enabled biological processes to be studied in the context of a living, and in some instances even behaving, organism. In this protocol we will describe how to anesthetize intact Drosophila larvae, using the volatile anesthetic desflurane, to follow the development and plasticity of synaptic populations at sub-cellular resolution1-3. While other useful methods to anesthetize Drosophila melanogaster larvae have been previously described4,5,6,7,8, the protocol presented herein demonstrates significant improvements due to the following combined key features: (1) A very high degree of anesthetization; even the heart beat is arrested allowing for lateral resolution of up to 150 nm1, (2) a high survival rate of &gt; 90% per anesthetization cycle, permitting the recording of more than five time-points over a period of hours to days2 and (3) a high sensitivity enabling us in 2 instances to study the dynamics of proteins expressed at physiological levels. In detail, we were able to visualize the postsynaptic glutamate receptor subunit GluR-IIA expressed via the endogenous promoter1 in stable transgenic lines and the exon trap line FasII-GFP1. (4) In contrast to other methods4,7 the larvae can be imaged not only alive, but also intact (i.e. non-dissected) allowing observation to occur over a number of days1. The accompanying video details the function of individual parts of the in vivo imaging chamber2,3, the correct mounting of the larvae, the anesthetization procedure, how to re-identify specific positions within a larva and the safe removal of the larvae from the imaging chamber.

In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

This protocol describes a reliable method for anesthetization and imaging of intact Drosophila melanogaster larvae. We have utilized the volatile anesthetic desflurane to allow for repetitive imaging at sub-cellular resolution and re-identification of structures for up to a few days1.

Recent improvements in optical imaging, genetically encoded fluorophores and genetic tools allowing efficient establishment of desired transgenic animal ...

Methods for the Extraction of Endosymbionts from the Whitefly Bemisia tabaci

Bacterial symbionts form an intimate relationship with their hosts and confer advantages to the hosts in most cases. Genomic information is critical to study the functions and evolution of bacterial symbionts in their host. As most symbionts cannot be cultured in vitro, methods to isolate an adequate quantity of bacteria for genome sequencing are very important. In the whitefly Bemisia tabaci, a number of endosymbionts have been identified and are predicted to be of importance in the development and reproduction of the pests through multiple approaches. However, the mechanism underpinning the associations remains largely unknown. The obstacle partially comes from the fact that the endosymbionts in whitefly, mostly restrained in bacteriocytes, are hard to separate from the host cells. Here we report a step-by-step protocol for the identification, extraction and purification of endosymbionts from the whitefly B. tabaci mainly by dissection and filtration. Endosymbiont samples prepared by this method, although still a mixture of different endosymbiont species, are suitable for subsequent genome sequencing and analysis of the possible roles of endosymbionts in B. tabaci. This method may also be used to isolate endosymbionts from other insects.

Methods for the Extraction of Endosymbionts from the Whitefly Bemisia tabaci

Here, we present a protocol to isolate endosymbionts from the whitefly Bemisia tabaci through dissection and filtration. After amplification, the DNA samples are suitable for subsequent sequencing and study of the mutualism between endosymbionts and whitefly.

Bacterial symbionts form an intimate relationship with their hosts and confer advantages to the hosts in most cases. Genomic information is critical to ...

Electrophysiological Methods for Recording Synaptic Potentials from the NMJ of Drosophila Larvae

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Harvesting and Preparing Drosophila Embryos for Electrophysiological Recording and Other Procedures

Electrophysiological Recording in the Drosophila Embryo

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In vivo Imaging of Intact Drosophila Larvae at Sub-cellular Resolution

Methods for the Extraction of Endosymbionts from the Whitefly Bemisia tabaci